Design of a Probability Density Function Targeting Energy-

Efficient Node Deployment in Wireless Sensor Networks

Journal: IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management
Manuscript ID: TNSM-2013-00583
Manuscript Type: Original Article
Date Submitted by the Author: 10-Oct-2013
Complete List of Authors: Halder, Subir; Dr. B. C. Roy Engineering College, Computer Science and
Engineering
Das Bit, Sipra; Bengal Engineering and Science University, Computer
Science and Technology
Keywords:
Ad-Hoc and sensor networks < Management applications and case studies,
Energy management < Management Functions, Network planning and
service deployment < Service Provisioning & Reliability and Quality
Assurance



IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management
1

AbstractIn wireless sensor networks the issue of preserving
energy requires utmost attention. One primary way of conserving
energy is judicious deployment of sensor nodes within the
network area so that the energy flow remains balanced
throughout the network and prevents the problem of occurrence
of energy holes. Firstly, we have analyzed network lifetime, found
node density as the parameter which has significant influence on
network lifetime and derived the desired parameter values for
balanced energy consumption. Then to meet the requirement of
energy balancing, we have proposed a probability density
function (PDF), derived the PDFs intrinsic characteristics and
shown its suitability to model the network architecture considered
for the work. A node deployment algorithm is also developed
based on this PDF. Performance of the deployment scheme is
evaluated in terms of coverage-connectivity, energy balance and
network lifetime. In qualitative analysis, we have shown the
extent to which our proposed PDF has been able to provide
desired node density derived from the analysis on network
lifetime. Finally, the scheme is compared with three existing
deployment schemes based on various distributions. Simulation
results confirm our schemes supremacy over all the existing
schemes in terms of all the three performance metrics.

Index TermsEnergy balance, Node deployment, Network
lifetime, Probability density function, Wireless sensor networks.
I. INTRODUCTION
HE advent of efficient short range radio communication
and advances in miniaturization of computing devices
have made possible for large-volume commercial production
of wireless sensor nodes as well as large-scale real-world
deployment of the same to form a wireless sensor network
(WSN). Such a network typically suffers from a number of
unavoidable problems such as resource constrained nodes,
random node deployment some times in an unattended open
field where it is very difficult to replace/ recharge battery etc.
So the network as a whole must minimizes the energy usage in
order to enable untethered and unattended operation for an
extended period of time. Therefore, a critical consideration in
designing such WSNs is conserving energy to maximize the
post deployment network lifetime [1]. The rate of energy

S. Halder is with the Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Dr. B. C. Roy Engineering College, Durgapur, India 713206 (fax: +91 343-
250-4059; e-mail: subir_ece@rediffmail.com).
S. DasBit is with Department of Computer Science and Technology,
Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur, India 711103 (e-mail:
siprad@hotmail.com).

