1

Workshop on Renewable Energies

November 14-25, 2005
Nadi, Republic of the Fiji Islands
Module 4.3 Micro Module 4.3 Micro- -Hydro Hydro
4.3.1 Designing 4.3.1 Designing
Tokyo Electric Power Co. (TEPCO)
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Contents Contents
Design (Civil Structure)
Weir, Intake, Settling basin, Headrace, Forebay, Penstock,
Powerhouse
Head Loss Calculation
Design (Electrical and Mechanical Equipment)
Inlet valve, Water turbine, Turbine governor, Power
transmission facility, Generator, Control panels, Switchgear
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Types of Weir
Concrete gravity dam
Floating concrete dam
Earth dam
Rockfill dam
Wet masonry dam
Gabion dam
Concrete reinforced gabion dam
Brushwood dam
Wooden dam
Wooden-frame dam with gravel
Civil Structure: Weir Civil Structure: Weir
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Characteristic of Weir Characteristic of Weir
High High High Intake efficiency
Gentle flow and easy to
deal with flooding
Not governed by gradient,
discharge or level of
sediment load
Not governed by gradient,
discharge or level of
sediment load
River condition
From earth to bedrock Gravel Bedrock Foundation
Main material is earth.
Riprap and core wall
Entire body is composed
of concrete.
Longer dam epron
cut-off
Entire body is composed
of concrete.
Outline
Earth dam Floating concrete dam Concrete gravity dam Type
Longer epron
Cut-off
Concrete gravity dam Floating concrete dam Earth dam
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Characteristic of Weir Characteristic of Weir
Low High Low Intake efficiency
In case that rock fill dam
could be washed away by
normal river flow.
Not governed by gradient,
discharge or level of
sediment load.
In case that earth dam
could be washed away by
normal river flow.
River condition
From earth to bedrock From earth to bedrock From earth to bedrock Foundation
Gravel is wrapped by
metal net.
Gravel is filled with mortal
etc.
Main material is gravel.
Core wall
Outline
Gabion dam Wet masonry dam Rock fill dam Type
Rock fill dam Wet masonry dam Gabion dam
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Characteristic of Weir Characteristic of Weir
Low Fair High Intake efficiency
In case that rock fill dam
could be washed away by
normal river flow.
Gentle river flow In case that metal net
could be damaged by
strong river flow.
River condition
From earth to bedrock From earth to bedrock From earth to bedrock Foundation
Wooden frame is filled
with gravel.
Main material is local
bush wood.
Surface of gabion dam is
reinforced with concrete.
Outline
Wooden frame with gravel
dam
Bush wood dam Concrete reinforced
gabion dam
Type
Concrete reinforced gabion dam
Bush wood dam Wooden frame with gravel dam
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Location of weir site
Perpendicular to river direction
Topographical & geological conditions
Easy access
Structural Stability
Fall resistance, Sliding resistance & Soil bearing capacity against resultant
external force (weir own weight, water pressure, sedimentation weight, earth
quake & up lift)
Sedimentation
Easy flushing
Existing landslide, debris, erosion, drift woods etc.
Influence on head acquisition
Relationship between construction cost & usable head
Backwater effect
Influence on upstream area during flooding
Concerns to be addressed in Weir Designing Concerns to be addressed in Weir Designing
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Civil Structure: Intake Civil Structure: Intake
Type of Intake
Side intake
Typical intake
Perpendicular to river direction
Tyrolean intake
Along the weir
Simple structure
Affected by sedimentation
during flooding
More maintenance required
Side Intake
Tyrolean Intake
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Function
All the suspended materials that could
adversary affect turbine should be removed.
Specification to be decided
Minimum diameter of suspended materials
(depend on turbine specification; 0.5
1.0mm)
Marginal settling speed (about 0.1m/s)
Flow velocity in settling basin (about 0.3m/s)
Length & wide
Conduit section
Wideningsection
Settlingsection
B
b
1.0
2.0
Dam
Spillway
Stoplog
Flushing gate
Intake
Headrace
Bsp
hs
h
s
p
+
1
5
c
m
h0
1
0

