Table of content

• Introduction
• Discovery
• Nuclear Fission
• Nuclear Fusion
• Nuclear Power
• Uses of nuclear power
• Nuclear Accidents
• Nuclear weapons
• Types of nuclear reaction
• Examples of nuclear technology
1. Nuclear Technology
2. Medical Applications
3. Industrial Application
4. Commercial Applications
5. Food processing & agriculture
• Economics of Nuclear Technology
• Pros and Cons of Nuclear Energy
Introduction:
In nuclear physics, a nuclear reaction is the process in which two nuclei or
nuclear particles collide to produce products different from the initial particles. In
principle a reaction can involve more than two particles colliding, but because the
probability of three or more nuclei to meet at the same time at the same place is
much less than for two nuclei, such an event is exceptionally rare. While the
transformation is spontaneous in the case of radioactive decay, it is initiated by a
particle in the case of a nuclear reaction. If the particles collide and separate
without changing, the process is called an elastic collision rather than a reaction.

In the symbolic figure shown to the right, 63Li and deuterium react to form the
highly excited intermediate nucleus 84Be which then decays immediately into two
alpha particles. Protons are symbolically represented by red spheres, and
neutrons by blue spheres.
63Li + 21H → 42He + ?

To make the sums correct, the second nucleus to the right must have atomic
number 2 and mass number 4; it is therefore also Helium-4. The complete
equation therefore reads:

63Li + 21H → 42He + 42He

or more simply:

63Li + 21H → 2 42He

Discovery:
In 1896, Henri Becquerel was investigating phosphorescence in uranium salts
when he discovered a new phenomenon which came to be called radioactivity.[1]
He, Pierre Curie and Marie Curie began investigating the phenomenon. In the
process they isolated the element radium, which is highly radioactive. They
discovered that radioactive materials produce intense, penetrating rays of several
distinct sorts, which they called alpha rays, beta rays and gamma rays. Some of
these kinds of radiation could pass through ordinary matter, and all of them could
cause damage in large amounts - all the early researchers received various
radiation burns, much like sunburn, and thought little of it.

The new phenomenon of radioactivity was seized upon by the manufacturers of

quack medicine (as had the discoveries of electricity and magnetism, earlier),
and any number of patent medicines and treatments involving radioactivity were
put forward. Gradually it came to be realized that the radiation produced by
radioactive decay was ionizing radiation, and that quantities too small to burn
presented a severe long-term hazard. Many of the scientists working on
radioactivity died of cancer as a result of their exposure. Radioactive patent
medicines mostly disappeared, but other applications of radioactive materials
persisted, such as the use of radium salts to produce glowing dials on meters.

As the atom came to be better understood, the nature of radioactivity became

clearer; some atomic nuclei are unstable, and can decay releasing energy in the
form of gamma rays (high-energy photons), alpha particles (a pair of protons and
a pair of neutrons) and beta particles, high-energy electrons.

Nuclear fission:

Radioactivity is generally a slow and difficult process to control, and is unsuited

to building a weapon. However, other nuclear reactions are possible. In
particular, a sufficiently unstable nucleus can undergo nuclear fission, breaking
into two smaller nuclei and releasing energy and some fast neutrons. This
neutron could, if captured by another nucleus, cause that nucleus to undergo
fission as well. The process could then continue in a nuclear chain reaction. Such
a chain reaction could release a vast amount of energy in a short amount of time.
When discovered on the eve of World War II, it led multiple countries to begin
programs investigating the possibility of constructing an atomic bomb—a weapon
which utilized fission reactions to generate far more energy than could be created
with chemical explosives. The Manhattan Project, run by the United States with
the help of the United Kingdom and Canada, developed multiple fission weapons
which were used against Japan in 1945. During the project, the first fission
reactors were developed as well, though they were primarily for weapons
manufacture and did not generate power.
Nuclear fusion:

Nuclear fusion technology was initially pursued only in theoretical stages during
World War II, when scientists on the Manhattan Project (led by Edward Teller)
investigated the possibility of using the great power of a fission reaction to ignite
fusion reactions. It took until 1952 for the first full detonation of a hydrogen bomb
to take place, so-called because it utilized reactions between deuterium and
tritium, isotopes of hydrogen. Fusion reactions are much more energetic per unit
mass of fusion material, but it is much more difficult to ignite a chain reaction
than is fission.