depletion in the network primarily depends on the deployment
nature of the nodes. The nature of deployment, on the other
hand, mainly depends on the application environment [2].
In WSNs, nodes can be deployed either randomly or in pre-
determined manner. In random deployment, nodes are
deployed randomly, generally in an inaccessible terrain. For
example, in the application domain of disaster recovery or in
forest fire detection, nodes are dropped by helicopter in
random manner [3]. On the contrary, in pre-determined
deployment, the locations of the nodes are specified. This type
of deployment is used in applications when sensors are
expensive or when their operations are significantly affected
by their positions. The applications include placing imaging
and video sensors, populating an area with highly precise
seismic sensors, underwater WSN applications, monitoring
manufacturing plants etc.
One important way of conserving energy is by uniform
energy consumption or load distribution throughout the
network. Non-uniform dissipation of energy in any part of the
network may stop functioning of that part of the network
leading to a phenomenon known as the energy hole problem.
Sometimes even after the network lifetime is over, due to
energy hole problem a substantial amount of energy still
remains in the nodes leading to significant wastage of energy
[4].
The energy hole problem arises when more data are
transmitted by certain nodes of the network than the other
nodes resulting in extra energy dissipation of those nodes [5].
Therefore, if any part of the network is affected by the energy
hole problem, the whole network gets affected badly as uneven
consumption of energy in the network leads to premature
shortening of the network lifetime. To avoid this, care should
be taken during node deployment such that energy dissipation
of all the nodes takes place uniformly ensuring load balancing
throughout the network.
A. Motivation
Due to the nature of operation of WSN, nodes near the sink
bear the major share of data forwarding compared to the nodes
in rest of the network. So it is a common problem that nodes
near the sink get drained off more quickly than the other
nodes, thereby creating energy holes near the sink resulting in
loss of connectivity while most of the nodes are alive. Further,
it is well known that sensor nodes have limited battery life and
it is sometimes infeasible to replenish energy via battery
Design of a Probability Density Function
Targeting Energy-Efficient Node Deployment in
Wireless Sensor Networks
Subir Halder and Sipra DasBit, Member IEEE
T
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replacements and therefore prolonging network lifetime is of
utmost importance. In such a network with energy constraints
in order to prolong network lifetime nodes should be deployed
with varying densities depending upon its position from the
sink. One important issue that arises in such energy-
constrained networks is to avoid energy holes in order to
improve a network lifetime. To be more specific, we are
interested in finding the answer for the following question-Is
it possible that all sensor nodes die simultaneously irrespective
of their positions from the sink so that there will be no energy
hole in a WSN thereby prolonging network lifetime? This
motivates us to explore a solution by providing varying node
density in different parts of the network area based upon its
proximity from the sink.
B. Contributions and Organization
One of the solutions to avoid energy hole problem in WSN
while maintaining coverage and connectivity is to deploy
nodes with varying densities based on their positions from the
sink. On the other hand, another promising approach may be to
design a dedicated distribution function which perfectly
conforms to such a need of varying densities. We have
proposed a probability distribution function (PDF) based on
which we have developed a node deployment strategy which
not only keeps energy hole problem away from the network
but also ensures enhancement of network lifetime while
maintaining coverage and connectivity of the network. To the
best of our knowledge we are the first to propose such a
tailored-made PDF to be used in node deployment to avoid
energy hole problem. The preliminary version of this work was
reported in [6]. Our proposed PDF based node deployment
strategy is pre-determined in nature. Here, by pre-determined
strategy we mean that the number of nodes to be deployed in
an area is determined a priori. We extend our earlier work [6]
in several aspects. The main contributions of this paper are as
follows:
Unlike [6] here, we analyze the method of controlling
network lifetime and found node density as a major
parameter which has significant role to control network
lifetime. The main question to be addressed is: How many
nodes per unit area (i.e., the node density) should be
deployed in different parts of the sensor field in order to
achieve energy balancing throughout the network and
enhancement of network lifetime? The desired node
densities derived out of the said analysis guarantee that all
the nodes exhaust their energy at the same time, and
hence, energy balancing is achieved.
Based on the analysis, we propose a PDF and derive the
PDFs intrinsic characteristics e.g. expectation, covariance
etc.
We develop a node deployment algorithm based on the
PDF. It provides the node density to avoid energy hole
problem thereby achieves enhanced network lifetime
while maintaining coverage and connectivity of the
network.
Performance of the scheme is evaluated both through
qualitative and quantitative analyses. In qualitative
analysis unlike [6], we analyze whether the PDF based
scheme has been able to achieve the desired target set
prior to the designing of PDF, towards energy hole
elimination.
Similar to qualitative analysis, we show through
simulation the extent to which our proposed PDF has been
able to provide desired network lifetime. In addition to the
contribution in [6], here we show the impacts of routing
and medium access control (MAC) protocols on the
performance of the scheme.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In section II,
results from the literature review are presented. The network
model considered for the present work is presented in section
III. Analysis on network lifetime is done in section IV. Section
V presents the proposed node deployment scheme along with
the proposed PDF based on which the scheme is developed. In
section VI, the performance of the scheme is evaluated based
on both qualitative and quantitative analyses. Finally the paper
is concluded with some mention about the future scope of the
work in section VII.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
Many works have been reported so far that deal with the
issue of balancing the load throughout the network with a goal
to reduce the energy hole problem for prolonging network
lifetime. All these works have been conducted through
different approaches for achieving this goal. Each type of the
above schemes has their own strengths and limitations. We
have categorized the existing works based on their
commonality in approaches which are presented below.
A. Transmission Paths Based Strategies
In each of the works described below, nodes choose routing
path differently.
1) Data traffic and distance based strategies
In these types of strategies, network lifetime is prolonged by
making the nodes choose routing path judiciously considering
data traffic along the path and distance. The distance
considered is either transmission distance between the node
and the sink or the distance between the node and
neighbouring nodes towards sink.
Azad and Kamruzzaman [7] have proposed energy balanced
transmission range regulation policies for maximizing network
lifetime in WSNs with corona based architecture. Firstly, they
have analyzed and found two parameters- ring thickness and
hop size - responsible for energy balancing. They have
proposed a transmission range regulation scheme of each node
and determined the optimal ring thickness and hop size for
maximizing network lifetime. Simulation results show
substantial improvements in terms of network lifetime and
energy usage distribution over existing policies. However,
before implementation of the proposed transmission policies it
requires significant computation to determine the optimal ring
thickness and hop size. Song et al. [8] have presented two
algorithms viz. centralized and distributed for the same corona
based network architecture. Network lifetime has been
optimized using a proposed decision factor computed by
selecting right transmission range of nodes in each corona.
They have claimed that the algorithms not only reduce the
complexity for searching right transmission range of node but
also obtain results approximated to the optimal solution.
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2) Probability based strategies
These types of strategies employ probability based routing
path selection with a target to balance energy consumption and
enhance network lifetime.
Boukerche et al. [9] have studied the problem of energy-
balanced data propagation in corona based WSNs for uniform
and non-uniform deployments. The authors have proposed a
density based probabilistic data propagation protocol towards
balancing the energy consumption. In each step a node in a
corona that holds data on-line, calculates the probability of
data delivery either by hop-by-hop or directly to the sink based
on the density information of the neighbouring coronas.
Finally the authors have shown that the proposed protocol
works well for both uniform and non-uniform network
deployments. Powell et al. [10] have proposed a probability
based data propagation algorithm where the nodes compute
off-line the probability of number of times data sent directly to
the sink and data sent to a next hop neighbour. They have
observed that by controlling the ratio of these two, energy
consumption in each layer/slice is balanced but individual
node in each slice is not well balanced. It is due to the unequal
number of neighbouring nodes in the adjacent slices. Jarry et
al. [11] have analyzed the data gathering and network lifetime
maximization problem and based on the analysis, the authors
have designed probabilistic on-line distributed routing
strategies for different network structures. They have
formulated the conditions to compute an energy-balanced data
propagation pattern for wireless network including WSN.
B. Deployment Based Strategies
The following works on enhancement of network lifetime
are based on judicious node deployment.
Olariu and Stojmenovic [12] have explored network design
guideline for maximizing lifetime while avoiding energy hole
considering uniform node deployment strategy. They have
shown that uneven energy depletion due to an energy hole is
unavoidable for free-space model, but it can be prevented in
two-ray model. Wu et al. [13] have proposed a non-uniform
node distribution where the number of nodes to be distributed
in a layer is determined based on the minimum number of
nodes required in the upper adjacent layer. They have
concluded that only sub-balanced energy depletion in the
network is possible. Liu et al. [14] have proposed a non-
uniform, power-aware distribution scheme where nodes are
deployed with the help of a proposed distribution function.
The authors have shown that their scheme increases network
lifetime and improves network service quality by maintaining a
continuous connectivity-coverage pattern. Chang et al. [15]
have proposed two node deployment strategies viz. distance-
based and density-based strategies, with an objective for
balanced energy consumption among the nodes. They have
shown that the proposed strategies can efficiently balance
energy consumption of each node and prolong the network
lifetime. Zou et al. [16] have formulated a problem on
uncertainty-aware sensor node placement and proposed two
algorithms using which one can determine the minimum
number of sensor nodes required and their locations such that
coverage is ensured. They have shown that the algorithms
provide optimized coverage compared to the random
deployment under the constraint of imprecise terrain
properties. Agarwal et al. [17] have also proposed a node
placement algorithm based on landmarks that are the set of
finite points in a 2-D space. They have claimed that the
algorithm requires minimum number of nodes for covering a
region. Wang et al. [18] have given an analytical model for the
coverage and the network lifetime issues using a 2-D Gaussian
distribution. They have proposed two deployment algorithms
that achieve larger coverage and longer network lifetime using
limited number of sensor nodes. They have concluded that the
proposed algorithms effectively increase network lifetime with
polynomial time complexity.
C. Mobile Sink Based Strategies
In these types of strategies, load among all the nodes are
distributed in a balanced manner by changing the position of
the sink so that network lifetime is enhanced.
Luo and Hubaux [19] have proposed a deployment
algorithm by considering mobile sink where the nodes lying
nearer the sink keep on changing resulting in even distribution
of load among the nodes. They have concluded that sink
mobility helps in optimizing the network lifetime. The authors
have further extended their work in [20] by introducing a
routing protocol which supports sink mobility as well as
minimizes packet loss during sink movement. Ammari and Das
[21] have also provided three different solutions for
eliminating energy hole problem. In one of the three solutions,
the authors have proposed a localized energy aware Voronoi
diagram based data forwarding protocol considering
homogeneous nodes and mobile sink.
In the above, a number of existing works on node
deployment are reviewed under different categories. Our
scheme generally belongs to the category of Deployment
Based Strategies. The existing works reviewed under this
category either have not used any mathematical model to
implement the node deployment scheme or even if any such
model is used, it has not addressed energy balance and
network lifetime together. Our scheme, on the contrary,
presents a node deployment strategy based on a proposed PDF
and addresses energy balance and network lifetime together.
III. NETWORK MODEL
In this section, we describe the network architecture along
with the assumptions. Definitions of coverage and connectivity
in association with sensing and communication model
respectively are described next. The energy model is presented
at the end of this section.
A. Architecture
The authors in [22] have proposed a realistic network model
for WSNs where the network area is covered by a set of
concentric circles centered at the sink. They have also
provided an in-depth discussion of its real life implementation.
Further, in [19] it is proved that in case of the said network
model, for enhancement of network lifetime, the best position
for a sink is the center of the circle. Primarily these two works
[19], [22] along with other relevant works [12], [13], [21],
[23] motivate us to consider present network architecture.
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However, in this architecture, energy consumption in annuli
can be kept balanced but individual nodes in the annuli may
remain imbalanced [10] and this has been mitigated by
considering q-switch [13] routing policy elaborated in section
VI.B.1.

Fig. 1. Layered network area.
We consider a square shaped network area aa which is
covered by a set of uniform-width coronas or annuli (Fig. 1)
[22], [23]. Each such annulus is designated with width r as
layer. The sink is considered to be located at the center of the
network area and responsible for collecting data from the
sensors nodes. Nodes are placed in different layers
surrounding the sink. A layer is identified as
i
L where
i=1,2,...,N. Here i=1 indicates the layer nearest to the sink and
i=N indicates the layer farthest from the sink where
2
(
=
(