1
5

hi
ic=1/20

1/30
Intake
Stoplog
bi

Sediment Pit
Flushinggate
Civil Structure: Settling Basin Civil Structure: Settling Basin
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Function
Conveys water from intake to forebay
Specification to be decided
Structure type (Open channel)
Longitudinal slope (1/50 1/500)
Cross section (flow capacity)
Material to be used
Flow capacity calculation
Q
d
=AR
2/3
S
L
1/2
n
where,
Q
d
: Flow capacity (design discharge: m
3
/s )
A: Cross-sectional area
R: R = A/P
P: Length of wet sides
S
L
: Longitudinal slope
n: Coefficient of roughness
Civil structure: Headrace Civil structure: Headrace
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Characteristic of Headrace Characteristic of Headrace
Risk of scouring &
collapse
Not applicable to
high permeable
ground
Difficult to remove
sedimentation
Easy construction
Inexpensive
Easy repair
Simple earth
channel
Not applicable to
small diameter
Long construction
period
Relatively expensive
More man power
Not applicable to
high permeable
ground
Disadvantage
Great flexibility of
cross section
design
Local material
Scouring resistance
Applicable to
permeable ground
Easy construction
Easy construction
Local material
Scouring resistance
Easy repair
Advantage
Concrete channel Wet masonry
channel
Lined channel
(Rock & stone)
Type
Simple earth
channel
Lined channel
(Rock and stone)
Wet masonry
channel
Concrete channel
n = 0.030
n = 0.025
n = 0.020 n = 0.015
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Characteristic of Headrace Characteristic of Headrace
Not applicable to big
diameter
Easy to decay
Inexpensive
Flexible to minor ground
deformation
Wood fenced channel
Heavy weight
High transportation cost
Heavy weight
High transportation cost Disadvantage
Easy construction
Short construction period
High resistance to external
pressure
Applicable to small diameter
Easy construction
Short construction period
Applicable to small diameter
Flexible to cross section
figure
Advantage
Hume pipe channel Box culvert channel Type
n = 0.015
Wooded-fenced channel Closed pipe (Hume pipe, steel pipe) Box culvert channel
n = 0.015 n = 0.015
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Function
Regulates discharge fluctuation
difference between penstock &
headrace due to load fluctuation.
Final settling basin
Specification to be decided
Water storage capacity
Layout & dimension of each facility
Attached Structure
Spillway
Screen
Regulating gate
Sluice gate
Civil Structure: Civil Structure: Forebay Forebay
Headrace
Spillway
Screen
Headrace
Penstock
Penstock
Screen
Spillway
Headrace
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Civil Structure: Penstock Civil Structure: Penstock
Function
Convey water under pressure from
forebay to turbine
Specification to be decided
Route (Slope, geological conditions
etc)
Material to be used
Diameter
- Construction cost
- Electricity generation decrease due
to loss at penstock
- Durability (Life time, O&M cost)
Thickness
- Water pressure, own weight, water
weight, other external force (earth
quake etc.)
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Powerhouse
Function:
Provides shelter for the electro-mechanical equipment (turbine,
generator, control panels, etc.)
The size of the powerhouse and the layout:
Determined taking into account convenience during installation,
operation and maintenance.
Foundation:
Classified into two:
For Impulse turbine
-Pelton turbine, Turgo turbine or cross-flow turbine, etc.
For Reaction turbine
-Francis turbine or propeller turbine, etc.
Powerhouse Powerhouse
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a. Foundation for Impulse Turbine
The figures shows the foundation for the cross flow turbine. There
is a space between center level of the runner and the tailwater level
Flood Water Level(Maximum)
20cm
bo
Section A-A
20cm
b
bo: depends on Qd and He
3050cm

3050cm
HL3
(see Ref.5-3)

hc={ }
1/ 3 1.1Qd
2
9.8

A
A
Afterbay Tailrace cannel Outlet
Foundation for Impulse Turbine Foundation for Impulse Turbine
Space
(atmosphere pressure)
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Section A-A
1.5d3
Flood Water Level(Maximum) 3050cm

