Communicating Research Modules

MODULES 1-13
COMMUNICATION RESEARCH
MODULE 1: RESEARCH OVERVIEW
Dr. Racidon P. Bernarte
College of Communication, PUP

THE CONDUCT OF INQUIRY
"inquiry" means the systematic, disciplined ordering of
experience that leads to the development of knowledge.

The word "know means
knowing that something is the case (philosophers distinguish
between knowledge and belief);
knowing some person or feeling;
knowing to how do something.

The conduct of inquiry involves a planned method. We should note that
inquiry has an expected outcome.

STAGES OF INQUIRY
Ask significant questions and then suggest
answers

Observe the object

Formulates answers Theory Building

TYPES OF SCHOLARSHIP
Scientific scholarship is associated
with objectivitystandardization
Humanistic scholarship is associated
with subjectivityindividuality

Science focuses on the discovered worlds; the
humanities focus on the discovering person.

Social Scientific scholarship includes
elements of science and the humanities, yet it
differs from both. Social scientists study human
behavior, they try to interpret patterns of
human behavior.

WHAT IS RESEARCH?
to search for, to find out
Re (again) and cercier (to search) [Latin]
Chercher seek [French]
Looking for information about something

WHAT IS RESEARCH?
Application of scientific method to study
of a problem.
A way to acquire dependable and
useful information.
To discover answer to meaningful
questions through the application of
scientific procedures.
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
Investigation or experimentation aimed
to the discovery of facts, revision of
accepted theories or laws in the light of
new facts or practical application of
such new or revised theories or laws
(Babbie, 1998).
SCHOLARLY RESEARCH VS. EVERYDAY RESEARCH
Everyday Research Scholarly Research
Intuitive Theory Based
Common Sense Structured
Casual Systematic
Spur of the Moment Planned
Selective (often) Objective
Magical Thinking Scientific Thinking
Flawed Thinking at Times Logical to the Extent Possible
Focus is Personal Decisions Focus is Knowledge About Reality
EVERYDAY RESEARCH: ORDINARY HUMAN INQUIRY
Tradition
Authority
Intuition
Superstition

Inaccurate
Observations
Overgeneralization
Selective Observation
Illogical Reasoning

Scholarly Research: Scientific Human Inquiry
Theory
Data Collection
Data Analysis

SCHOLARLY RESEARCH VS. EVERYDAY RESEARCH
Scholarly research is more systematic, more careful
and more concerned about correctness and
truthfulness (Berger, 2000).

Research
DataInformationKnowledge

BASIC FOUNDATIONS OF RESEARCH
Theoretical vs. Empirical

Empiricalbased on data observations and
measurement.

Theoreticaltesting of theories and ideas
about our perceptions of reality.

Nomothetic vs. Idiographic

Models used to explain reality; general or specific case

Nomothetic Modelthe group or sample is studied only to
make generalizations that apply larger population. Thus,
follow a quantitative research designs that put greater
premium on reliability.

Idiographic Modelintensive investigations of individual
cases hence, use qualitative research designs.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative

View the subject of the study, methodology, and analysis
differently

Quantitative Researchthe interest is in generalizing to
more than just the individual; Concerned with the
recurrence of data that can be translated or reduced to
numbers; Focuses on counting.

Qualitative Researchno intention of going beyondjust
deep intothe individual; Concerned with occurrence of
the communication event ; Focuses on the phenomenon
and the process involved.

RESEARCH TYPOLOGIES
Basic Research

According to its use/result:
Often associated with academic research
Refinement of concepts
Theory testing
Applied Research
Propose solutions to the problem
It has a purpose of acquiring knowledge for
useful ends

RESEARCH TYPOLOGIES
Exploratory research/studies
According to its purpose:
What is the phenomenon all about?
Descriptive research/studies
How did the phenomenon happen? Where
or in what situations did the phenomenon
occur? What are the characteristics or
elements of this phenomenon? Who or what
are involved? and How many are involved?
RESEARCH TYPOLOGIES
Explanatory research/studies
Why did the phenomenon happen? Do (and
to what extent do) specific factors or
variables cause the phenomenon?
Evaluation research/studies
What combination of factors or variables is
more effective in achieving desired
outcomes?
RESEARCH TYPOLOGIES
Cross-sectional study
According to time:
Longitudinal studies
Considers a phenomenon or issue among
several people or groups within a single time
period. (e.g census, survey, polls)
Seek to discover whether and how the
phenomenon or issue under consideration
has changed over the passage of time.
RESEARCH TYPOLOGIES
Quantitative research/studies
According to its approach:

Qualitative research/studies
Comes from the Latin qualitas meaning of what
kind
Evaluation, judgment and taste
Comes from the Latin quantitas meaning how
great how much how many
Numbers, magnitude and measurement

QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
Quantitative Qualitative
Counts, Measures Evaluates
Processes data collected Uses concepts to explicate
Statistical Theoretical
Describes, explains and predicts Interprets
Leads to hypothesis or theory Leads to an evaluation
Methodology can be attached Interpretation can be attacked
QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
Quantitative Qualitative
Accused of being too narrow,
basing their research on what
they can count, measure and
observe and neglecting other
matters.
Accused of being reading into
texts things that are no there or
having opinions or making
interpretations that seem odd,
excessive or even idiosyncratic.
Multi-Method or Triangulation
IMPORTANCE OF KNOWING THE TYPE OF RESEARCH
APPROACH TO BE USED
Design
Instrumentation/Tools
Sample
Data
Data Analysis
THE RESEARCH PROCEDURES
Select a research topic
Review relevant literature
State the research problem and objectives
Formulate the study framework
Determine the appropriate methodology
Collect a relevant data
Analyze and interpret the result
Prepare the result report
Present the result in an appropriate forum
THE RESEARCH PROCEDURES
Select a research topic
Review relevant literature
State the research problem and objectives
Formulate the study framework
Determine the appropriate methodology
Collect a relevant data
Analyze and interpret the result
Prepare the result report
Present the result in an appropriate forum
QUESTIONS?

References:
Media and Communication Research Methods, Arthur A.
Berger
Survey Research Handbook, Pamela L. Alreck & Robert B. Settle
Social Research Methods, J. L Kumar
Practice of Social Science Research, Earl Babbie
Communication Research in the Philippines, Elena E. Pernia
Introduction to Communication Research, John Reinard

MODULE 2: SELECTING A TOPIC
GUIDELINES IN THE SELECTION OF A
RESEARCH PROBLEM OR TOPIC

The research problem must be chosen by the
researcher himself so that he will not make
excuses for all the obstacles he will encounter.

The problem must be within the interest of the
researcher so that he will give all the time and
effort in the research work.


The problem must be within the
specialization of the researcher. It will make
the work easier for the researcher because
he is familiar in the area and it will help
him improve his specialization, skill and
competence in his own area.

The research problem must be within the
competence of the researcher. The
researcher must know the procedures in
making research and how to apply them.
He must have a workable understanding of
his study.

The research problem must be manageable. The
data must be available or within the capacity of
the researcher to gather data. The data must be
accurate, objective and not biased. The data
should help the researcher answer the question
being investigated.

The research problem must be completed within
the period set by the researcher.

The research problem must be significant,
important and relevant to the present time as
well as to the future. This means that the
research problem must have an impact to the
situation and people it is intended for.

The results of the study must be practical and
implementable.

The study must contribute to the human
knowledge. The facts and knowledge must be a
product of research.

SOURCES OF TOPIC

Reading
Academic Experience
Daily Work Experience
Exposure to the Fields of Situations
Consultations
Brainstorming
Past Research
Intuition

QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED WHEN IDEA IS BORN

Is the idea viable? (Researchability)
Is it practical? (Feasibility)
The time factor? (Resources)
Has it been done before? (Novelty)
What result is expected?
What do colleagues think?
Will a statistician be needed?
What is the communication aspect? (for
Communication research)

What do you want to know?
Why?

WHAT IS RESEARCH PROBLEM?
A research problem is the situation that causes the
researcher to feel apprehensive, confused and ill at
ease. It is the demarcation of a problem area within a
certain context involving the WHO or WHAT, the
WHERE, the WHEN and the WHY of the problem
situation.
It is not:
(1) how to do something;
(2) a vague or too broad a proposition;
(3) a value question.

WHAT IS RESEARCH PROBLEM?
Research questions are interrogative statements that focus on
what variables or concepts are to be described and what
relationships might exist among them.

A problem statement is a clear, concise description of what a
particular body of research intends to focus on. The statement is
used to limit the scope of the problem. It should also inform the
reader of the importance of the research and cause him to want to
read on.

IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM
The prospective researcher should think on what caused
the need to do the research (problem identification). The
question that he/she should ask is: Are there questions
about this problem to which answers have not been found up
to the present?

Research originates from a need that arises. A clear
distinction between the PROBLEM and the PURPOSE
should be made. The problem is the aspect the researcher
worries about, think about, wants to find a an answer
for. The purpose is to find answers to the question(s). If
there is no clear problem formulation, the purpose and
methods are meaningless.

EXAMPLE OF RESEARCH PROBLEM:
How has social networking influenced the self-
presentation and communication activities of the
Filipino youth?

What is the role of on-air promotional strategies used
by selected FM radio stations in Metro Manila in the
radio listening decisions on unintentional listeners?

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES:
Objectives are definitions of various aspects or
dimensions of the problem. They guide the researcher
on what tasks or directions to undertake to address
the problem adequately. They are he criteria or
indicators with which to measure the key concepts or
variables of the study.

EXAMPLES OF OBJECTIVES:
Problem: How has social networking influenced the self presentation
and communication activities of the Filipino youth?

Objectives:
1. To draw a profile of the Filipino youth involved in online social
networking (OSN) in terms of:
1.1 OSNs they use
1.2 Membership in OSN
1.3 Frequency of using OSN
1.4Motivations for OSN
2. To describe how the Filipino youth present themselves in OSN site.
3. To describe how Filipino youth use the features of an OSN site in their
communication activities
4. To find out how OSN has influenced the self-presentation and
communication activities of the Filipino youth.
5. To determine the perceived advantages and disadvantages of OSN
6. To know the motivations of the Filipino youth for continuing to engage
in OSN.