a
N
r
.
We assume that all the sensor nodes are homogeneous with
respect to their initial energy, sensing and communication
ranges while an unlimited amount of energy is set for the sink.
The nodes are static and need to be distributed in each layer
within the network with certain node density. The node density
[5], [13] is the ratio of number of nodes in an area (layer) and
the area (of the layer). It is also assumed that there is no local
coordination among the nodes and therefore, the nearby nodes
report same events to the sink. Periodic data gathering
applications are considered where sensory data generation rate
is proportional to the area (1 square unit) irrespective of the
shape of the network area. Given a unit area, if the data
generation rate is bits per second, it is meant that this unit
area generates bits/second of data to be transmitted towards
the sink. So, the data that needs to be reported from a given
area aa is aa bits. The data is collected by the nodes and
sent to the sink through multi-hop communication after a unit
time-interval. A single sink is responsible for gathering the
sensors data and controlling network operations. Further, we
have assumed that both the time-interval between two
successive generations of data per area and two successive
collections of data at the node as 1 sec. During theoretical
analysis, for the sake of simplicity, an ideal MAC layer with
no collision and retransmission is assumed and that does not
loss any generality. The reason for not considering real MAC
in theoretical analysis is the complexity involved in real MAC
such as need of control packet (TDMA scheduling),
retransmission in case of collision (CSMA/CA) etc. Moreover,
some of the overheads such as retransmission is a real time
parameter which needs probabilistic formulation adding
further complexity in theoretical analysis. However, in
simulations to make the assumption realistic, additionally we
consider a real MAC protocol for investigating the impact of
the protocol on network lifetime.
B. Sensing and Communication Model
1) Sensing model
We define a unit area to be covered, if every point in that
area is within the sensing range of at least one active node.
Alternatively, if each point in an area is covered by at least k
nodes, it is known as k-coverage. The nodes perform
observation [25] at an angle of 360
o
. The maximal circular
area centered around a node v that can be covered by it is
defined as its sensing area S(v). The radius of S(v) is called the
vs sensing range [15]
s
R . We assume the relationship
between r and
s
R must satisfy the condition 2
s
r R [6], [18]
for covering the network area (Fig. 1) under consideration. In
case of 1-coverage, node density () 1 ( ) = S v . Also, the
coverage area C(X) of a set of nodes X is the union of the
sensing areas covered by each node in X i.e.
( ) ( )

= U
v X
C X S v [25].
2) Communication model
We define a network as connected if any active node can
communicate with any other active node, possibly using
intermediate nodes as relays, so that the information collected
by the nodes can be relayed back to sink [24]. We assume that
two nodes can directly exchange messages if their Euclidean
distance is not larger than the communication range
c
R .
Further, we assume that the relationship between r and
c
R
must satisfy the condition
c
r R [6], [18] for ensuring
connectivity in the network area (Fig. 1).
Lemma 1: For a given network area aa, in order to
maintain connectivity of the network, the number of layers (N)
stands in relation with
c
R as
2
(
=
(
c
a
N
R
and to maintain
coverage the number of layers (N) stands in relation with
s
R
as
4
(
=
(
s
a
N
R
.
Proof: If the radius of each layer in the layered architecture
is r, then the distance between the center of the network area
and the periphery of a layer-i is ir (Fig. 1). Now for the
farthest layer (i.e., layer-N), the distance between the center
and the periphery of layer-N is Nr and
2
=
a
N r (section III.A)
or,
2
=
c
a
R
N (putting =
c
r R ). Therefore, for a given network
area aa, in order to maintain connectivity of the network the
relationship between
c
R and N should stand as
2
(
=
(
c
a
N
R
.
Similarly, we have
2 4
= =
s
a a
r R
N (replacing 2 =
s
r R ).
Therefore, for a given network area aa, in order to maintain
coverage of the network the relationship between
s
R and N
should stand as
4
(
=
(
s
a
N
R
.
C. Energy Model
We have considered the first order radio model [18] as the
energy model where energy consumption of a node is
dominated by its wireless transmissions and receptions; so the
other energy consumption factors such as for sensing and
processing are neglected. According to this radio model,
energy consumed by a node for transmission and reception is
as follows:
Energy consumption for transmitting n-bits data over a
Sink
r
2r
Nr
L2
LN
L1
a
a
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distance d is ( )
2
, = +
t elec amp
e n d e n e n d .
Since we have assumed the transmission range of a node as
c
R , the above can be rewritten by replacing d with
c
R :
( )
2
, = + =
t c elec amp c t
e n R e n e n R e n (1)
where
2
= +
t elec amp c
e e e R and
t
e is energy required to
transmit one bit of data.
Energy consumption for receiving n-bits data is
( ) = =
r elec r
e n e n e n (2)
where
r
e is energy required to receive one bit of data and
=
r elec
e e .
IV. ANALYSIS ON NETWORK LIFETIME
This section presents an analysis on network lifetime with
an objective to find out the parameter(s) which have
significant influence on network lifetime so that the lifetime
can be extended by controlling the parameter values. In
presence of several existing state-of-the-art definitions of
network lifetime [1] and lifetime of a node, the present work
considers the following definitions throughout the paper.
Definition 1. The node lifetime (measured in unit time) is
defined as the time when the initial energy of a node is
completely drained out so that it is neither able to transmit its
own data nor able to forward any data. It is measured as the
ratio of the initial energy of a node and the energy
consumption rate of the node. Considering initial energy of
each sensor node as
0
and the energy consumption rate of a
node in layer-i as
i
ECR , the lifetime of a node in layer-i is
0
i
i
LT
ECR
=

.
Definition 2. The network lifetime is defined as the time
interval from the beginning of the network operation until the
proportion of dead nodes exceeds a certain threshold, which
may result in loss of coverage of a certain region, and/or
network partitioning [5]. If the total number of nodes in layer-i
is
i
T , the lifetime of a layer-i in the network is
0 0

i
i i i
T
T ECR ECR

.
It is same as the lifetime of a node in layer-i as defined
previously. If any of the layers lifetime terminates which
causes loss of coverage within the layer, it results in
termination of network lifetime. Therefore, the network
lifetime can be determined by the shortest lifetime of a layer
and it is expressed as
{ }
0
min

i
i
ECR

.
We assume that a node requires minimum energy
consumption for transmitting/forwarding data to the sink.
Therefore, the node should transmit data to the sink via the
shortest path i.e. a node in layer-i (section III.A) requires i
hops to transmit data to the sink. This routing policy is
basically a simplified version of the q-switch, shortest path
routing policy proposed in [13] which is used in our scheme
and briefed in section VI.B.1. In this analysis the
simplification is made by considering a node in layer-i finds
only one node in layer-(i-1) to forward data towards sink.
Further, we assume that area of a layer-i (Fig. 1) is A
i
=(2i-
1)r
2
where r is the width of a layer and
i
is the node density
of layer-i. Therefore, the total number of nodes in layer-i is
given as =
i i i
T A for i=1,2,,N. The nodes of all the layers
except the farthest layer from the sink spend their energy by
transmitting their own sensory data, receiving data from the
nodes of adjacent layers farther away from the sink and
forwarding the received data. Nodes in the farthest layer spend
energy only for transmitting their own data.
Therefore, the data transmission rate of a node (for
transmitting its own sensory data) in layer-i is
=

i
i i i
A
A


. (3)
Further, a node in layer-i receives data from the nodes of
layer-(i+1) i.e. the nodes in layer-(i+1) transmit data towards
the nodes of layer-i to forward the same towards the sink. So,
the average data transmission rate of layer-(i+1) towards a
node in layer-i is
2
1 1 1 1
2
(2 1) (2 1)
(2 1) (2 1)
+ + + +
+ +
= =

i i i i
i i i i
A i r i
A i i r


.
The rate of data relayed by a node of layer-i is the sum of the
above quantity for all the farther layers i.e.,
1
(2 1)
(2 1)
= +

N
h h i
i
h
i

. (4)
Therefore, the total data transmission rate per node in layer-i
(m
i
) can be obtained from (3) and (4) as follows:
1
(2 1)
1, 2,..., ( 1)
(2 1)
= +

+ =

N
h h i
i i
i
N
h
for i N
i
m
for i N

. (5)
The first component of the above expression of m
i
i.e.
i
is
for transmitting the nodes sensory data and the second
component is for forwarding the outward adjacent layers data.
Now the energy consumption rate of a node in layer-i for
transmission is:
For transmitting the nodes own data:

t
i
e

(6)
where
t
e is energy required to transmit one bit of data.
For transmitting the relay data received from the farther
adjacent layers:
1
(2 1)
(2 1)
= +

N
h h i
t
i
h
e
i

. (7)
So the energy consumption rate of each node in layer-i due to
transmission
( )
Tx
i
ECR is computed from (6) and (7) as
follows:
1
(2 1)
1, 2, , ( 1)
(2 1)
= +
(
+ =
(