Research into the possibilities of using nuclear fusion for civilian power
generation was begun during the 1940s as well. Technical and theoretical
difficulties have hindered the development of working civilian fusion technology,
though research continues to this day around the world.

Nuclear Power
Nuclear power is any nuclear technology designed to extract usable energy
from atomic nuclei via controlled nuclear reactions. The only method in
use today is through nuclear fission, though other methods might one day
include nuclear fusion and radioactive decay (see below). All utility-scale
reactorsheat water to produce steam, which is then converted into
mechanical work for the purpose of generating electricity or propulsion.
In 2007, 14% of the world's electricity came from nuclear power. More than
150 nuclear-powered naval vessels have been built, and a few
radioisotope rockets have been produced.

Uses:
As of 2005, nuclear power provided 6.3% of the world's energy and 15% of the
world's electricity, with the U.S., France, and Japan together accounting for
56.5% of nuclear generated electricity. As of 2007, the IAEA reported there are
439 nuclear power reactors in operation in the world, operating in 31 countries.

In 2007, nuclear power´s share of global electricity generation dropped to 14%.

According to the International Atomic Energy Agency, the main reason for this
was an earthquake in western Japan on 16 July 2007, which shut down all seven
reactors at the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant. There were also
several other reductions and "unusual outages" experienced in Korea and
Germany. Also, increases in the load factor for the current fleet of reactors
appear to have plateaued.

The United States produces the most nuclear energy, with nuclear power
providing 19% of the electricity it consumes, while France produces the highest
percentage of its electrical energy from nuclear reactors—78% as of 2006. In the
European Union as a whole, nuclear energy provides 30% of the electricity.
Nuclear energy policy differs between European Union countries, and some,
such as Austria, Estonia, and Ireland, have no active nuclear power stations. In
comparison, France has a large number of these plants, with 16 multi-unit
stations in current use.

In the US, while the Coal and Gas Electricity industry is projected to be worth $85
billion by 2013, Nuclear Power generators are forecast to be worth $18 billion.

Many military and some civilian (such as some icebreaker) ships use nuclear
marine propulsion, a form of nuclear propulsion. A few space vehicles have been
launched using full-fledged nuclear reactors: the Soviet RORSAT series and the
American SNAP-10A.

International research is continuing into safety improvements such as passively

safe plants, the use of nuclear fusion, and additional uses of process heat such
as hydrogen production (in support of a hydrogen economy), for desalinating sea
water, and for use in district heating systems.

Nuclear Accidents
In some cases, a release of radioactive contamination occurs, but in many cases
the accident involves a sealed source or the release of radioactivity is small while
the direct irradiation is large. Due to government and business secrecy, it is not
always possible to determine with certainty the frequency or the extent of some
events in the early days of the radiation industries. Modern misadventures,
accidents, and incidents, which result in injury, death, or serious environmental
contamination, tend to be well documented by the International Atomic Energy
Agency

Because of the different nature of the events it is best to divide the list into
nuclear and radiation accidents. An example of nuclear accident might be one
in which a reactor core is damaged such as in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power
Plant Accident, while an example of a radiation accident might be some event
such as a radiography accident where a worker drops the source into a river.
These radiation accidents such as those involving the radiography sources often
have as much or even greater ability to cause serious harm to both workers and
the public than the well known nuclear accidents.

Radiation accidents are more common than nuclear accidents, and are often
limited in scale. For instance at Soreq, a worker suffered a dose which was
similar to one of the highest doses suffered by a worker on site at Chernobyl on
day one. However, because the gamma source was never able to leave the 2-
metre thick concrete enclosure, it was not able to harm many others.

