Fuel properties

Heat Engines & Boilers

Contents
Classification of fuels
Definition of lower and higher
heating value
Analysis methods of solid fuels,
combustible and ash properties,
solid fuel supply systems
Analysis methods of liquid fuels,
liquid fuel supply systems
Analysis methods of gaseous fuels,
gaseous fuel supply systems
Fuel classification
State of matter Fossil Renewable
Solid Coal Biomass:
black, brown, lignite wood, cane, grass, etc.
energy plants & waste materials
Liquid Crude Oil Biomass:
Petrol, kerosene, Vegetable oil & bio-diesel
Diesel Oil Bio-ethanol
Gaseous Natural gas Bio-gas
Digester gas,
pyrolysis-gas from gasification
Fuel features
Fuels can be delivered, stored and
burned at different power level,
according to energy demands
Fossil Renewable
Energy content High Low
Delivery even for long only for short
distance distance
Storage capacity small large
Circulation of Carbon
Heating Value
Heating value (calorific value) is the heat released by the fuel when completely
burnt, and may be determined at constant volume or constant pressure,
and flue gas is cooled back to the initial temperature (ambient temperature)
- higher ( gross) heating value ( HHV ) - assumes that the water vapor in the
products condenses and thus includes the latent
heat of vaporization of the water vapor in the
products.
- lower heating value ( LHV ) - does not. contain the latent heat, the water
in flue gas remain in steam form at the initial
temperature
possible dimensions: J/kg, J/m
3
, kWh/kg, kWh/m
3
m
w
= mass of water vapor per unit mass of fuel
h
fg
= latent heat of vaporization of water vapor / at its partial
pressure in the combustion products [J/kg
H2O
]
m
H2
= mass of original hydrogen per unit mass of fuel.
LHV HHV m h m h
w fg H fg
= 9
2
Composition of solid fuels, and analysis methods
Original substance Green coal, damp wood, waste in original state
Incombustible, ballast
General composition

Combustible
Mineral
matter
Moisture, or
Water content
Drying at ambient air Air-dry fuel
Water free fuel
Drying at 105 C
Combustible Incombustible
Hygroscopic
moisture


Free or
surface
moisture,

Heating at 850 C
without air
Coke residue
Complete combustion
at 850 C
Result:
Proximate analysis


Volatile matter
Fix
Carbon
(fixC)

Ultimate analysis
Sulphur
(S)
Nitrogen
(N)
Oxygen
(O)
Hydrogen
(H)
Total
Carbon
(C)

Ash
(a)

Total moisture,
Water content
(w)

Properties of solid fuels
Properties of solid fuels
Properties of solid fuels
10.8 39 0.7 15 54 Natural gas
10,200 36,500 870 11.7 42 Oil
4,500-9,100 16,000-33,000 800-1,100 5.6-8.3 20-30
Coal (lignite to
anthracite)
3,000-3,500 10,800-12,600 600-700 5 18 Wood pellets
2,300-4,600 8,100-16,800 450-800 5-5.8 18-21
Wood (solid -
oven dry)
1,300-2,300 4,500-8,300 300-550 4.2 15
Log wood
(stacked - air
dry: 20%
moisture
content)
600-1,000 2,000-3,600 175-350 2-4 7-15
Wood chips
(Very
dependent on
moisture
content)
Energy by
volume
kWh/m
3
Energy by
volume
MJ/m
3
Bulk density
kg/m
3
Energy by
mass
kWh/kg
Energy by
mass
GJ/tonne
Fuel
Water or moisture content
There are two methods used to calculate the moisture content, Wet Basis and
Dry Basis. The most common method in energy terms is wet basis, whilst
foresters tend to use the dry basis. It is important to note that the two methods
will give a different result for the same piece of wood.
Example
A quantity of wood has a total mass of 10kg. It is dried in an oven so that all water is
removed and then weighed. Its new mass is 8kg. The moisture content is calculated as:

WET BASIS
% 20
) 10 (
) 2 (
) ( = =
kg wood wet of mass
kg water of mass
MC content moisture

DRY BASIS
% 25
) 8 (
) 2 (
) ( = =
kg wood dry of mass
kg water of mass
MC content moisture

Relationship between water content
and calorific value of wood
Wood as renewable
Less suitable for automated systems
(although some do exist)
Large storage space required to allow 1 2
years for seasoning
Logs can be stored and transported
conveniently when stacked
Ease of air passage through a log pile
allows good drying
Can be easily produced on site or very
locally
Logs
More expensive fuel costs
Supply is less likely to be localised and so
does not provide local economic impacts
User input similar to conventional heating
installations
Cheaper capital costs due to the drier and
more homogeneous nature of the fuel
Denser fuel means reduced storage space
and easier transport
Suitable for very small appliances
Wood
pellets
Can require greater user input, depending
upon the quality of the fuel
System has a higher capital cost since wood
chips require larger storage capacity and
more robust fuel handling equipment
Need the services of a specialised chipper
Only suitable for larger appliances i.e. >25
kW
Easy to produce locally from woodland
thinnings etc.
Much cheaper fuel costs.
Expenditure on wood fuel can benefit the
immediate local economy.
Wood chips
Disadvantages Advantages Fuel
Wood processing and woodchips collection
Pellet manufacturing from sawdust
Ash
Fuel contains incombustible parts,
known as ash,
mainly potassium (K), sodium (Na),
phosphorous (P), calcium (Ca),
silicon (Si).
Halogen content (Cl) and (F) also important
from environmental and corrosion viewpoint
Waste materials can contain heavy metals and
other pollutants
Ash softening and melting properties are very
important for combustion management
Bunte-Baum test
Bunte-Baum test result
Leitz type heated microscope
Leitz type heated microscope results
Composition of solid fuels
Proximate analysis is used for combustion
behavior evaluation
Ultimate analysis is used for combustion
(stoichiometric) calculations
Ash softening properties are important from
combustion chamber operation
Pollutants can be either neutral from combustion
viewpoint, (e.g. heavy metals)
or can take part in reaction (e.g. Cl to HCl)
but in both case are important from emission
viewpoint
Fuel storage and supply system
Fuel size and size distribution
- from combustion viewpoint size distribution
has to be in narrow range
- but milling or pressing has certain energy
demand
and increases fuel cost
Task so this system is to prepare and feed fuel for
reaction and for feeding into the combustion
chamber.
Furthermore fuel has to be available when it is
needed, so storage or utility connection is also
included in this system.
In case preparation needs heat it is generally
supplied from the boiler, which is called self
consumption.
Fuel storage example



Photo: Beacon Stoves
The log store should allow for plenty of air flow but should protect the logs from the rain
Wood pellet storage and feeding

Bagged wood pellets Pellet store using partition walls and auger


Pellet store and vacuum pellet feed

Pre-fabricated silo and auger
Wood chip storage and feeding

Rotary stirrer facilitates removal of chips

Wood chip bunker showing stirrer and
screw conveyor

Covered area for drying and storing large
quantities of wood chips

A ramp allows wood chips to be tipped
into the store
Wood chip storage and feeding
Wood chip
storage and
feeding
Wood chip
storage and
feeding
base plan
Straw-bale storage and feeding
Wood densities [kg/m
3
]
369 627 897 297 505 722 484 823 1177 459 781 117 50
307 552 747 248 421 602 403 686 980 383 651 930 40
264 448 640 212 361 516 346 588 840 328 558 798 30
231 392 560 186 316 452 303 514 735 287 488 698 20
217 369 527 175 297 425 285 484 692 20 459 657 15
205 348 498 165 281 401 269 457 654 255 434 620 10
184 313 448 149 253 361 242 411 588 230 390 558 0
Moisture Content, Wet Basis, %
2.43 1.43 1 2.43 1.43 1 2.43 1.43 1 2.43 1.43 1
Packing
Ratio
Chip Log Solid Chip Log Solid Chip Log Solid Chip Log Solid
Fuel
type
Pine Spruce Oak Beech Species
Necessary fuel storage volume
In order to calculate the store volume required the
following parameters are required:
Energy demand
Calorific value of fuel
Density of fuel
The two important equations are given below.
) / (
) (
) (
kg kWh value calorific
kWh demand energy Gross
kg n consumptio Fuel =
) / (
) (
) (
3
3
m kg density fuel
kg n consumptio fuel
m volume Fuel =
Example for fuel storage calculation
Calculate the store volume for wood pellets required if:
- The annual heat requirement is 24 000 kWh and the monthly heat requirement
during the coldest month is 4 000 kWh.
- Wood pellets density = 600 kg/m
3