EXAMPLES OF OBJECTIVES:
Problem: What is the role of on-air promotional strategies used
by selected FM radio stations in Metro Manila in the radio
listening decisions on unintentional listeners?

Objectives:
1. To identify the on-air promotional strategies of FM radio
stations that the respondents can recall.
2. To determine the aspects of the strategies that facilitated
the respondents recall.
3. To find out the respondents attitude towards the on-air
promotional strategies.
4. To find out the respondents assessment of the relative
importance of on-air promotional strategies (as against
other factors) in attracting listenership to a radio station.

QUESTIONS?

MODULE 3: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Literature Review is an account
of the materials, published or
unpublished, on a specific topic
by scholars and researchers.

It is guided by the research
problem and objectives

Related Literature is composed of discussion
of facts and principles to which the present
study is related. (usually found on books,
encyclopedias, professional journals, magazines,
newspapers, and other publications)

Related Studies, are inquiries or investigations
already conducted to which the present
proposed study is related or has some bearing
or similarity. (e.g. usually unpublished materials
such as manuscripts, theses and dissertations)
THE MATERIALS ARE CLASSIFIED AS:
Local Literature and Studies

Foreign Literature and Studies
IMPORTANCE, PURPOSES AND FUNCTIONS OF
RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
HELPS OR GUIDE THE RESEARCHER IN
SEARCHING FOR OR SELECTING A BETTER
RESEARCH PROBLEM OR TOPIC.
Helps the investigator
understand his topic for
research better.
Ensures that there will be
no duplication of other
studies.
Helps and guide the
researcher in locating more
sources of related
information.
RRL HELPS AND GUIDES THE RESEARCHER IN MAKING
HIS RESEARCH DESIGN ESPECIALLY IN:
the formulation of specific questions
to be researched on
the formulation of
assumptions and hypotheses if
there should be any
the formulation of conceptual
framework
the selection and application of
sampling techniques
research methods
statistical procedures
the selection and/or preparation
and validation of research
instruments for gathering data
the making of the summary of
implications for the whole study
the formulation of the summary of
findings, conclusions, and
recommendations
the analysis, organization,
presentation, and interpretation of
data
They help and guide the researcher in
making comparison between his findings
with the findings of other researchers on
similar studies with the end in view of
formulating generalization of principles
which are the contributions of the study
to the fund of knowledge.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
1. The surveyed materials must be as recent as
possible.
2. Materials reviewed must be objective and
unbiased.
3. Materials must be relevant to the study .
4. Surveyed materials must have been based
upon genuinely original and true facts or data
to make them valid and reliable.
5. Reviewed materials must not be too few nor
too many.

SOURCES OF RRL
Books, encyclopedias, almanacs, and other
similar references.
Manuscripts, monographs, memoirs, speeches,
letters, and diaries.
Unpublished theses and dissertations.
The Constitution, and laws and statues of the
land.
Bulletins, circulars, and orders emanating from
government offices and departments,
especially from the Office f the President of
the Philippines and the Department of
Education, Culture and Sports.

SOURCES OF RRL
Records of schools, public and private,
especially reports of their activities.
Reports from seminars, educational, or
otherwise.
Official reports of all kinds, educational, social,
economic, scientific, technological, political
etc. from the government and other entities.

WHERE TO LOCATE RRL
Librariesgovernment, school, or private
Government and private offices
Internet and other Online sources

TIPS IN RESEARCHING RRL
Dont let yourself be bogged down.
Dont entertain the illusion that you exhaust
all possible sources related to your topic.
Practice good not- taking skills when you are
conducting your library research.
QUESTIONS?

MODULE 4: FORMULATING THE STUDY
FRAMEWORK
WHAT IS FRAMEWORK?
FRAMEWORK refers to a set of conceptsusually
born out of a theory or a combination of theories
that are logically and sequentially arranged to
describe, explain and perhaps even predict the
occurrence of phenomena being studied.

LEVELS OF THE STUDY FRAMEWORK
Theoretical
Conceptual
Operational

Each level might also feature a Model (theoretical, conceptual
and operational) that graphically illustrates the interconnections
of the frameworks constructs (theoretical model), its
variables/concepts (conceptual model) and subsequently, its
measures/indicators (operational model)
FORMULATING THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The theoretical framework of the study is a structure
that can hold or support a theory of a research work.
It presents the theory which explains why the
problem under study exists.
Thus, the theoretical framework is but a theory that
serves as a basis for conducting research.
Purpose:
It helps the researcher see clearly the variables of the
study;
It can provide him with a general framework for data
analysis;

For example:
Media Organization, Selection, and Production. McQuails
theory on media as an institution takes into account all forces
that affect medias performance. (After: Littlejohn, 1992)
Basic theory 1
Thesis examines the gatekeeping, news selection and reportage of
world news in leading Philippine dailies and primetime newscasts.
For example:
Basic theory 2
Selective Gatekeeping. Galtung and Ruge selective
gatekeeping theory suggests that news from around the
world are evaluated using news values to determine their
newsworthiness. (After Mc Quail and Windahl 1993, p. 166)

For example:
Basic theory 3
Model of the Agenda Setting Theory. Malcolm McCombs
and Donald Shaws theory simply states that the issues
given most attention by the media will be perceived as the
most important. (Before: McQuail and Windahl 1993)
For example:
Combined theory
Integrated Theoretical Framework. The integrated theoretical
framework shows how media content is shaped by pressures to the
media organization, selective gatekeeping and agenda setting.
Based on the foregoing example, how should the theoretical
framework formulated?