=

K
N
h h i
t
i i Tx
i
t
N
h
e for i N
i
ECR
e for i N

.(8)
Similarly we calculate the energy consumption rate of each
node in layer-i for receiving
( )
Rx
i
ECR data from the farther
layers as follows:
1
(2 1)
(2 1)
= +
(
=
(

N
h Rx h i
i r
i
h
ECR e
i

, for i=1,2,,(N-1) (9)

where
r
e is the energy required to receive one bit of data.
Hence the total energy consumption rate of each node in a
layer-i is = +
Tx Rx
i i i
ECR ECR ECR .
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So the total energy consumption rate of the nodes of layer-i is
1, 2, , ( 1)
Tx Rx
i i
i
Tx
N
ECR ECR for i N
ECR
ECR for i N

+ =

=

=

K
. (10)
We know, energy depletion across the network is balanced
[12] when all the nodes of the network exhaust their energy at
the same time. To be more specific, if balanced energy
depletion is attained in the network then all nodes located in
any layer have the same lifetime. Alternatively, all the nodes
exhaust their energy at the same time. Therefore, for energy
balancing, the following condition must be satisfied-
1 i i N
ECR ECR ECR
+
= = = L .
Now rewriting (10) with the help of (8) and (9), we have
( ) ( )
1 2
1 1
(2 1) (2 1)
(2 1) (2 1)
= + = +
+ +
( (
+ + = + +
( (
+

N N
h h
h i h i
t t r t t r
i i i i
h h
e e e e e e
i i


.
After simplification and basic transformations, we obtain
( )
( )
1
1
2
(2 1) (2 1) 2 1
2 1
(2 1) (2 1)
= +
+
= +
| |
+ + + | |
= |
|
|

\ + + +
\

N
t t r h
h i
i i
N
t t r h
h i
e i e e h i
i
e i e e h

. (11)
The above expression implies that the ratio of node density
between two consecutive layers depends on layer number i and
the total number of layers N. Further, the node density in a
layer is uniform but this node density varies in different layers.
The nature of variation is such, that the node density is
maximum at the layer nearest to the sink and it decreases in the
layers farther away form the sink i.e.,
1 2
> > > L
N
. Now,
(11) is a non-linear equation and computation of
i
is fairly
complex. However, it suggests that one can compute
i
, for
i=1,2,,(N-1), if
N
is known. Considering 1-coverage
(section III.B.1), 1 ( ) =
N
S v where S(v)=
2
s
R . Moreover,
the balanced energy consumption can be obtained in different
layers of the network if the nodes are distributed in accordance
with the desired node density given in (11).
When the nodes are distributed according to (11) to get
balanced energy consumption, we can ensure that all the nodes
deployed in the sensor field completely deplete their energy at
the same time. Now, from the Definition 1/2, the lifetime of a
node/the network lifetime (LT) can be expressed as:
0
i
LT
i
ECR
=


for i=1,2,,N. Replacing the denominator with the help of
(10), (8) and (9) we have LT
i
as follows:
( )
0
1
0
(2 1)
1,2, ,( 1)
(2 1) (2 1)
(2 1)
= +

=

(
+ +

(

=

K
i
N
t t r h
h i
i
N
t
i
for i N
i e e e h
LT
for i N
i e

.(12)
As we have assumed earlier that the nodes in a layer report
data to the sink in minimum hops, therefore the derived
network lifetime (see (12)) provides the upper bound of the
network lifetime. Also we can say that the upper bound of the
network lifetime is achievable by controlling node density
i

in each layer, as given in (11).
V. PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION BASED NODE
DEPLOYMENT (PDFND)
From the analysis of network lifetime provided in the
previous section, we have found that the ratio of node density
between two consecutive layers depends on layer number i and
the total number of layers N. Further, for balanced energy
consumption the required node density is maximum in the
layer nearest to the sink and it decreases in the layers farther
away from the sink. Considering these observations and taking
guidelines from the analysis, in this section, we have designed
a PDF targeting its implementation in lifetime-enhancing node
distribution in WSNs. Also, we have presented a node
deployment algorithm based on the proposed PDF [6].
A. Proposed Probability Density Function [6]
The mathematical domain under consideration is divided
into a number of concentric circles having radii increasing
arithmetically from r to ( )
N r with a difference of r . In
the mathematical domain, if (x, y) be a point and it lies
between circles (i-1) and i, then the probability density at that
point is
( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 4
2 1
=
k i
f x, y; N,i,r
N i
, ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2 2
1 < + i r x y i r (13)
where i=1,2,,N and k is a constant as follows:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
4 4 4 4
1
2 1 2 1
3 5
1
2 3
N
i
N N
k
i N
r r
i N
=
= =
(

( + + + +
(

L
.
Fig. 2 is the 3-D graph of the proposed PDF. The
characteristics of the PDF show decrease of the functional
value with increase in the value of i implying lower probability
and vice versa.
Theorem 1: The value of constant k is:
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
2 2
2
4 4 4
2 1 3 5
1
2 3
=
(

( + + + +
(

L
N
k
N
r
N

.
Proof: Let
i
p denotes the probability of x and y in the given
area of the domain for given value of i. From the proposed
PDF, the probability
i
p is given as
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2 4
2 1
,
i
k i
p f x y dx dy
N i

=

.
In the above relation ( ) ,

f x y dx dy is nothing but the area of

the domain. If the area of the domain is circular, then
( ) ( ) ( )
2
, 2 1 f x y dx dy i r =

, where r is the radius of the

Fig. 2. 3-D graph (surface plot) of the PDF

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circular domain. The probability of x and y is given as
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2 4
2 1 2 1
i
k i i r
p
N i

=

.
By fundamental rule of probability, ( ) , 1 = f x y
1
1
N
i
i
p
=
= or,
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2
2 4
1
2 1
1
N
i
k i r
N i
=

=


( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
4 4 4 4
1
2 1 2 1
3 5
1
2 3
N
i
N N
k
i N
r r
i N
=
= =
(

( + + + +
(

L
.
Theorem 2: If the random variables X and Y follow a
proposed PDF with parameters N and i, then the cumulative
distribution function (CDF) of X and Y is given as
| |
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
2 2
2 4 4
1
2 1
,
i
j
i
k r j
F X x Y y
j
N i
=
( (
(

(
( = +
(
(

(

.
We choose (x, y) such that ( )
2
2 2 2
0 x y r + , where
1 + i i .
Proof: Let us consider the probability of two discrete random
variables X and Y for a particular value within a given range of
i as
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2 4
1
2 1 i
j
k r j
j
N
=

. (14)
The probability of the variables X and Y between a given area
of domain ir and r , where r ir > is given as
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2
2 4
k
r ir
N i
(


. (15)
So, the CDF of X and Y is obtained using (14) and (15)
| |
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
2 2
2 4 4
1
2 1
,
i
j
i
k r j
F X x Y y
j
N i
=
( (
(

(
( = +
(
(

(

.
Theorem 3: If the two random variables X and Y follow the
proposed PDF with parameters N and i, then the expectation of
X and Y is given as
| |
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
4
2 3 2 4
1
2 2 3 1
2
N
i
k r
E XY
i
N i i i
=
(

( = +
(

.
Proof: The expectation of the two variables X and Y with
parameters N and i can be given as
| | | | | | | | | | 1 2
1 =
= + + + = L
N
N i
i
E XY E XY E XY E XY E XY (16)
where | | i
E XY is the expectation of X and Y for a given value
of i.
Now, | |
( ) ( )
2 4
=
i
k
E XY xy dy dx
N i

| |
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2 2
1
2 4
0 2 2
1
2 2
2 4
1 0
4
4
ir x i r
i
i r x
ir x
ir
i r
k
E XY x y dy dx
N i
k
x y dy dx
N i

(
(
=
(
(

(
(
+
(
(



| |
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
4
2 4 3 2 4
2 2 3 1
2
i
k r
E XY
i
N i i i i
(