- Wood pellets calorific value 3.2 kWh/kg.
- Pellets are to be delivered at a maximum frequency of once a month.

1) Calculate the fuel consumption during the coldest month:
month per kg
kg kWh
kWh
kg n consumptio Fuel 250 1
) / ( 2 . 3
) ( 000 4
) ( = =
2) Calculate the volume of fuel required:
3
3
3
08 . 2
) / ( 600
) ( 1250
) ( m
m kg
kg
m volume Fuel = =

Properties of liquid fuels
Ultimate analysis is used for composition
investigation (similarly to solid fuels)
Heating value is used for energy content
evaluation (similarly to solid fuels)
Liquid fuel can not be burnt in liquid form
it has to be in gaseous form,
so it has to be evaporated
Liquid fuels can be stored in tanks
Liquid fuels can be delivered via pipelines
by means of appropriate pump
Properties of liquid fuels
Point of solidification is understood as the temperature at
which the product no longer flows upon the effect of the
gravitational force. Its value is significant first of all in
respect of transportation.
Flash point is the temperature at which as much vapor
generates from the liquid fuel under atmospheric pressure
that, mixed with the ambient air, upon approach of flame it
flashes over the whole oil surface. This value is used also
for characterization of explosion and fire protection.
Firing point is the temperature at which vaporization of the
liquid is of such extent, that with the approach of the flame
for a short time it is ignited and the burning will be
constant on the surface maintaining for at least 5 s.
The firing point is characteristic to the inflammability of
the fuel.
Conradson number The liquid fuel is heated and vaporized
in an air-tight vessel. The retained coke part related to the
initial amount of oil gives the Conradson number. The
coking liability is an important characteristic.
Properties of liquid fuels
Properties of liquid fuels
202 120 120 70 Flash point [ C]
28 50 50 - 6 Pour point [ C]
0.916 0.96 0.95 0.84 Density at 15 C [kg/l]
0.356 0.1 0.1 - w water
0.35 0.3 0.3 - N Nitrogen
10.16 1.0 1.0 - O Oxygen
0.1 1.0 2.3 0.3 S Sulphur
12,47 11.0 11.1 13.4 H Hydrogen
76.56 86.6 85.2 86.3 C Carbon
Composition [% w/w]
Animal
Fat
Fuel Oil
SA
Fuel Oil S Fuel Oil
EL
Properties of liquid fuels
42.1 43.38 42.76 45.76 Higher Heating Value [MJ/kg]
39.3 40.94 40.38 42.82 Lower Heating Value [MJ/kg]
0 (0.257) 0.28 0.28 0.27 CO
2
emission [kg/kWh]
15.71 16.02 16.00 15.31 CO
2max
[% V/V]
1.12 1.00 0.97 1.20 Water content in fluegas [kg/kg]
10.48 11.33 11.17 11.86 Wet fluegas volume [m
3
/kg]
9.09 10.16 10.04 10.46 Dry fluegas volume [m
3
/kg]
9.81 10.79 10.65 11.22 Air requirement [m
3
/kg]
Animal
Fat
Fuel Oil
SA
Fuel Oil
S
Fuel Oil
EL
Viscosity
variation
of liquid
fuels
Comparis
on
of bio-
ethanol
with fossil
fuels
74,2 71,8 71 - 72 71,5 CO
2
emission, g/MJ
- 70 40-90 16 Vapor pressure, 38C, kPa
45-55 10 8-14 8 Cetane number
- 100 80-88 92 Motor octane number
- 100 88-98 111 Research octane number
- - - 4,4 Azeotrop water content, %
14,6 15,07 14,7 8,97
Stoichiometric air to fuel ratio