1. specifies the theory used as basis for the study
2. mentions the proponents of the theory
3. cites the main points emphasized in the theory
4. supports his exposition of the theory by ideas from other experts;
5. illustrates his theoretical framework by means of a diagram; and,
6. reiterates his theoretical proposition in the study.
FORMULATING CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
After formulating the theoretical framework, the
researcher has to develop the conceptual framework of
the study.
A concept is an image or symbolic representation of
an abstract idea. Chinn and Kramer (1999) define a
concept as a complex mental formulation of
experience.
While the theoretical framework is the theory on
which the study is based, the conceptual framework is
the operationalization of the theory.

FORMULATING CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Conceptual Framework is the researchers own
position on the problem and gives direction to the
study.
It may be an adaptation of a model used in a previous
study, with modifications to suit the inquiry.
Aside from showing the direction of the study, through
the conceptual framework, the researcher can be able
to show the relationships of the different constructs
that he wants to investigate.

Conceptual Framework. News values, and the pressures
and constraints shape the newspapers and television
newscasts. The result of this relationship is selective reporting
of events.
Conceptual Framework
Theoretical Model Conceptual Model
Based on the foregoing example, how should the conceptual framework
formulated?
1. cite your conceptual framework or paradigm;
2. Identify your variables;
3. Point out the dependent and intervening variables;
4. Show the direction of the study.
Once the conceptual framework has been determined, the next for the
researcher is to determine what research methods to employ to best
answer the research problem through the proposed framework.
QUESTIONS?

MODULE 5: RESEARCH METHODS

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH METHODS
Research Methodology
The techniques, methods and procedures in research.

Research Methods
The ways data are collected for the research project.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Quantitative Research
generates statistics through the use of large-scale survey
research, using methods such as questionnaires or
structured interviews.
involves analysis of numerical data.

Qualitative Research
explores attitudes, behavior and experiences through such
methods as interviews or focus groups. It attempts to get an
in-depth opinion from participants.
involves analysis of data such as words (e.g., from
interviews), pictures (e.g., video), or objects (e.g., an
artifact).

RESEARCH METHODS
Quantitative Methods (Social and Communication Research )
Survey
Experiment
Content Analysis

Qualitative Methods (Main Type of Qualitative Research)
Case study
Grounded Theory
Phenomenology
Ethnography
Historical

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
Quantitative Methods (Social and Communication Research )
Survey
The collection of information from a large group of people, for
the purpose of inferring conclusions about a population from
which the group was selected.
Experiment
The comparison of groups and individuals who have been
differently exposed to changes in their environment; the
research procedures that establishes causality
Content Analysis
A research technique for making inferences by systematically
and objectively identifying characteristics within a text.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Case study
Attempts to shed light on a phenomena by studying in-depth a
single case example of the phenomena. The case can be an
individual person, an event, a group, or an institution.
Grounded Theory
Theory is developed inductively from a corpus of data acquired by a
participant-observer.
Phenomenology
Describes the structures of experience as they present themselves
to consciousness, without recourse to theory, deduction, or
assumptions from other disciplines

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Ethnography
Focuses on the sociology of meaning through close field observation
of sociocultural phenomena. Typically, the ethnographer focuses on
a community.
Historical
Systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related to
past occurrences in order to test hypotheses concerning causes,
effects, or trends of these events that may help to explain present
events and anticipate future events. (Gay, 1996)

QUESTIONS?

MODULE 6: SURVEY DESIGN
Racidon P. Bernarte, MA
WHAT IS SURVEY?
Involves the collection of information from a
large group of people for the purpose of
inferring conclusions about a population
from which the group was selected.

The use of structured questionnaire given to
a sample of a population and designed to
elicit specific information from the
respondents.
SURVEY VS. CENSUS
Survey has sampling while
Census does not have

ADMINISTERING SURVEY METHODS
Self-Administered
Interview

TYPES OF SURVEY
Descriptive Surveys
generally aimed at describing the distribution
of a phenomena in a population. Use basic
statistical toolsFrequency, Percentage, Mean,
Median and Mode.

Explanatory or Analytical Analysis
aimed at finding causal relationship between or
among variables. Use inferential statistics.