( = +
(

. (17)
So, replacing | | i
E XY in (16) with the value of (17) we get
| | | |
1 =
=
N
i i
E XY E XY
| |
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
4
2 3 2 4
1
2 2 3 1
2
N
i
k r
E XY
i
N i i i
=
(

( = +
(

. (18)
Theorem 4: If the two random variables X and Y follow a
proposed PDF with parameters N and i, then the covariance of
X and Y is given as
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
3
2 3 2 4 2 3 4
1
2 2 3 1 4 3 3 1
,
3
2
N
i
k r
Cov X Y r
i
N i i i i i i =
(
| | | |

(
| | = + +
(
| |
\ \
(

.
Proof: From the definition of covariance [26] we know that
( ) | | | | | | , = Cov X Y E XY E X E Y .
We can find the covariance of the two discrete and random
variables X and Y for a particular value i in the domain. The
covariance of the two discrete and random variables X and Y
for the entire domain is obtained by summing different values
of the parameter i, where i=1,2,,N
( ) ( ) | | | | | |
1 1
, ,
= =
( = =

N N
i i i i
i i
Cov X Y Cov X Y E XY E X E Y .
We get the expectation of X and Y for a particular value of i,
i.e. | | i
E XY from (17)-
| |
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
4
2 4 3 2 4
2 2 3 1
2
i
k r
E XY
i
N i i i i
(

( = +
(

.
The expectation of X for a particular value of i, i.e. | | i
E X can
be calculated as
| |
( ) ( )
2 4
=
i
k
E X x dy dx
N i

| |
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2 2
1
0 2 2
1
2 4
2 2
1 0
4
ir x i r
i r x
i
ir x
ir
i r
x dy dx
k
E X
N i
x dy dx

( (
( (
( (
( (

= (
( (
( (
+
( (
( (




| |
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3
2 2 3 4
4 3 3 1
3
i
k r
E X
N i i i
(

( = +
(

.
From the above equations, the expectation of X in the entire
domain is
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| |
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3
2 2 3 4
1
4 3 3 1
3
N
i
k r
E X
N i i i
=
(

( = +
(

. (19)
As our network model is symmetric, so the expectation of the
random variables X and Y in the entire domain is same. We can
say that | | | | = E X E Y . The covariance of random variables X
and Y is
( ) | | | | | |
1 1
,
= =
( =

N N
i i i
i i
Cov X Y E XY E X E Y
( ) | | | | | | | |
2
2
1 1
, [ ] .
= =
(
= =
(

N N
i i
i i
Cov X Y E XY E X E XY E X (20)
In (20), replacing by (18) and (19) we get covariance of
random variables X and Y as
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
3
2 3 2 4 2 3 4
1
2 2 3 1 4 3 3 1
,
3
2
N
i
k r
Cov X Y r
i
N i i i i i i =
(
| | | |

(
| | = + +
(
| |
\ \
(

.
Although in preliminary version [6] of this work, the PDF was
proposed, the proofs of the Theorem 3 & 4 are provided in this
present work only.
B. Proposed PDF-based Node Deployment
The PDF proposed in the previous section is discrete in
nature. Our objective is to deploy sensor nodes in the layered
network area (Fig. 1) with the proposed PDF. The PDF is
mapped with the node deployment in a layered network area as
follows: the parameter i represents the layer number for both
the proposed PDF and layered network area (see Fig. 1) where
i=1,2,,N; the parameter r of the proposed PDF corresponds
to the width r of the annuli/layer. Therefore, the relationship
between r and
c
R is
c
r R whereas between r and
s
R is
2
s
r R . The density function is designed as per the analysis
in section IV. It is a non-uniform one i.e. the value of PDF is
higher for the nodes deployed around the sink whereas the
value is lower as one moves away from the sink. The PDF of
deploying a sensor node at point f(x, y) located in layer-i is
given as follows:
( )
2 4
2 1 k i
N i

where i=1,2,,N and k is the proportionality

constant.
Further, the probability for the nodes deployed within a
layer is ( )
2 4
2 1
i
k i A N i , where
i
A is the area of layer-i and k
is as follows:

( )
2
2
2 4
1
2 1
N
i
N
k
r i i
=
=
(

(21)
where r is the width of the layer-i.
The area of layer-i is given as
( ) ( )
2
2 2 2 2
1 2 1
i
A i r i r i r
(
( = =


.
By replacing the value of
i
A , the probability ( ) i
p of
deploying nodes at a layer-i is given as
( )
2
2
2 4
2 1
i
k i r
p
N i

=

. (22)
The number of nodes in a layer-i ( ) i
T is equal to the
probability ( ) i
p of deployment of nodes at layer-i multiplied
by the total number of nodes ( ) total
T i.e.
i i total
T p T = .
Therefore, the node density of a layer-i according to our
proposed PDF is given as
1
i i N
i total j j j
i i
p p
T A
A A
=
= =
( ) ( )
( )
2
1
2 4
2 1
2 1
N
i j j
k i r
j
N i
=

=

, for i=1,2,,N. (23)

The above expression implies that the node density determined
by the proposed PDF is controlled by the parameters i and N
and that conforms to the guideline provided in section IV.
Further, the node density in a layer is uniform and probability
of deploying nodes is equal, but this node density as well as
probability varies in different layers. The nature of variation is
that the node density is maximum in the layer nearest to the
sink and it decreases in the layers farther away form the sink.
Therefore, we have
1 2 N
> > > L .
An application area for our proposed PDF-based node
deployment may be a battlefield which requires more detailed
information around the monitoring station (sink) where the
sink is located around the centre position of the battlefield.
C. Algorithm for Node Deployment
Input: a, r, T
total
; Output:
i
// area parameter, width of layer,
and total number of nodes to be deployed
1: compute
2
c
a
N
R
(
=
(

// N: number of layers; Lemma 1
2: compute k // using (21)
3: for i=N; i 1; i - -
4: compute
i
p // using (22)
5: compute
i
// using (23)
6: end for
D. Illustrative Example
Let us consider a 200200 sq unit area where 100 nodes
with 25
c
R = unit are deployed employing the proposed
probability density function. The number of layers N is:
200
4
2 2 25
c
a
N
R
( (
= = =
( (


(using Lemma 1).
Now replacing the values of N and
c
R in equation (21), the
value of k can be computed as
( )
2
2 2 2
2
4 4 4
4
0.004
3 5 7
25 1
2 3 4
k = =
| |
+ + + |
|
\

[where r=R
c
].
Now the probability of deploying nodes in each of the four
layers is obtained by replacing k by 0.004, r by 25 and N by 4
in equation (22). For example,
i
p is obtained as,
( )
2
4
0.49 2 1
i
p i i = i.e.
1
0.49 p = . Similarly
2
0.27 p = ,
3
0.15 p = and
4
0.09 p = . Using (23), node density in each of
the 4 layers is as follows: in layer-1,
1
0.00024 100 0.024 = = , in layer-2,
2
0.0045 = , in layer-
3,
3
0.0015 = , in layer-4,
4
0.00065 = .
We observe that the node density in each layer obtained
from the algorithm conforms to the non-uniform nature of the
PDF. Therefore, it fulfils our objective of deploying more
number of nodes towards the sink and decreasing the number
of nodes as the distance from the sink increases.
Finally, we claim that the proposed deployment is feasible.
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As reported in a state-of-the-art work [27] on design and
deployment of WSN, air-dropped deployment in a controllable
manner is feasible even in an inaccessible terrain. We propose
to compute the node density in each part (layer/annuli) of the
network off-line prior to the actual deployment. At last, the
nodes are to be dropped (e.g. from helicopter) using a point
(sink) as the center following the pre-computed node densities
of the proposed PDF.
Unlike the preliminary version [6], in the proposed node
deployment (V.B, V.C and V.D) we have considered node
density instead of number of nodes in each layer as the
parameter of concern for making the scheme energy balanced
thereby getting enhanced network lifetime. This is as per the
guideline of the analysis done in section IV.
VI. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
Performance of the present node deployment strategy is
measured based on two parameters such as energy balance and
network lifetime. Both qualitative and quantitative analyses are
presented here.
A. Qualitative Analysis
In this section we have analyzed the performance of the
proposed PDF qualitatively to show in which extent our node
deployment scheme (section V) is close to fulfill the desired
objective (section IV).
1) Energy balance
The network is said to be energy balanced when the nodes
located in any layer have the same lifetime. Based on this
condition we have derived the desired node density ( ) i
of a
layer using (11) (see section IV) as follows:
( )
( )
1
1
2
(2 1) (2 1) 2 1
2 1 (2 1) (2 1)
N
t t r h h i
i i
N
t t r h h i
e i e e h i
i e i e e h
= +
+
= +
| | + + + | |
= |
|
|
+ + + \
\