mass / mass
42,7 43,5 43 26,7 Lower heating value, MJ/kg
45,8 47,8 47,2 29,8 Higher heating value, MJ/kg
1,4-7,6 1,1-6,0 1,4-7,6 4,3-19,0
Flammability range
in air, V/ V %
250 447 495 423
Spontaneous ignition
temperature, C
70 4 -43 (-) -39 12,8 Flammability point, C
- 0,217 0,251 0,662 Evaporation heat, 20C, MJ/dm
3
0,256 0,314 0,349 0,839 Evaporation heat, 20C, MJ/kg
180-360 99,2 25-220 78,5 Boiling temperature, C
<350 0 <150 <1 Sulphur content, ppm
0,84 0,6919 0,720-0,780 0,7893 Density, g/cm
3
0 0 0-2,7 34,73 O
13,9 15,88 12-14,3 13,13 H
86,1 84,12 83-88 52,14 Ultimate analysis, %, C
208 114,23 110(average) 46,07 Molar mass
C
15
H
28
C
8
H
18
C
4
-C
12
CH
3
CH
2
OH Formula
Diesel oil Isooctane Petrol Ethanol Characteristic data
Liquid fuel storage conditions
Properties of gaseous fuels
Gaseous fuels can be handled as ideal gas mixture
of different gas components
Molecule analysis is used for composition
investigation (instead of ultimate analysis)
Heating value is used for energy content
evaluation (similarly to solid and liquid fuels)
but it is generally given by volume
Gaseous fuels can be stored in tanks
either in gaseous form under high pressure
or in liquefied form under medium pressure
Gaseous fuels can be delivered via pipelines by
means of pressure difference
Important parameters of gaseous fuels
Relative density: d =
gas
/
air
[-]
(important from explosion safety viewpoints)
Wobbe index
(for assessment of gas exchange)
Extended Wobbe index
where: H
s
- HHV higher heating value of the gas
d - relative density
p pressure drop at a fuel nozzle
Flammability limits
Flammability limits, also called flammable limits, give the
proportion of combustible gases in a mixture, between which
limits this mixture is flammable.
LFL The lower flammable limit describes the leanest mixture
that is still flammable, i.e. the mixture with the smallest fraction
of combustible gas,
UFL The upper flammable limit gives the richest flammable
mixture.
Increasing the fraction of inert gases in a mixture raises the LFL
and decreases UFL.
Flammability limits of mixtures of several combustible gases
can be calculated using Le Chatelier's mixing rule for
combustible volume fractions xi:
(and similar for UFL
mix
)
Gas Mixtures Having High Inert Content
Generated from Biomass
Digester gas from anaerob fermentation:
Main part: CH
4
+ CO
2
Pollutants: H
2
S, CO, H
2
O, particulates
Heating value: 18 - 30 MJ/m
3
Gasification or pyrolysis gas:
Main part: CH
4
+CO+H
2
+ CO
2
+ N
2
+H
2
O
Pollutants: H
2
S, tar, particulates, coke
Heating value: 5 - 20 MJ/m
3
Biomass conversion types
Summary
You are already familiar with:
Properties of different fuels from combustion
viewpoint
Classification of fuels
Definition of lower and higher heating value
Analysis methods of solid fuels, combustible and
ash properties, solid fuel supply systems
Properties of liquid fuels,
liquid fuel supply systems
Properties of gaseous fuels,
gaseous fuel supply systems
Thank You for Your Attention !