MODE OF SURVEY METHODS
Telephone
Traditional
Computer Assisted
Personal Interview
Home
Mall
Computer Assisted
Mail
Electronic
Email
Internet

PROCEDURES IN DOING A SURVEY
Identify the research problem and objectives
Select an appropriate sample
Construct the research instrument
Identify and train interviewers
Collect data
Process and analyze data
Write the research report

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
STRENGTHS:
Surveys are easy to administer
Surveys are simple to score and code
Surveys determine the values and relation
of variables and constructs
Surveys can be used to predict behavior
Specific theoretical propositions can be
tested in an objective fashion
Surveys can help confirm the findings of
qualitative research

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
WEAKNESSES:
Surveys are not sufficient to determine
the direction of causality
Surveys rely on self-support data
Survey studies are subject to well-known
types of bias
Conducting a scientific survey is not a
trivial undertaking

QUESTIONS?

MODULE 7: CONTENT ANALYSIS
WHAT IS CONTENT ANALYSIS?
A research technique for the systematic
classification and description of communication
content according to certain usually predetermined
categories. It may involve quantitative or qualitative
analysis , or both. Technical objectivity requires that
the categories of classification and analysis be
clearly and operationally defined so that other
researchers can follow them reliably.
WHAT IS CONTENT ANALYSIS?
A methodology by which the researcher seeks to
determine the manifest content of written, spoken,
or published communication by systematic,
objective, and qualitative analysis. It is then, a
quantitative method applicable to what has
traditionally been called qualitative material
written language
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTENT ANALYSIS
It examines a wide range of texts
determine the presence of certain words,
concepts, themes, phrases, characters, or
sentences within texts or sets of texts and to
quantify this presence in an objective manner.
Can be done on material from various
communication contexts, interpersonal group ,
organizational and mass.
Can be in print , audio, audio-visual and
electronic formats.
CHARACTERISTICS CONT
Can be subjected the materials ranging from
diaries, book chapters, essays, books,
newspaper, discussions, historical
documents , advertising, Television
program, movies, internet sites,
photographs, conversations, interviews and
speeches.
By examining hold and where words and
visuals are used in these texts, the analyst
is able to make inferences about the source,
the audience, including their prevailing
social, political and cultural contexts.
PURPOSES OF CONTENT ANALYSIS
to describe trend in the communication
content
to audit communication content
to analyze the persuasion techniques
PURPOSES OF CONT..
to analyze style
to learn something about the content, those
who produced the messages/and or the
effects of the content might have on the
receivers
to get information about a topic and believe
that a content analysis rather than any
other research methods
to evaluate texts by using a set of standards
of criteria
CONTENT ANALYSIS: COMPARISON
1.
Comparison of messages produced by the same source
over different time periods would reveal trends
regarding any change in how the message is frame.
Comparison of messages produced by the same source in
different situations would reveal the effect of the
situation on the message.
Comparison of messages produced by the same single
source for different audiences would reveal if
audience characteristics affect how messages are framed.
Comparison of two different messages by the same
source would reveal any relationship between the two
messages.
Comparison of a communication material against an
existing standard would make possible an evaluation
of the communicators performance.
STEPS IN CONTENT ANALYSIS
1. Define problem / identify the issue to be studied
2. Select the media that will be used
3. Derive coding categories
4. Sampling strategy which sources will you use?
5. Train the coders
6. Code the material
7. Analyze the data
GETTING STARTED
What gets counted?
words, pictures
What is important for understanding themes?
Explicit themes
Number of times mentioned
Amount of space dedicated
Structured observation systematic observation
based on careful rules
DERIVE CODING CATEGORIES: CODING SYSTEMS
Before you decide specifically on coding categories, you
must specify what you are going to measure
Coding system a set of rules on how to systematically
observe and record content from text.
What is the unit of analysis?
One word
One paragraph
One theme
CHARACTERISTICS OF TEXT CONTENT

Frequency
Simply counting the number of times something occurs
Direction
Positive vs. negative; happy vs. sad
Intensity
Strength of message
Minor vs. major issues
Space
Number of sentences, amount of time, etc.
OTHER CHARACTERISTICS THAT COULD BE COUNTED
Other things that could be counted
characters
Specific individuals
semantics the meaning of the text
Requires interpretation
Must make judgment calls
concepts
Crime, mental illness
themes

LATENT VS. MANIFEST CONTENT

Manifest overt, visible material
How many of times a word appears
How many times someone is mentioned
Highly reliable coding
No judgment
Latent content symbolic content; semantic analysis
Ex. Level of violence
Requires judgment
Depends on coders prior knowledge, expectations, etc.
Often required writers portray meaning indirectly
Lower reliability, increases with training
Allows for more flexibility
DEVELOP SAMPLING STRATEGY
Which sources will be used?
Depends on purpose of study, theory, etc.
Which dates will be used?
What will be analyzed?
All of article, every 2 pages, etc.
DEV. SAMPLING
Representative sample is a must!
Can use various sampling procedures
Random sampling
Stratified sampling
Purposive sampling picking a sample for a particular
reason.