The web page at the International Atomic Energy Agency, which deals with
recent accidents is. The safety significance of nuclear accidents can be assessed
and conveyed using the International Atomic Energy Agency International
Nuclear Event Scale.

Nuclear Regulatory Commission Headquarters and Regional staff members

typically participate in four full-scale and emergency response exercises each
year, selected from among the list of full-scale Federal Emergency Management
Agency (FEMA)-graded exercises required of nuclear facilities. Regional staff
members and selected Headquarters staff also participate in post-plume,
ingestion phase response exercises. On-scene participants include the NRC
licensee, and State, county, and local emergency response agencies. This allows
for Federal Interagency participation that will provide increased preparedness
during the potential for an event at an operating nuclear reactor.

Nuclear Weapons
The design of a nuclear weapon is more complicated than it might seem; it is
quite difficult to ensure that such a chain reaction consumes a significant fraction
of the fuel before the device flies apart. The construction of a nuclear weapon is
also more difficult than it might seem, as no naturally occurring substance is
sufficiently unstable for this process to occur. One isotope of uranium, namely
uranium-235, is naturally occurring and sufficiently unstable, but it is always
found mixed with the more stable isotope uranium-238. Thus a complicated and
difficult process of isotope separation must be performed to obtain uranium-235.
Alternatively, the element plutonium possesses an isotope that is sufficiently
unstable for this process to be usable. Plutonium does not occur naturally, so it
must be manufactured in a nuclear reactor. Ultimately, the Manhattan Project
manufactured nuclear weapons based on each of these.

The first atomic bomb was detonated in a test code-named "Trinity", near
Alamogordo on July 16, 1945. After much debate on the morality of using such a
horrifying weapon, two bombs were dropped on the Japanese cities Hiroshima
and Nagasaki, and the Japanese surrender followed shortly.

Several nations began nuclear weapons programs, developing ever more

destructive bombs in an arms race to obtain what many called a nuclear
deterrent. Nuclear weapons are the most destructive weapons known - the
archetypal weapons of mass destruction. Throughout the Cold War, the opposing
powers had huge nuclear arsenals, sufficient to kill hundreds of millions of
people. Generations of people grew up under the shadow of nuclear devastation.
However, the tremendous energy release in the detonation of a nuclear weapon
also suggested the possibility of a new energy source.

Types of nuclear reaction

Most natural nuclear reactions fall under the heading of radioactive decay, where
a nucleus is unstable and decays after a random interval. The most common
processes by which this can occur are alpha decay, beta decay, and gamma
decay. Under suitable circumstances, a large unstable nucleus can break into
two smaller nuclei, undergoing nuclear fission.

If these neutrons are captured by a suitable nucleus, they can trigger fission as
well, leading to a chain reaction. A mass of radioactive material large enough
(and in a suitable configuration) is called a critical mass. When a neutron is
captured by a suitable nucleus, fission may occur immediately, or the nucleus
may persist in an unstable state for a short time. If there are enough immediate
decays to carry on the chain reaction, the mass is said to be prompt critical, and
the energy release will grow rapidly and uncontrollably, usually leading to an
explosion. However, if the mass is critical only when the delayed neutrons are
included, the reaction can be controlled, for example by the introduction or
removal of neutron absorbers. This is what allows nuclear reactors to be built.
Fast neutrons are not easily captured by nuclei; they must be slowed (slow
neutrons), generally by collision with the nuclei of a neutron moderator, before
they can be easily captured.