2 3
d3
2
0
c
m
1.15 d3
1.5d3
Hs
Hsdepens on characteristic of turbine

HL3
(see Ref.5-
3)

hc={ }
1/ 3 1.1Qd
2
9.8

A
A
b. Foundation for Reaction Turbine
The below figures show the foundation for the Francis turbine. The
outlet level of the draft tube is under the level of tailwater
Foundation for Reaction Turbine Foundation for Reaction Turbine
Filled with water
In the draft tube
This head is also effectively utilized
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Effective Head Effective Head
Hg H
He
H
L3
H
L1
H
L2
Intake
Settling Basin
Headrace
Forebay
Penstock
Powerhouse
Tailrace
Effective Head (Net head) :
= The total head actually acting on the turbine
= Gross head Head loss
He = Hg (H
L1
+ H
L2
+ H
L3
)
where, He: Effective head
Hg: Gross head
H
L1
: Loss from intake to forebay
H
L2
: Loss at penstock
H
L3
: Loss at tailrace and draft tube
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Calculation of Head Loss Calculation of Head Loss
The head loss at the penstock (H
L2
) can be calculated by
the following equations.
H
L2
= hf + he + hv + ho
where,
hf: Frictional loss at penstock
he: Inlet loss
hv: Valve loss
ho: Other losses (Bend losses, loss on changes in cross-
sectional area and others)
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<Reference > Head Loss at Penstock <Reference > Head Loss at Penstock
(1) Frictional loss
Frictional loss (hf) is the biggest of the losses at penstock.
hf = f (Lp/Dp ) Vp
2
/2g
where, hf: Frictional loss at penstock (m)
f : Coefficient on the diameter of penstock pipe (Dp).
f = 124.5n
2
/Dp
1/3
Lp: Length of penstock (m)
Vp: Velocity at penstock (m/s)
Vp = Q/Ap
g: Acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/sec
2
)
Dp: Diameter of penstock pipe (m)
n : Coefficient of roughness
(steel pipe: n = 0.012, plastic pipe: n = 0.011)
Q: Design discharge (m
3
/s)
Ap: Cross sectional area of penstock pipe (m
2
)
Ap = 3.14Dp
2
/4.0
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<Reference > Head Loss at Penstock <Reference > Head Loss at Penstock
(2) Inlet Loss
hi = fe Vp
2
/2g
where, hi: Inlet loss (m)
fe: Coefficient on the form at the inlet
Usually fe = 0.5 in micro-hydro schemes.
(3) Valve Loss
hv = fv Vp
2
/2g
where, hv: Valve loss (m)
fv: Coefficient on the type of valve,
fv = 0.1 (butterfly valve)
(4) Others
Bend loss and loss due to changes in cross-sectional area are considered
other losses. However, these losses can be neglected in micro-hydro
schemes. Usually, the person planning the micro-hydro scheme must take
account of following margins as other losses.
ho = 5 to 10% (hf + he +hv)
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Equipment and Functions
1. Inlet valve:
Controls the supply of water from the penstock to the turbine
2. Water turbine:
Converts the water energy into rotating power
3. Generator:
Generates the electricity by the driving force from the turbine
4. Driving facility:
Transmits the rotation power of the turbine to the generator
5. Control facility of turbine and generator:
Controls the speed, output of the unit.
6. Switchgear / transformer :
Controls the electric power and increases the voltage of transmission
lines, if required
7. Control panels:
Controls and protects the above facilities for safe operation.
Note: Items 5, 6 & 7 above may sometimes be combined in one panel.
Design of E/M Equipment Design of E/M Equipment
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1. Inlet Valve
Design of E/M Equipment Design of E/M Equipment
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2. Water Turbine
Types:
Impulse turbines: Rotates the runner by the impulse of water jets
by converting the pressure head into the velocity head through
nozzles.
Reaction turbines: Rotates the runner by the pressure head.
Design for E/M Equipment Design for E/M Equipment
Propeller
Kaplan
Fransis
Pump-as-Turbine
Reaction
Crossflow Crossflow
Turgo
Pelton
Turgo
Impulse
Low Medium High
Head Type
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Design of E/M Equipment Design of E/M Equipment
Pelton Pelton Turbine Turbine
Acting water jet emitted from the nozzle to the bucket of runner
Good characteristics for discharge change
- Discharge: Small (0.2 3 m
3
/s)
- Head: High head (75 400m)
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Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
Pelton Pelton Turbine Turbine
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Arc shape runner blades are welded on the both side of iron plate discs
Easy manufacturing and simple structure
- Discharge: Small (0.1 10 m
3
/s)
- Head: Low, middle head (2 200 m)
Water Water
Guide Vane Guide Vane
Cross Cross- -Flow W/T Flow W/T
Cross Cross- -Flow Turbine Flow Turbine
Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
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Design of E/M Equipment Design of E/M Equipment
Cross Cross- -Flow Turbine Flow Turbine
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Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
Francis Turbine Francis Turbine
Wide ranging utilization from various head and output
Simple structure
- Discharge: Various (0.4 20 m
3
/s)
- Head: Low to high (15 300 m)
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Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
Francis Turbine Francis Turbine
16
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Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
Reverse Pump Turbine (Pump as Turbine) Reverse Pump Turbine (Pump as Turbine)
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Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
Generator Generator
Propeller Runner Propeller Runner
Guide Vane Guide Vane
(Wicket Gate) (Wicket Gate)
Timing Belt Timing Belt
Draft Tube Draft Tube
Tubular Turbine Tubular Turbine
Tubular type(Cylinder type) propeller turbine
Package type is remarked recently
- Discharge: Various (1.5 40 m
3
/s)
- Head: low head (3 20m)
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Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
Tubular Turbine Tubular Turbine
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Pico Hydro Pico Hydro
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Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
Flow chart of designing hydro turbine Flow chart of designing hydro turbine
Power plant H,Q
Number of units
Turbine type selection by
the selection chart
Ns limit
N limit calculation from the
Ns limit
N (min
-1
)
More than 500 Tubular
200 900 Propeller
100 350 Diagonal flow
50 350 Francis
8 25 Pelton
Range of Ns
(m-kW)
Turbine type
Ns[m-kW] = N
5/4
1/2
H
P
Specific speed:
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1
10
100
1000
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Water Discharge
E
f
f
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t
i
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e

