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\
|
(
(
=
t D
x
c c c t x c
s s
2
erf 1 ) ( ) , (
0
(3)
where: c: concentration on chlorides, c
s
: concentration at the outer face and c
0
: initial
concentration in the concrete. The front of the ingress is defined by the critical value c =
c
crit
= 0.1 % of mass of concrete.
2. A simplified diffusion equation is set up for the depth x of chloride ingress. By this, all
constants in the equation of diffusion are rounded up into one single constant K:
( ) D c c c K x
crit s 0
, (4)
3. The constant K is calculated by solving the equation for the mean value x.
Using the mean value of 34 mm this results in K = 3810
3
[s
0.5
/ wt.-%].
Table B3.5: Example 3 - Values used for the diffusion calculations
Variable Distribution Mean value Standard Deviation
Surface chloride concentration
Critical chloride content
Initial chloride content
Eff. chloride diffusion coefficient (10C)
Eff. chloride diffusion coefficient (30C)
c
s
c
crit
c
0
D
1
D
2
Lognormal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
1.0 [wt-%]
0.1 [wt-%]
0.01 [wt-%]
1.010
-12
[m
2
/s]
4.010
-12
[m
2
/s]
0.3 [wt-%]
0.025 [wt-%]
0.002 [wt-%]
0.110
-12
[m
2
/s]
0.410
-12
[m
2
/s]
Solving equation using distributions
The equation reads now as
( ) [ mass /% s 10 38
0
3
D c c c x
crit s
= ] (4)
Solving this equation using the same density distributions as used in the detailed probabilistic
solution (Table B3.5), yields results as shown in Figure B3.5. The slight skewness of the
resultant density distribution is neglected for indicating standard deviations.
EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research
Laboratory for Concrete and Construction Chemistry March 2004
CIB W080 / RILEM 175 - SLM: Service Life Methodologies
Engineering Design Methods: State of the Art 90
Fractile value required
The probability of exceeding the critical content c
crit
is set to 10% in Edvardsen and Mohr
[2000] Assuming a normal distribution, the value of the fractile of 90% is derived at by
adding = 1.28 standard deviations to the mean: s x x + =
90
. These results are also shown
in Figure B3.5 and are compared to the exact values of the original paper. The mean values
are identical as well as the standard deviation for Diffusion constant D
1
. For Diffusion
constant D
2
, the fractile value of this prediction exceeds the exact value by some 5%.
This accuracy is deemed to satisfy the needs of the customer, bearing in mind, that all input
values, although being set up as distributions, are still never perfectly exact.
Fractile of 10% exceedance
Diffusion
constant
Mean
value
Standard
deviation
Eng. Design
Method
Edvardsen and
Mohr 2000
D
1
D
2
34 mm
68 mm
12 mm
23 mm
49 mm
97 mm
49 mm
91 mm
x [mm] for D
1
x [mm] for D
2
Note: Densities shown are the results of 10
5
runs of a Monte Carlo simulation
Figure B3.5: Engineering design method: density distributions for the depth of chloride
ingress
EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research
Laboratory for Concrete and Construction Chemistry March 2004
CIB W080 / RILEM 175 - SLM: Service Life Methodologies
Engineering Design Methods: State of the Art 91
4. CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK
4.1 Proposed Engineering Design Methods
After a review of the recent literature, an engineering design method (EDM) is proposed for
the calculation of the service life of buildings or components.
In order to calculate the service life, an equation containing the relevant factors at their
relevant levels has to be set up first. This equation may be derived from ISO 15686-1 or other
sources. It can be made up to specifically suit the problem to be solved.
In the equation for service life, density distributions instead of simple factors are used, thereby
greatly improving the information content and the relevance of the results. The intellectual,
mathematical and time wise input compared to the quite often elaborate original equations or
to a thorough stochastic design, is greatly reduced.
As opposed to using simple numerical factors in the original factor method, this approach
incorporates the use of probability density functions for factors as well as for the service life
of individual components to arrive at an overall estimate of a building systems service life.
These are established using reliable and understandable engineering techniques applied in a
systematic and straightforward manner.
By making the trail from input to results clearly understandable, fewer errors will occur and
fewer traps stepped into. Thus the engineering design method can be applied by the plain
engineer and yields nearly as good results as finely tuned sophisticated probabilistic models.
4.2 Further Developments
The method as proposed has been applied so far to a few examples only. It is hoped that for
distinct fields of application, standard equations and factors can be defined, together with, for
each climate, the respective input data.
These tools will help to make service life design a standard engineering technique thus
fulfilling the requirements set by owners or the European Commission [CPD 1988].
4.3 Research Needs
Further research is needed, to identify the relevant parameters governing the service life of
structures of all kinds of materials, as well as to set up workable mathematical relations for the
application of the engineering design method.
EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research
Laboratory for Concrete and Construction Chemistry March 2004
CIB W080 / RILEM 175 - SLM: Service Life Methodologies
Engineering Design Methods: State of the Art 92
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EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research
Laboratory for Concrete and Construction Chemistry March 2004
CIB W080 / RILEM 175 - SLM: Service Life Methodologies
Engineering Design Methods: State of the Art 93
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EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research
Laboratory for Concrete and Construction Chemistry March 2004
CIB W080 / RILEM 175 - SLM: Service Life Methodologies
Engineering Design Methods: State of the Art 94
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EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research
Laboratory for Concrete and Construction Chemistry March 2004
CIB W080 / RILEM 175 - SLM: Service Life Methodologies
Engineering Design Methods: State of the Art 95
Stewart, M.G. (2000): Optimisation of durability design specifications for RC structures,
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Abbreviations and database
ASCE: American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, Virginia, www.pubs.asce.org
Brite-EuRam project DuraCrete: Selected publications.
CIB World Building Congress 1998: Materials and technologies for sustainable construction,
Gvle, Sweden, M. Lacasse, ed., NRC, Ottawa, Canada.
CIB World Building Congress 2001: Performance in product and practice, CD by Building
research association of New Zealand (BRANZ), Eds., New Zealand.
7DBMC: Proceedings of the 7
th
international conference on the Durability of Building
Materials and Components, Sjstrm Ch., Ed., Stockholm, Sweden, E and FN Spon,
London, 19-23 May 1996.
8DBMC: Proceedings of the 8
th
international conference on the Durability of Building
Materials and Components, Lacasse and Vanier, Eds. NRC research press Ottawa,
Canada, 30 May 3 June 1999.
9DBMC: Proceedings of the 9
th
international conference on the Durability of Building
Materials and Components, Burn S. CSIRO ed., on CD ROM, ISBN 0-943-06828-7,
Brisbane, Australia, 17-19 March 2002.
SL/AM IT CD ROM, containing the full papers of the 8DBMC and the abstracts of all earlier
DBMC conferences back to 1DBMC in 1978, Lacasse and Vanier, Eds. NRC research
press Ottawa, Canada, 1999.
EMPA Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research
Laboratory for Concrete and Construction Chemistry March 2004