TRAIN CODERS
Organize and practice
Procedure really depends on how you have
decided to carry out the content analysis
Can use a recording sheet or coding form
Organization of sheet is key
Training improves use of sheet
Can use a counter
CODERS
Must assess interrater reliability
Do the coders agree?
Multiple measures of reliability
Correlate the raters scores together
Percentage of agreement
Krippendorfs alpha
the level of agreement between coders beyond that which can be
ascribed to mere chance
Common in content analysis

ADVANTAGES OF CONTENT ANALYSIS
-it is inexpensive
it can deal with current events, topics of present-day
interest
it accepts unstructured materials which can be
categorized
it uses materials that is easy to obtain and work with
DISADVANTAGES OF CONTENT ANALYSIS
- finding a representative sample
determining measurable units
defining terms operationally
the rewards is not often
commensurate to the effort exerted
QUESTIONS?

MODULE 8: EXPERIMENT
WHAT IS EXPERIMENT?
A research design which has comparison of groups or
individuals who have been differently exposed to
changes in their environment
It establishes causality
Experimental design is the process of planning a
study to meet specified objectives. Planning an
experiment properly is very important in order to
ensure that the right type of data and a sufficient
sample size and power are available to answer the
research questions of interest as clearly and efficiently
as possible.

APPLICATION OF EXPERIMENT
Research involving relatively limited and
well-defined concepts and propositions
Hypothesis-testing
Explanatory purposes of research
Studying small-group interactions
Evaluation research

TYPE OF EXPERIMENT ACCORDING TO SETTING

Laboratory Experiment

Field Experiment

COMPONENTS OF EXPERIMENT
Control and Experimental Groups

Independent and dependent Variables

Pretest and Posttest

EXPERIMENTAL VALIDITY
Internal Validity
It is the possibility that the conclusion drawn
from the experimental results may not
accurately reflect what has gone on in the
experiment itself.

External Validity
This is the inability to generalize experimental
results to events and settings outside the
experiment itself.
History
Maturation
Testing
Instrumentation
Statistical
Regression
Selection
Mortality
Interaction of any
two factors

Testing-treatment
interaction
Selection-treatment
interaction
Reactive
arrangements
Multiple-treatment
interference

Factors Affecting Internal
Validity

Factors Affecting External
Validity

Pre-experimental designs are
characterized by a complete lack of
randomization and the absence of a
well-defined control group
One-group posttest only design
One-group pretest-posttest design
Two-group posttest design

TYPE OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

True experimental designs use
randomization to achieve pre-treatment
equality of groups; features a wall-defined
control group

Pretest-posttest control group design
Posttest-only control group design
Solomon four-group design

Quasi-experimental designs do not meet the
requirements of experimental control mainly
because random assignment is not feasible,
but allowances are made in data analysis to
make up for the failure to meet the
assumptions of classical experimental
designs

Multiple-time series design
Non-equivalent control group design

STEPS IN CONDUCTING AN EXPERIMENT

a. State a straightforward hypothesis
appropriate for your research
b. Decide on an experimental design to test
your hypothesis
c. Decide on how to introduce the treatment or
create a situation that will induce the
independent variable
d. Develop a valid and reliable measure of the
dependent variable
e. Set up the experiment

f. Locate appropriate subjects
g. Assign the subjects to groups
h. Gather data for the pretest measure if the
design calls for it
i. Introduce the treatment to the experimental
group
j. Gather data for the posttest measure
k. Debrief the subjects by informing them to the
true purpose of the experiment
l. Examine the data collected and compare the
results between different groups

Establishes
evidence of
causality
Allows control or
isolation of the
experimental
variable
Relatively cost-
effective
Easy to replicate

Artificiality
(in the case of
laboratory
experiments)

Has limited
applications

Strengths of the Experiment

Weaknesses of
the Experiments

QUESTIONS?

MODULE 9: CASE STUDY
WHAT IS CASE STUDY?
An empirical study that investigates a
contemporary phenomenon within its real-life
context, when the boundaries between the
phenomenon and its context are not clearly
evident
It is an exploration of a bounded system or
a case (or multiple cases) over time through
detailed, in-depth data collection involving
multiple resources or information rich in
context.
The focus may be on the case (because of its
uniqueness) that requires study (intrinsic
case study) or it may be on an issue or issues,
with the case used instruments to illustrate
the issue (an instrumental case study) when
more than one case is studied, it is referred to
as collective case study.

Case study also involves a comprehensive and
extensive examination of a particular
individual, group or situations over a period of
time.
In conducting a case study, the investigators should
first consider what type of case study is most
promising and useful.
A comprehensive study of a social unit - be that unit
a person, a social institution, a group, a district, or
community.
The case consists of the data relating to some phase
of the life history of the unit or relating to the entire
life process, whether the unit is an individual, a
family, a social group, an institution, or a
community.
Data about the case from birth or origin or even of
the future are considered.

SOME OF THE CHALLENGES INHERENT IN
QUALITATIVE CASE STUDY DEVELOPMENT ARE
AS FOLLOWS
The researcher must identify his or her case. He or she must
decide what bounded system to study recognizing that
several might be possible candidates for this selection and
realizing tat either the case itself or an issue, for which a
case or case are selected to illustrate, is worthy of study.

The researcher must consider whether to study a single case
or multiple cases. The more cases an individual studies, the
greater the lack of depth in any single case. Typically,
however, the researcher chooses no more than four cases.
What motivates the researcher to consider a large number of
cases is the idea of generalizability, a term that holds little
meaning for most qualitative research.