H
e
a
d
Selection of turbine type i.e.: i.e.: H = 25m, Q = 0.45m H = 25m, Q = 0.45m
3 3
/s /s
Cross Flow Cross Flow
or or Horizontal Francis Horizontal Francis
Horizontal Francis Horizontal Francis
Cross Flow Cross Flow
Horizontal Horizontal Pelton Pelton
Horizontal Propeller Horizontal Propeller
(m
3
/s, ft
3
/s)
(m, ft)
(3,529) (352.9) (35.29) (3.529) (0.3529)
(3.28)
(3,280)
(32.8)
(328)
(82ft) (15.88ft
3
/s)
Vertical Francis Vertical Francis
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3. Generator
Synchronous:
Independent exciter rotor, applicable for both isolated and existing
power networks
Asynchronous (induction):
No exciter rotor is usually applicable in networks with other power
sources. In isolated networks, it must be connected to capacitors to
generate electricity.
Generator output: Pg (kVA) = (9.8 x H x Q x )/pf
Where
Pg: Capacity (kVA)
H : Net head (m)
Q: Rated discharge (m
3
/s)
: Combined efficiency of turbine & generator etc (%)
pf: Power factor ( %)
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3. Generator
Speed and Number of Generator Poles
- The rated rotational speed is specified according to the frequency
(50 or 60 Hz) of the power network and the number of poles by
the following formula:
For synchronous generators:
P (nos.) = 120 x f/N
0
N
0
(min
-1
) = 120 x f/P
where, P : Number of poles
f : Frequency (Hz)
N
0
: Rated rotational speed (min
-1
)
For induction generators:
N (min
-1
) = (1-S) x N
0
where, N : Actual speed of induction generator (min
-
1
)
S : Slip (normally S= -0.02)
N
0
: Rated rotational speed (min
-1
)
Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
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Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
Standard rated speeds and number of poles for synchronous
generators
300 250 24
360 300 20
400 333 18
450 375 16
514 429 14
600 500 12
720 600 10
900 750 8
1200 1000 6
1800 1500 4
60 Hz 50 Hz No. of poles
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Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
Comparative table of synchronous and induction generators
No synchronizer
Inrush current
(Parallel-in around
synchronous
speed is
preferable.)
No voltage
regulation
Leading power
factor operation
Only on-grid
operation
No excitation
High
maintainability
High rotational
speed
Induction
generators
Synchronizer
Less electro-
mechanical
impact at parallel-
in
Voltage
regulation
Reactive power
adjustment
(Usually lagging
power factor)
Excitation
circuit
Relatively large
air gap
Synchronous
generators
Parallel-in
operation
Operation Structure
21
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4. Driving Facility (Speed Increaser)
To match the speed of the turbine and generator
Gearbox type:
The turbine shaft and generator shaft are coupled with gears
with parallel shafts in one box with anti-friction bearings
according to the speed ratio between the turbine and generator.
The life is long but the cost is relatively high. (Efficiency: 95
97%, depending on the type)
Belt type:
The turbine shaft and generator shaft are coupled with pulleys
or flywheels and belts according to the speed ratio between the
turbine and generator. The cost is relatively low but the life is
short. (Efficiency: 95 98%, depending on the type of belt)
In the case of a micro hydro-power plant, a V-belt or flat belt type
coupling is usually adopted to save the cost because the gearbox
type transmitter is very expensive.
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5. Control Facility of Turbine and Generator
5.1 Speed Governor:
The speed governor is adopted to keep the turbine speed constant
because the speed fluctuates if there are changes in the load, water
head or flow.
(1) Mechanical/Electrical type:
Controls the turbine speed constantly by regulating the guide vanes /
needle vanes according to load. There are two types of power
source:
Pressure-oil type
Motor type
Ancillary Equipment:
Servomotor, pressure pump and tank, sump tank,
piping or electric motor for gate operating mechanism
Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
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(2) Dummy load type:
Generator output is always
constant at a micro hydro
power station where a
dummy load governor is
applied to. In order to keep
the frequency constant, the
relationship generator
output = customers load +
dummy load is essential.
The dummy load is controlled
by an electronic load
controller (ELC) to meet the
above equation.
Transformer
Customers of Electricity
Dummy Load Governor
Spillway
Upper Reservoir
G-T
Upper Dam
Power House
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The capacity of dummy load is calculated as follows:
Pd (kW) = Pg (kVA) x pf (decimal) x SF
where,
Pd: Capacity of dummy load (Unity load: kW)
Pg: Rated output of generator (kVA)
pf: Rated power factor of generator
SF: Safety factor according to cooling method (1.2 1.4 times