If nuclei are forced to collide, they can undergo nuclear fusion. This process may
release or absorb energy. When the resulting nucleus is lighter than that of iron,
energy is normally released; when the nucleus is heavier than that of iron, energy
is generally absorbed. This process of fusion occurs in stars, and results in the
formation, in stellar nucleosynthesis, of the light elements, from lithium to
calcium, as well as some formation of the heavy elements, beyond Iron and
Nickel, which cannot be created by nuclear fusion, via neutron capture - the S-
process. The remaining abundance of heavy elements - from Nickel to Uranium
and beyond - is due to supernova nucleosynthesis, the R-process. Of course,
these natural processes of astrophysics are not examples of nuclear technology.
Because of the very strong repulsion of nuclei, fusion is difficult to achieve in a
controlled fashion. Hydrogen bombs obtain their enormous destructive power
from fusion, but obtaining controlled fusion power has so far proved elusive.
Controlled fusion can be achieved in particle accelerators; this is how many
synthetic elements were produced. The Farnsworth-Hirsch Fusor is a device
which can produce controlled fusion (and which can be built as a high-school
science project), albeit at a net energy loss. It is sold commercially as a neutron
source.
The vast majority of everyday phenomena do not involve nuclear reactions. Most
everyday phenomena only involve gravity and electromagnetism. Of the
fundamental forces of nature, they are not the strongest, but the other two, the
strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force are essentially short-range
forces so they do not play a role outside the atomic nucleus. Atomic nuclei are
generally kept apart because they contain positive electrical charges and
therefore repel each other, so in ordinary circumstances they cannot meet.

Examples of Nuclear Technology:

Medical Applications
The medical applications of nuclear technology are divided into diagnostics and
radiation treatment.

Imaging - medical and dental x-ray imagers use of Cobalt-60 or other x-ray
sources. Technetium-99m is used, attached to organic molecules, as radioactive
tracer in the human body, before being excreted by the kidneys. Positron emitting
nucleotides are used for high resolution, short time span imaging in applications
known as Positron emission tomography.

Radiation therapy is an effective treatment for cancer.

Industrial applications
Oil and Gas Exploration- Nuclear well logging is used to help predict the
commercial viability of new or existing wells. The technology involves the use of
a neutron or gamma-ray source and a radiation detector which are lowered into
boreholes to determine the properties of the surrounding rock such as porosity
and lithography.[1]

Road Construction - Nuclear moisture/density gauges are used to determine

the density of soils, asphalt, and concrete. Typically a Cesium-137 source is
used.

Commercial applications
An ionization smoke detector includes a tiny mass of radioactive americium-241,
which is a source of alpha radiation. Tritium is used with phosphor in rifle sights
to increase nighttime firing accuracy. Luminescent exit signs use the same
technology.[3]
Food Processing and Agriculture

The Radura logo, used to show a food has been treated with ionizing radiation.

Food irradiation[4] is the process of exposing food to ionizing radiation in order to

destroy microorganisms, bacteria, viruses, or insects that might be present in the
food. The radiation sources used include radioisotope gamma ray sources, X-ray
generators and electron accelerators. Further applications include sprout
inhibition, delay of ripening, increase of juice yield, and improvement of re-
hydration. Irradiation is a more general term of deliberate exposure of materials
to radiation to achieve a technical goal (in this context 'ionizing radiation' is
implied). As such it is also used on non-food items, such as medical hardware,
plastics, tubes for gas-pipelines, hoses for floor-heating, shrink-foils for food
packaging, automobile parts, wires and cables (isolation), tires, and even
gemstones. Compared to the amount of food irradiated, the volume of those
every-day applications is huge but not noticed by the consumer.

The genuine effect of processing food by ionizing radiation relates to damages to

the DNA, the basic genetic information for life. Microorganisms can no longer
proliferate and continue their malignant or pathogen activities. Spoilage causing
micro-organisms cannot continue their activities. Insects do not survive or
become incapable of procreation. Plants cannot continue the natural ripening or
aging process. All these effects are beneficial to the consumer and the food
industry, likewise.[4]

It should be noted that the amount of energy imparted for effective food
irradiation is low compared to cooking the same; even at a typical dose of 10 kGy
most food, which is (with regard to warming) physically equivalent to water,
would warm by only about 2.5 °C.