.
On the other hand, in our node deployment strategy, nodes are
deployed in different layers with varying node density ( )

i

which is achieved node density and is given as (section V.B,
see (23))
( )
( )
2
1
2 4
2 1
2 1
N
i j j
k i r
j
N i
=

.
It is observed from both the above equations that node
density among the layers is non-uniform in nature but uniform
within the layers. Moreover, as
1 2 N
A A A < < < L , the nature
of variation of node density is that it is maximum in the layer
nearest to the sink and it decreases in the layers farther away
form the sink.
To see the effectiveness of the proposed scheme, Fig. 3
plots both the desired and achieved node densities for two
different network sizes. After deriving (see section IV) the
node density in the farthest layer for both the cases, desired
and achieved node densities of the remaing layers are
calculated iteratively using (11) and (23) respectively. It is
clear from the plot, in all the cases desired and achieved node
densities are almost same and that indicates the proposed
scheme has been able to achieve energy balancing.
2) Network lifetime
The desired lifetime, according to (12), is as follows:

( )
0
1
0
(2 1)
1,2, ,( 1)
(2 1) (2 1)
(2 1)
= +

=

(
+ +

(

=

K
i
N
t t r h
h i
i
N
t
i
for i N
i e e e h
LT
for i N
i e

.
Now following the method for calculating
i
LT (section IV, see
(12)) we derive
i
LT as follows:
( )
0
1
0
(2 1)
1, 2, ,( 1)
(2 1) (2 1)
i
N
t t r h h i
i
N
t
i
for i N
i e e e h
LT
for i N
e
= +

=

+ +

.
If we compare
i
LT (desired) and
i
LT (achieved), as
i
and
i

are found almost same,
i
LT and
i
LT are also same.
3) Coverage and connectivity
In addition to the energy balance and network lifetime, we
have also measured coverage and connectivity to show the
extent of maintaining coverage and connectivity by the
proposed node deployment strategy. This section formulates
necessary constraints to be satisfied for maintaining coverage
and connectivity. It also contains a couple of Lemmas along
with the proofs with an objective to show the extent of
maintaining coverage and connectivity by the PDF. To
measure the coverage, the concept of coverage density ( ) i
C
[28] has been used. If the sensing area S(v) (refer section
III.B.1) of each node is mutually exclusive, the coverage
density
i
C of layer-i is defined as
( )
i
i
i
T S v
C
A

= .
If 1
i
C = i.e.1-coverage (section III.B.1), we say that
i
A is
covered by minimum number of nodes and coverage area of
each node is mutually exclusive. If 1
i
C > i.e. k-coverage, we
say that
i
A is covered by more than the minimum number of
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
1 2 3 4 5
Layer number
N
o
d
e

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
n
o
d
e
/
s
q
.

m
)
Achieved node densit y
Desired node density
10
-3

(a) 5-layer network.
-1
1
3
5
7
9
11
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Layer number
N
o
d
e

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
n
o
d
e
/
s
q
.

m
)
Achieved node densit y
Desired node densit y
10
-3

(b) 10-layer network.
Fig. 3. Node densities in each layer for various network sizes.
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nodes and therefore, coverage area of a node is overlapped
with the coverage area of the other nodes in the area. The
sensing accuracy would increase proportionally with the
overlapping of coverage area, thus making the scheme more
robust against sensing failure.
Lemma 2: For a given network area, the proposed PDF
gives the coverage density of a layer-i as ( ) 4 2 1
i i
C T i = .
Proof: Let us consider
i
T numbers of nodes are deployed
in layer-i. The S(v) of each sensor is calculated as
2
s
R where
s
R is the sensing radius of each sensor. So,
( ) ( ) ( )
2
i
i v T i i s
C T S v T S v T R

= = = U .
From the definition of C
i
we have
( )
2
2
( )
2 1
i i s
i
i
T S v T R
C
A i r

= =

.
Replacing r by 2
s
R , we have
( ) ( )
2
2
4 2 1 2 1 4
i s i
i
s
T R T
C
i i R

= =

.
From the above expression it is observed that, the coverage
density of layer-i depends on the number of nodes deployed in
layer-i and it is inversely proportional to layer number i, which
suits the requirement for energy balancing (section IV). Also,
one can achieve the desired coverage density by controlling
the number of deployed nodes ( ) i
T in various layers within
the network.
Lemma 3: For a network, if coverage is ensured,
connectivity of the network is also ensured.
Proof: We have discussed that when the network area is
covered by the minimum number of nodes, then 1
i
C = . Now
when the network is covered by minimum number of nodes,
the maximum distance between the two nodes is 2
s
R . In our
communication model we have assumed that two nodes can
communicate with each other if the Euclidean distance
between them is less or equal to
c
R and we have considered
2
c s
R R . As the maximum distance between the nodes is
2
s
R and 2
c s
R R so we can say that the connectivity is
guaranteed if coverage is ensured.
B. Quantitative Analysis
The effectiveness of the proposed node deployment scheme,
reported in section V.B is evaluated through simulation.
Moreover all the theoretical claims made through qualitative
analysis presented in section VI.A are justified by simulation
results. Simulation results of our scheme PDFND are
compared with three existing node deployment schemes
namely non-uniform node distribution strategy (NNDS) [13],
node deployment with Gaussian distribution (NDGD) [18] and
node deployment with Uniform distribution (NDUD) [29].
1) Simulation environment
The simulation is performed using MATLAB (version 7.1).
We have done qualitative analysis considering simplified q-
switch routing [13]. However, in simulation we have used the
same routing protocol with no simplification for all the three
schemes. This routing protocol is briefed along with the
scheme [13] in the next paragraph.
In NNDS the authors have proposed a non-uniform node
distribution strategy for the uniform-width corona model. Here
the nodes are deployed in such a way that the node densities in
a corona increases in geometric proportion with common ratio
q (>1) from corona (N-1) to corona 1. We assume that the
number of nodes deployed at the farthest corona and the
common ratio are known a priori. Once the number of nodes
deployed at the farthest corona and the common ratio are
known, nodes for the remaining coronas are computed and
these computed numbers are exponentially increasing function
of the common ratio q. The NNDS uses q-switch routing
where the source node always selects one reachable relay node
with maximum remaining energy in its subsequent inner layer
to forward data. If there is more than one relay node with the
same maximum remaining energy, one of them is chosen
randomly. Once the source node selects the relay node, it
forwards the data of its own as well as those received from the
nodes of adjacent layers farther away from the sink. The
selected relay node repeats this process until the data arrives at
a node in layer-1, after which the data is sent to the sink.
Hence, the routing itself takes care of individual nodes load
balancing and that eliminates the problem [10] of annuli
architecture as stated in section III.A.
In NDGD, the authors have considered the nodes are
deployed using two dimensional Gaussian distribution and
node density function at point ( ) i i
f x , y as-
( )
2 2
2 2
2 2
1
2
i i
x y
( x x ) ( y y )
x y
f x, y e
| |

| +
|
\ =


,
where
x
and
y
are the standard deviations for x and y
dimensions. Further, the authors have considered two
deployment types:
x y
= and
x y
. However, during
simulation we have considered
x y
= = , which conforms
to a disk model and that is similar to our network model. So,
the probability density function of deploying a sensor node for
point (x, y) is:
( )
2 2
2
2
2
1
,
2
x y
f x y e
+