generator output in kW) to avoid over-heating the heater
Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
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5.2 Generator Exciter
In the case of a synchronous generator, an exciter is
necessary for supplying field current to the generator
and keeps the terminal voltage constant even though
the load fluctuates. The type of exciter is classified as
follows:
Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
DC exciter:
A DC generator directory coupled with main shaft
supplies field current of the synchronous
generator. The generator terminal voltage is
regulated by adjusting the output voltage of DC
exciter. Maintenance on brushes, commutator is
necessary.
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Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
AC exciter:
The excitation circuit
consists of an AC
exciter directly
coupled to the main
generator, a rotary
rectifier and a
separately provided
automatic voltage
regulator with a
thyristor (AVR). (High
initial cost but low
maintenance cost)
G
PT
CT
Ex. Tr
AVR
DC100V
Pulse
Generator
Rotating section
AC
Ex
(Speed Det ect or)
Brushless exciter
24
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Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
Static excitation:
Direct thyristor
excitation method.
DC current for the
field coil is supplied
through a slip ring
from a thyristor
with an excitation
transformer. (Low
initial cost but high
maintenance cost)
G
PT
CT
Ex. Tr
AVR
Pulse
Generator
Slip ring
(SpeedDetector)
Static excitation
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6. Switchgears
Single Line Diagram:
The typical single diagram for a 380/220V distribution line
V
Hz
H
A
x3
ELC
(withHz Relay)
G
Turbine
Transmitter
if required
Dummy Load
Magnet
Contactor
x3
NFB
Generator
V
x3
Fuse
To Custmer
Lamp
Indicator
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NFB
CB(MCCB)
Switchgear board including ELC
ELC
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7. Control Panels
7.1 Control Methods:
Supervisory control method is classified into continuous
supervisory, remote continuous control and occasional control.
The operational control method is classified into manual control,
one-man control and fully automatic control.
The output control method is classified into dummy load governor
control for isolated grid, discharge control, water level control and
programmable control.
Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
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7.2 Instrumentation
Pressure gauge for penstock
Voltmeter with change-over switch for output voltage
Voltmeter with change-over switch for output of dummy load
(ballast)
Ammeter with change-over switch for ampere of generator output
Frequency meter for rotational speed of generator
Hour meter for operating time
kWh (kW hour) meter and kVh (kVar hour) meter, which are
required to summarize and check total energy generation at the
power plant
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7.3 Protection of Plant and 380/220V Distribution Line
Considering the same reason for cost saving in instrumentation, the following
minimal protection is required for micro-hydro power plants in rural
electrification.
1. Over-speed of turbine and generator (detected by frequency)
2. Under-voltage
3. Over-voltage
4. Over-current by NFB (No Fuse Breaker) or MCCB (Molded Case Circuit
Breaker) for low-tension circuits.
When an item 1, 2 or 3 is detected, the protective relay is activated and forces
the main circuit breaker trip. At that time, the unit shall be stopped to check
conditions.
Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
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Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
Exercise
There is a potential site with the following conditions:
Net head: 10 m
Discharge: 1 m
3
/s
Frequency: 50 Hz
Synchronous generator is required.
Q1: Which types of turbine are preferable for the site?
Q2: How wide of the applicable range of specific speed on
a selected turbine?
Q3: How wide of the rotational speed range will be applicable for
the selected turbine when the turbine efficiency is 0.6?
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Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
Answer
There is a potential site with the following conditions:
Net head: 10 (m)
Discharge: 1 (m
3
/s)
Frequency: 50 (Hz)
Synchronous generator is required.
Q1: Which types of turbine are preferable for the site?
A1: Cross Flow, Horizontal Propeller, and Horizontal
Francis
(Please refer to the selection chart.)
Q2: How wide of the applicable range of specific speed on
a selected turbine?
A2: If the horizontal propeller is selected, the range of Ns is
200 900 (m-kW).
28
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1
10
100
1000
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Water Discharge
E
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