Selecting the case requires that the researcher
establish a rationale or his or her purposeful sampling
strategy for selecting the case and for gathering
information about the case.

Usually all aspects or variables in the life cycle of the
case under study are included.

Finding the causes of certain phenomena is always a
part of a case study.

Representativeness is not important. The results of a
single case study do not provide certainty that the
case is truly representative.

Having enough information to present an in-depth
picture of case limits the value of some case studies.
In planning a case study, develop a data collection
matrix in which they specify the amount of
information they are likely to collect about the case.

Deciding the boundaries of a case how it might be
constrained in terms of time, events, and processes
may be challenging. Some case studies may not have
clean beginning and ending points, and the
researcher will need to work with contrived
boundaries.

GENERAL STUCTURE OF THE STUDY

Entry vignette
Introduction (problems, questions, case
study, data collection, analysis outcomes )
Description of the case/s and its (their)
context
Development of issues
Detail about selected issues
Assertions
Closing vignette
Sampling. Purposeful sampling is generally
used in case study research; therefore, explain
sampling procedures and case selection, and the
defining characteristics and typicality or a
typicality of the case.
Data. Draw the data either from one primary
source (e.g. oral interviews, journals, or essays)
or from multiple sources
DATA SOURCES OF CASE STUDY
Documents
Archival records
Interviews
Direct observations
Participant observation
Physical artifacts
DATA GATHERING INSTRUMENT FOR CASE STUDY
Almost all data-gathering devices are used in
collecting data for a case study. The interview
is very important
All persons who may be able to shed light on
the problem are interviewed. Long probing
interviews may also be conducted.
Another important tool is observation.
The questionnaire is another instrument.
QUESTIONS?

MODULE 10: PHENOMENOLOGY
WHAT IS PHENOMENOLOGY?
aims to identify and describe the subjective
experience of respondents. It is a matter of
studying everyday experience from the point
of view of the subject, and it shuns critical
evaluation of forms of social life (Schwandt,
2001)
Understanding of an event from the point of
view of the participant (Barritt, 2001)
Is based on the belief that what people do
depends on what they perceived or what goes
on their minds. Phenomenologist focus on
how internal, psychological meaning guide
behavior.

MAJOR PROCEDURAL ISSUES IN
USING PHENOMENOLOGY
The researcher needs to understand the
philosophical perspectives behind the approach,
especially the concept of the study how people
experience a phenomenon.

The investigator writes research questions to
explore the meaning of that experience for
individuals and asks individuals to describe their
everyday lived experiences.

The investigator then collects data from individuals
who have experienced the phenomenon under
investigation.

The phenomenological report end s with reader
understanding better the essential, in variant
structure ( or essence), of the experience,
recognizing that a single unifying meaning of the
experience exists.

WHY PHENOMENOLOGY IS CHALLENGING TO
USE?
The researcher requires a solid ground in
the philosophical precepts of the
phenomenology.
The participants in the study need to be
carefully chosen to be individuals who
have experienced the phenomenon.
Bracketing personal experiences by the
researcher may be difficult.
The researcher needs to decide how and in
what his or her personal experiences will
be introduced into the study.

STEPS IN PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY
The researcher begins with a full description of
his or her own experience of the phenomenon.
The researcher finds statements ( in the
interviews) about how individuals are
experiencing the topic, lists out these
significant statements ( horizonalization of the
data) and treats each statements as having
equal worth, and works to develop a list, non
repetitive, nonoverlapping statements.
QUESTIONS?

MODULE 11: SAMPLING
WHAT IS SAMPLING?
Sampling is a process of systematically
selecting cases for a research project.
Sampling is that part of statistical
practice concerned with the selection of
individual observation intended to yield
some knowledge about a population of
concern, esp. for the purposes of
statistical influence.

CENSUS VS. SAMPLE
Census involves a complete enumeration
of the elements of a population.

Sample the sub group of the population
selected for participation of the study.

Population is the aggregate of all elements,
sharing some common set of
characteristics
SAMPLING
Who is the target
group for the study?
This is called the
study population
Who in the target
group should be
surveyed?
This is called the
sample.
How many people
should be surveyed?
This is called the
sample size.
How should the people
to be surveyed by
selected?
This is called the
sampling method.
THE SAMPLING DESIGN PROCESS
1. Define the target population
2. Determine the sampling frame
3. Select a sampling technique(s)
4. Determine the sample size
5. Execute the sampling process