.
It is evident from the above equation that any two points in the
disk having same distance from the center-point, have the
same deployment probability.
In NDUD, nodes are uniformly and independently
distributed in the layered network area, the probability
a
f that
a point is covered by sensor nodes is-
2
1
s
R
a
f e

=


where
s
R is the sensing range of the nodes and is the node
density.
We simulate our work both under ideal scenario and
realistic scenario. Here, by the ideal scenario we mean the
scenario considered during theoretical analysis (section IV and
section VI.A) i.e., simplified q-switch routing protocol, ideal
MAC layer and the energy consumption only for transmission
and reception. On the other hand, in the realistic scenario we
consider q-switch routing protocol and real MAC protocol
which includes idle/sleep schedule of the nodes. Moreover,
unlike ideal scenario, in realistic scenario energy consumption
is considered for idle, sleeping and sensing in addition to
transmission and reception. The real MAC protocol has been
implemented by funneling-MAC [30]. The funneling-MAC is
a hybrid MAC protocol where TDMA (schedule-based) is
used in nodes located within a few hops from the sink whereas
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CSMA/CA (contention-based) is used in nodes located far
away from the sink. The sink broadcasts a beacon for nodes
located within a smaller number of hops by controlling the
transmission power of the beacon. The nodes which receive
the beacon are considered as f-nodes and perform TDMA
while the nodes that do not receive the beacon perform
CSMA/CA. During simulation we have considered the nodes
located within layer-2 use TDMA schedule whereas nodes
beyond layer-2 use CSMA/CA. We have considered energy
consumption rates for sensing, remaining idle and remaining
sleeping are 20%, 5%, 2.5% of the energy consumption rate of
reception respectively. Further, in simulation, all the
funneling-MAC implementing parameters (e.g. slot size,
superframe size, moving average factor) values are considered
same as in [30].
During implementation of the NNDS, NDGD, NDUD, and
PDFND, we have deployed 500 and 2000 nodes for network
with 5 and 10 layers respectively. For all the schemes, in order
to have an integer number of sensor nodes for each layer the
upper ceil function is employed. For NNDS, the common ratio
q is considered as 2. Extensive simulation has been performed
with a confidence level of 95%. The average results of 2000
independent runs have been taken while plotting the simulation
graphs.
2) Simulation metrics
Similar to qualitative analysis (section VI.A) energy
balance, network lifetime and coverage-connectivity have been
considered as performance metrics in simulation. We define
two more parameters namely energy consumption rate per
node and average residual energy per node for evaluating the
extent of energy balance in the network. Further, we evaluate
coverage-connectivity using the parameter coverage density
(VI.A.3).
Energy consumption rate per node (ER): It is defined as
energy consumption of a node per unit time.
Average residual energy per node (Avg RE per node): It is
defined as the residual energy in a node of a particular layer
after the network lifetime ends. It is evaluated as follows:
Sum of residual energy of nodes in a layer
Avg RE per node=
Number of nodes in the layer
.
We have conducted two sets of experiments. One set of
experiments is to compare simulation results with analytical
results considering network lifetime as the parameter. In the
other set of experiments our scheme is compared with the three
other competing schemes considering both ideal and realistic
scenarios. In this set of experiments again energy balance,
network lifetime and coverage-connectivity are considered as
performance metrics. All the parameters and their
corresponding values used for simulation are listed in Table I.
3) Comparison of results (Analytical vs Simulated)
In this section, the analytical (section IV) performance of
the scheme in terms of network lifetime is compared with the
simulated (section V) performance and the results are plotted
in Fig. 4. Here both the set of results consider ideal scenario.
We observe from the plot that the nature of graph for the
analytical result is perfectly straight irrespective of network
sizes whereas the simulation result is fairly straight and that
indicates the algorithm has been able to provide almost perfect
energy-balanced network lifetime as desired by the theoretical
analysis. We also observe that the network lifetime decreases
with the increase of network sizes. This is because the data
traffic increases while the network size increases, especially
for the layers nearer the sink. Finally, the most important
observation is, for both the 5-layer (Fig. 4(a)) and 10-layer
(Fig. 4(b)) network sizes, analytical results and the average of
simulation results are almost same. The slight differences
between the analytical and simulated results are due to the
minute variation of desired and achieved node densities (refer
Fig. 3).
4) Comparison of results (Competing schemes)
This section compares our schemes performance with the
three competing schemes considering both ideal and realistic
scenarios.
a) Energy balancing [6]
In this section energy balancing of the scheme is evaluated
in terms of the following two parameters.
(1) ER (Energy consumption rate per node)
Figure 5 shows the ER for different network sizes. We
observe that in PDFND, for both ideal and realistic scenarios,
the ER for a particular network size is constant for all the
layers and this rate varies with network sizes. Precisely ER
increases with increase in network size. For example, in case
of ideal scenario, ER is 1.01 mJ/sec for 5-layer network
whereas for 10-layer network it is 1.19 mJ/sec. Similarly, in
realistic scenario, ER is 1.21 mJ/sec for 5-layer network
whereas for 10-layer network it is 1.45 mJ/sec. On the
contrary, in NNDS, NDGD and NDUD it is observed that the
ER varies in different layers for a given network size. Further,
in NNDS, NDGD and NDUD, irrespective of network size,
nodes in the layer-1 have the maximum ER and nodes in the
farthest layer have the lowest ER. Therefore, nodes deployed
in the layers nearer the sink drain out their energy much more
quickly in comparison to nodes deployed in layers farther
away from the sink. This justifies our claim that PDFND is
relatively more energy balanced compared to all the competing
schemes NNDS, NDGD and NDUD.
Now for all the schemes if we compare the results of ideal
and realistic scenario, it is observed that the ER (realistic) in
all the cases is higher compared to ER (ideal). The additional
energy usage for realistic scenario is due to the implementation
of MAC protocol. Another important observation is in realistic
TABLE I
PARAMETER VALUES USED IN SIMULATION
Parameters Values
Initial energy ( )
0
50 J
elec
e 50 nJ/bit
amp
e

10 pJ/bit/m
2

Communication range of a node ( ) c
R 160m
Sensing range of a node ( ) s
R 80m
Width of each annuli (r) 160m
Data generation rate () 0.1 bits/sec
Gaussian standard deviation () 70
Network size 5~10 layers

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scenario, ER nearer the sink is less compared to the ER away
from the sink. As CSMA/CA is used in nodes away from the
sink, unlike TDMA, number of collisions, however infrequent,
is non-zero and this justifies the above result. In numerical
value, for PDFND irrespective of network sizes, the average
increase in ER, in realistic scenario compared to the ideal
scenario are 19% and 20%, for the nodes nearer the sink and
far away from the sink respectively. Similarly these values are
20% and 22% for NNDS, 22% and 24% for NDGD, 5% and
10% for NDUD.
(2) Avg RE per node (Average residual energy per node)
Figure 6 illustrates the comparison considering avg RE per
node as a performance metric. We observe that node
deployment using NDGD or NDUD results in relatively abrupt
change in avg RE per node in each layer and this nature
remains independent of network size. For example, in NDGD
(Fig. 6) nodes in each of the two layers viz. layer-5 and layer-
6, have drained off completely, though the nodes of other
layers in the network have sufficient energy for carrying out
normal network operation, causing the phenomenon known as
energy hole. Similarly, in NDUD, the energy in nodes of layer-
1 has drained off completely though the nodes of other layers
in the network have adequate energy for normal network
operation. So, both NDGD and NDUD suffer from the energy
hole problem. In NNDS, the plots upto certain layers starting
from the nearest layer from the sink are relatively flat
compared to the results in rest of the layers and that implies
energy wastage caused by imbalance in energy consumption
among the layers. Therefore, NNDS also suffer from energy
imbalance problem affecting network lifetime. However, the
PDFND plot is almost a straight line indicating that all the
nodes in each layer exhaust energy almost completely ending
the network lifetime. For example, in case of ideal scenario it
leaves less than 0.2 nJ energy for 5-layer network whereas for
10-layer network it is 0.32 nJ. Similarly, in case of realistic
scenario, it leaves less than 0.25 nJ energy for 5-layer network
whereas for 10-layer network it is 0.29 nJ. Therefore, we can
say that PDFND is energy balanced and utilizes energy, the
scarcest resource, more efficiently than the other deployment
schemes.
b) Network lifetime [6]
In this section network lifetime is evaluated for various
network sizes.
The graphs illustrated in Fig. 7 represent the network
lifetime for two different network sizes. For ideal scenario, it is
observed that the network lifetime of PDFND is 18.28%,
48.40% and 350% more than that of NNDS, NDGD and
NDUD respectively for 5-layer network. For 10-layer network
it is 19.83%, 42.30% and 380% more than that of NNDS,
NDGD and NDUD respectively. It is also observed that with
increase in network size network lifetime decreases, e.g. for 5-
layer network it is 816.21 mins whereas for 10-layer network it
is 683.06 mins. This is due to the fact that with increase in
network size, the nodes in the innermost layer need to relay
increased volume of data from the outer layers thereby causing
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.5
7.5
8.5
9.5
1 2 3 4 5
Layer nember
E
R