H
e
a
d
Selection of turbine type
Horizontal Francis Horizontal Francis
Cross Flow Cross Flow
Horizontal Horizontal Pelton Pelton
Horizontal Propeller Horizontal Propeller
(m
3
/s, ft
3
/s)
(m, ft)
(3,529) (352.9) (35.29) (3.529) (0.3529)
(3.28)
(3,280)
(32.8)
(328)
Vertical Francis Vertical Francis
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Design Design of of E/M Equipment E/M Equipment
Answer
Q3: How wide of the rotational speed range will be applicable for
the selected turbine when the turbine efficiency is 0.6?
A3: The turbine output P is
P = 9.8
t
Q H = 9.8 0.6 1 10 = 58.8 (kW)
so that the minimum and maximum rotational speeds are
calculated as follows:
N
min
= Ns
min
H
5/4
/ P
1/2
= 200 10
5/4
/ 58.8
1/2
= 463 (min
-1
)
N
max
= 900 10
5/4
/ 58.8
1/2
= 2087 (min
-1
)
Considering the standard rated speed, the speed range from
500 to 1500 (min
-1
) is applicable for the direct coupled
generator.
In case that 500 (min
-1
) is selected as the turbine rated speed
considering turbine characteristics, a speed increaser is
preferable to apply because lower speed generators are costly.