SAMPLING DESIGN PROCESS
Sampling Process
Defining the
population
Developing
a sampling
Frame
Determining
Sample
Size
Specifying
Sample
Method
SELECTING THE SAMPLE
PROBABILITY VS. NON-PROBABILITY
Probability Samplingsampling based
on probability theory; this type of
sampling yields a sample that is truly a
representative of the population.
Non-Probability Samplingsampling
that does not follow the guidelines of
mathematical probability

i. Nonprobability Sampling Techniques
a. Convenience Sampling
b. Judgmental Sampling
c. Quota Sampling
d. Snowball Sampling
ii. Probability Sampling Techniques
a. Simple Random Sampling
b. Systematic Sampling
c. Stratified Sampling
d. Cluster Sampling
e. Other Probability Sampling Techniques
THE SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
CLASSIFICATION OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Sampling Techniques
Nonprobability
Sampling Techniques
Probability
Sampling Techniques
Convenience
Sampling
Judgmental
Sampling
Quota
Sampling
Snowball
Sampling
Systematic
Sampling
Stratified
Sampling
Cluster
Sampling
Other Sampling
Techniques
Simple
Random
Sampling
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Convenience-- attempts to obtain a sample of
convenient elements. Often, respondents are selected
because they happen to be in the right place at the
right time.
Judgmental/Purposive-- is a form of convenience
sampling in which the population elements are
selected based on the judgment of the researcher.
Quota consists of developing control categories, or
quotas, of population elements.
Snowball or Referrala initial group of respondents is
selected then the respondents are asked to identify
others by referrals.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Simple Randoma sample is drawn randomly
from a list of individuals in a population. It
can be done through; a. Lottery Sampling; b.
Use of Random Number Tables.
Systematicit is taking every nth member of
the population, where n is the reciprocal of the
percentage of the population which you would
like to use as a sample.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Cluster considered a more practical approach to
surveys because it samples by groups or clusters
of elements rather than by individual elements.
Stratified usually employed when the population
is composed of several strata or subgroups.
Multi-Stagethe population is divided into a
number of groups or primary stages from which
samples are drawn; these are then divided into
groups or secondary stages from which samples
are drawn, and so on.

DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE
Sample size may be determined by using:
Subjective methods (less sophisticated methods)
The rule of thumb approach: eg. 5% of
population
Conventional approach: eg. Average of
sample sizes of similar other studies;
Cost basis approach: The number that can
be studied with the available funds;
Statistical formulae (more sophisticated methods)
Confidence interval approach.

SLOVENS FORMULA IN DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE

n = N / (1 + Ne)

Where:
n = number of samples
N = total population
e = error margin (.05 or .01)
or level of confidence


n = N / (1 + Ne)

Where:
n = ?
N = 1000
e = .05 margin of error or
95% confidence level


n = N / (1 + Ne)

Where:
n = 1000 / (1 + 1000 * 0.05)
n = 1000 / (1 + .0025)
n = 285.71 samplings

QUESTIONS?

MODULE 12: PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS
AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Racidon P. Bernarte, DEM

PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH
1. Tabular

AGE FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
40 and below 16 19.0
41-50 18 21.4
51-60 11 13.1
61 and above 13 15.5
No Response 26 31.0
Total 84 100
Table 3
Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents
in Terms of Age

PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH
2. Graphical

Graph 1
Sales Distribution for the Year 2013

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH DATA

The table shows the gender of the respondents. There were 18 or 21.4% who
belonged to 41-50 age group; 16 or 19% whose ages belonged to 40 and below; 13
or 15.5% of the respondents belonged to 61 and above while 11 or 13.1%
belonged to 51-60 age group. However, 26 or 31% of the respondents did not
answer the question.
AGE FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
40 and below 16 19.0
41-50 18 21.4
51-60 11 13.1
61 and above 13 15.5
No Response 26 31.0
Total 84 100
Table 3
Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents
in Terms of Age

INTERPRETATION OF RESEARCH DATA

Making sense of the data based on:

1. What the data is implying
2. What the researchers inference
3. What the literature is supporting or not
supporting

INTERPRETATION OF RESEARCH DATA
Table 14
Frequency and Percentage Distribution of the Nature of
Academe-Industry Partnership in Terms of whether the
HEI is involved in Academe-Industry Partnership

Involved in Academe-
Industry Partnership
Frequency Percentage
Yes 76 90.5
No 8 9.5
Total 84 100.0
Table 14 showed 84 respondents 76 or 90.5% affirmatively answered the question while 8 or 9.5% negatively
answered the same. The data show that almost all HEI surveyed were involved in academe-industry partnership
which was supported by the CHED-ZRC study commissioned in 2010 that reported most of the HEI members of the
center were engaged in academe-industry partnerships which were limited to areas of internship, accreditation
requirements and student scholarship. Likewise, Tansinsins (2002) study confirmed the result, as she found that
many universities and institutions practiced universityindustry partnership. Many academic institutions,
particularly in the tertiary levels, were engaged in various collaborations with different industry-partners. The
practice of partnership was limited to some areas like on-the-job trainings, graduate placement and curriculum
design as mentioned by Villegas (2009) in one of his articles. Although the data show that almost all HEIs in NCR
surveyed were involved in partnerships the study of WIPO (2005) reported that the collaboration between the
university and industry in the Philippines being new was not yet widespread. The findings and the study of WIPO
provide two pictures: one is the regional or NCR situation and the other was the national or the Philippine situation
in general.

QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
Interpretation of Data Score Range Description
5 4.51-5.0 Very Extensive
4 3.51-4.5 Moderately Extensive
3 2.51-3.5 Adequate
2 1.51-2.5 Limited
1 1.0-1.5 Very Limited

LIKERT SCALE
QUESTIONS?

Communicating Research Modules

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MODULES 1-13

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