The specialty of processing food by ionizing radiation is the fact, that the energy
density per atomic transition is very high, it can cleave molecules and induce
ionization (hence the name) which cannot be achieved by mere heating. This is
the reason for new beneficial effects, however at the same time, for new
concerns. The treatment of solid food by ionizing radiation can provide an effect
similar to heat pasteurization of liquids, such as milk. However, the use of the
term, cold pasteurization, to describe irradiated foods is controversial, because
pasteurization and irradiation are fundamentally different processes, although the
intended end results can in some cases be similar.

Food irradiation is currently permitted by over 40 countries and volumes are

estimated to exceed 500 000 metric tons annually world wide. [5] [6] [7]

It should be noted that food irradiation is essentially a non-nuclear technology; it

relies on the use of ionizing radiation which may be generated by accelerators for
electrons and conversion into bremsstrahlung, but which may use also gamma-
rays from nuclear decay. There is a world-wide industry for processing by
ionizing radiation, the majority by number and by processing power using
accelerators. Food irradiation is only a niche application compared to medical
supplies, plastic materials, raw materials, gemstones, cables and wires, etc.

Economics of Nuclear Technology

The Economics of Nuclear Power

Electricity Generation
Nuclear Technology can also be used to produce ELECTRICITY which is very
important according to economical condition of a country. Nuclear plant can
produce more electricity than thermal or hydro electric plant. Isotope produced
using Nuclear Technology is used in many chemical and pharma companies.

1) Nuclear power is cost competitive with other forms of electricity generation,

except where there is direct access to low-cost fossil fuels.
2) Fuel costs for nuclear plants are a minor proportion of total generating costs,
though capital costs are greater than those for coal-fired plants.
3) In assessing the cost competitiveness of nuclear energy, decommissioning
and waste disposal costs are taken into account.

The relative costs of generating electricity from coal, gas and nuclear plants vary
considerably depending on location. Coal is, and will probably remain,
economically attractive in countries such as China, the USA and Australia with
abundant and accessible domestic coal resources as long as carbon emissions
are cost-free. Gas is also competitive for base-load power in many places,
particularly using combined-cycle plants, though rising gas prices have removed
much of the advantage.
Nuclear energy is, in many places, competitive with fossil fuel for electricity
generation, despite relatively high capital costs and the need to internalise all
waste disposal and decommissioning costs. If the social, health and
environmental costs of fossil fuels are also taken into account, nuclear is
outstanding.
The cost of fuel

From the outset the basic attraction of nuclear energy has been its low fuel costs
compared with coal, oil and gas fired plants. Uranium, however, has to be
processed, enriched and fabricated into fuel elements, and about two thirds of
the cost is due to enrichment and fabrication. Allowances must also be made for
the management of radioactive spent fuel and the ultimate disposal of this spent
fuel or the wastes separated from it.
But even with these included, the total fuel costs of a nuclear power plant in the
OECD are typically about a third of those for a coal-fired plant and between a
quarter and a fifth of those for a gas combined-cycle plant.
Fuel costs are one area of steadily increasing efficiency and cost reduction. For
instance, in Spain nuclear electricity cost was reduced by 29% over 1995-2001.
This involved boosting enrichment levels and burn-up to achieve 40% fuel cost
reduction. Prospectively, a further 8% increase in burn-up will give another 5%
reduction in fuel cost.