(
m
J
/
s
e
c
)
PDFND (Ideal) PDFND (Real)
NNDS (Ideal) NNDS (Real)
NDGD (Ideal) NDGD (Real)
NDUD (Ideal) NDUD (Real)

0.5
2.5
4.5
6.5
8.5
10.5
12.5
14.5
16.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Layer number
E
R

(
m
J
/
s
e
c
)
PDFND (Ideal) PDFND (Real)
NNDS (Ideal) NNDS (Real)
NDGD (Ideal) NDGD (Real)
NDUD (Ideal) NDUD (Real)

(a) 5-layer network. (b) 10-layer network.
Fig. 5. Energy consumption rate per node.

816.15
816.17
816.19
816.21
816.23
816.25
1 2 3 4 5
Layer number
N
e
t
w
o
r
k

l
i
f
e
t
i
m
e

(
m
i
n
s
)
For ' (Simulat ed)
For (Analyt ical)

683.09
683.094
683.098
683.102
683.106
683.11
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Layer number
N
e
t
w
o
r
k

l
i
f
e
t
i
m
e

(
m
i
n
s
)
For ' (Simulated)
For (Analyt ical)

(a) 5-layer network. (b) 10-layer network.
Fig. 4. Network lifetime for various network sizes (analytical vs simulated).
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higher energy consumption. Moreover, in PDFND the flat
nature of the plot ensures that in all the layers, network
lifetime terminates in more or less same time as compared to
NNDS, NDGD and NDUD. This ensures that energy in
PDFND is balanced to a greater extent than all the competent
schemes.
Now if we compare the simulation results of network
lifetime both for ideal and realistic scenarios, network lifetime
is reduced in realistic scenario, as there is additional energy
consumption due to the implementation of MAC protocol.
Further, in realistic scenario, irrespective of network sizes, the
reduction in network lifetime is less near the sink compared to
other parts of the network. To be more specific, in PDFND
when reduction is 19% near the sink, it is 20% in rest of the
network. Similarly in NNDS, NDGD and NDUD these values
are 20% & 22%, 22% & 24% and 4% & 10% respectively. As
CSMA/CA is used in the entire network area except near the
sink, due to collision and retransmission additional energy is
consumed compared to near the sink where TDMA is used.
From the above observations, it is also revealed that the impact
caused by inclusion of realistic scenario on network lifetime is
the highest in NDGD and the least in NDUD.
Although a subset of results on energy balancing and
network lifetime was presented in [6], here the entire result set
is compared (Fig. 5, 6, 7) with one additional competing
scheme NNDS [13]. Moreover, for all the competing schemes
including ours, an additional set of results are plotted using
real MAC.
c) Coverage and connectivity
In Fig. 8, we plot coverage density in all the layers for 5-
layered network. Our primary observation is that except the
scheme NDUD, in all the other schemes i.e. PDFND, NDGD
and NNDS, coverage density reduces in layers as the distance
of layers from the sink increases fulfilling the objective of
deploying more nodes near the sink. The next observation is
NDGD gives more overlapping sensing coverage in layer-2,
and NDUD in layer-5 but NDGD fails to give any overlapping
sensing coverage (see section VI.A.3) in layer-5. To be more
specific, in layer-5, coverage density is less than one implying
NDGDs incapability of providing coverage. On the other
hand, NDUD provides uniform coverage density in all the
layers but that does not provide energy balancing requirement.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1 2 3 4 5
Layer number
C
o
v
e
r
a
g
e

d
e
n
s
i
t
y
PDFND
NDGD
NNDS
NDUD

Fig. 8. Coverage density for 5-layed network area.

-1
5
11
17
23
29
35
41
47
53
59
65
71
1 2 3 4 5
Layer number
A
v
g
.

R
E

p
e
r

n
o
d
e

(
J
)
PDFND (Ideal)
PDFND (Real)
NNDS (Ideal)
NNDS (Real)
NDGD (Ideal)
NDGD (Real)
NDUD (Ideal)
NDUD (Real)

-1
5
11
17
23
29
35
41
47
53
59
65
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Layer number
A
v
g
.

R
E

p
e
r

n
o
d
e

(
J
)
PDFND (Ideal)
PDFND (Real)
NNDS (Ideal)
NNDS (Real)
NDGD (Ideal)
NDGD (Real)
NDUD (Ideal)
NDUD (Real)

(a) 5-layer network. (b) 10-layer network.
Fig. 6. Average residual energy (RE) per node.
50
200
350
500
650
800
950
1100
1250
1 2 3 4 5
Layer number
N
e
t
w
o
r
k

l
i
f
e
t
i
m
e

(
m
i
n
s
)
PDFND (Ideal) PDFND (Real)
NNDS (Ideal) NNDS (Real)
NDGD (Ideal) NDGD (Real)
NDUD (Ideal) NDUD (Real)

50
150
250
350
450
550
650
750
850
950
1050
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Layer number
N
e
t
w
o
r
k

l
i
f
e
t
i
m
e

(
m
i
n
s
)
PDFND (Ideal) PDFND (Real)
NNDS (Ideal) NNDS (Real)
NDGD (Ideal) NDGD (Real)
NDUD (Ideal) NDUD (Real)

(a) 5-layer network. (b) 10-layer network.
Fig. 7. Network lifetime for various network sizes.

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However, NNDS provides coverage density as per the
requirement of energy balancing. Finally, we claim that our
scheme PDFND not only provides coverage density as per the
requirement of energy balancing but also provides higher
coverage density almost in all the layers compared to the most
competing scheme NNDS.
VII. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
In this work we have proposed a node deployment scheme
for multi-hop WSNs using a PDF defined by us. The target of
the scheme is to achieve energy balancing and enhancing
network lifetime while maintaining coverage and connectivity.
To start with, we have analyzed network lifetime and
identified node density as a parameter which has significant
influence on network lifetime. Then, theoretical formulation of
node density for balanced energy consumption is presented.
Based on the analysis of network lifetime we have designed a
PDF targeting its implementation in lifetime-enhancing node
distribution in WSNs. Intrinsic characteristics of the PDF and
its suitability for modeling the network architecture of this
work are discussed. A node deployment algorithm is also
developed based on the proposed PDF to implement the
scheme. Further, we have provided theoretical formulation of
coverage-connectivity, energy balancing, network lifetime and
have derived certain constraints, involving some important
network parameters, to be satisfied to achieve the target. We
claim that our scheme successfully achieves the target. The
claims are substantiated by performing both qualitative and
quantitative analyses. Finally, the results of quantitative
analysis are compared with three existing works [13], [18],
[29] on node deployment and that clearly demonstrates our
schemes dominance over the existing works.
As a future extension of our work, the deployment strategy
may be made more realistic by considering 3-D environment.
Moreover, the scheme may be analyzed with a target to obtain
optimal node density by considering various QoS parameters.
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