Comparing electricity generation

For nuclear power plants any cost figures normally include spent fuel
management, plant decommissioning and final waste disposal. These costs,
while usually external for other technologies, are internal for nuclear power.
Decommissioning costs are estimated at 9-15% of the initial capital cost of a
nuclear power plant. But when discounted, they contribute only a few percent to
the investment cost and even less to the generation cost. In the USA they
account for 0.1-0.2 cent/kWh, which is no more than 5% of the cost of the
electricity produced.
The back-end of the fuel cycle, including spent fuel storage or disposal in a waste
repository, contributes up to another 10% to the overall costs per kWh, - less if
there is direct disposal of spent fuel rather than reprocessing. The $18 billion US
spent fuel program is funded by a 0.1 cent/kWh levy.
French figures published in 2002 show (EUR cents/kWh): nuclear 3.20, gas 3.05-
4.26, coal 3.81-4.57. Nuclear is favourable because of the large, standardised
plants used.
The cost of nuclear power generation has been dropping over the last decade.
This is because declining fuel (including enrichment), operating and maintenance
costs, while the plant concerned has been paid for, or at least is being paid off. In
general the construction costs of nuclear power plants are significantly higher
than
for coal- or gas-fired plants because of the need to use special materials, and to
incorporate sophisticated safety features and back-up control equipment. These
contribute much of the nuclear generation cost, but once the plant is built the
variables are minor.
In the past, long construction periods have pushed up financing costs. In Asia
construction times have tended to be shorter, for instance the new-generation
1300 MWe Japanese reactors which began operating in 1996 and 1997 were
built in a little over four years.
Overall, OECD studies in teh 1990s showed a decreasing advantage of nuclear
over coal. This trend was largely due to a decline in fossil fuel prices in the
1980s, and easy access to low-cost, clean coal, or gas. In the 1990s gas
combined-cycle technology with low fuel prices was often the lowest cost option
in Europe and North America. But the picture is changing.

The Pros and Cons of Nuclear Energy:

The applications of nuclear reactors as our main power source for the future is a
huge subject of debate, named The Nuclear Debate. The generation of nuclear
power from nuclear fuel for civilian purposes is a quest that 21 one companies
are taking on for the first time since 1973. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission
reports they will seek permission to build 34 power plants from New York to
Texas. Multi billion dollar investments that were riding on the choice of an energy
source are now being funneled into new nuclear energy projects costing several
billion dollars for each plant.

Supports claim new nuclear plants are needed because of the variable needs for
different amounts of energy to be stored and released at different times. This is
also known as base power. Hydroelectricity comes close with it?s man made
dam control that allows us to release more power as needed but as the natural
conditions must be in place the potential for stored nuclear power is so much
greater. Nuclear energy supporters claim back up sources are necessary with
other forms of energy like wind and solar because they fail to produce a constant
supply or surplus of energy that is offered by nuclear power.

The primary environment impacts of nuclear power come from Uranium mining,
radioactive emissions and heat waste. The greenhouse gas emissions produced
thru the nuclear fuel cycle are only a fraction of those produced by fossil fuels.
However, new nuclear power plants are considered unfavorable by anti-nuclear
organizations because of the initial cost of constructing them and the fact that a
new plant will take 10 years to build. Because each plant costs several billion US
dollars it is hard to imagine that money will be left over for research which could
make plants cheaper and more efficient. To get an idea of the scope of building
that would be necessary if we wanted to count on getting 80% of our energy from
nuclear fission, we would need thousands of new plants. Nuclear development is
therefore conceivable on the scale necessary only if it is backed by
inappropriately large economic subsidies in the form of taxpayer funded research
and development and risks.

Public subsidies and tax expenditures involved in research and security. The
decommissioning of a nuclear facility has unforeseen potential costs as we do
not know what it may cost to dispose, safely of the nuclear waste and the
taxpayers might pay for this risk. With new nuclear plant building beginning
again, alternative energy source development advocates are also worried about
the lack of research and development for other power sources. Because of the
massive power potential of nuclear energy there is a danger that there could be a
lock-in effect or the creation of market entry barriers for other sources of energy
like solar and wind energy. Other competing energy sources still receive large
direct production subsides and tax breaks in many nations.

As long as the subsidies continue to be given for alternative energy sources

while we enter a new ten year nuclear energy plant construction period, energy
solutions can come from many alternative sources both corporate and
homespun, yet none with as much energy potential and on the massive scale of
nuclear energy development.