Food Security: How and for Whom?

Author(s): Maithreyi Krishnaraj

Source: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 40, No. 25 (Jun. 18-24, 2005), pp. 2508-2512
Published by: Economic and Political Weekly
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4416779 .
Accessed: 19/03/2014 07:38
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
.
Economic and Political Weekly is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to
Economic and Political Weekly.
http://www.jstor.org
This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Wed, 19 Mar 2014 07:38:51 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
F o o d Security: H o w a n d F o r Who m?
F o o d security is
co n tin gen t
o n three
pa ra meters
-
a va ila bility, a ccessibility
a n d
a ffo rd a bility.
While
a va ila bility
a n d
a ccessibility
rela te to
pro d uctio n
a n d d istributio n , the
questio n o f
a ffo rd a bility
is lin ked to
Ama rtya
Sen 's
co n cepts o f
'en d o w men t' a n d
'excha n ge
en titlemen ts',
tha t
is,
the reso urces a t o n e's
d ispo sa l
tha t d etermin es o n e's
ca pa city
to
buy fo o d .
The
pa pers
in this co llectio n o n
gen d er
a n d
fo o d security
d ea l
precisely
w ith this
pro blem o f
en d o w men t
a n d
excha n ge
en titlemen t,
especia lly
w ith
rega rd
to w o men .
They
seek to d ra w a tten tio n to the
reso urces,
ma in ly emplo ymen t,
a va ila ble to w o men
fo r pro curin g fo o d .
H o w ever,
a pa rt fro m
in a d equa te o ppo rtun ities fo r w a ge
la bo ur,
la ck
o f
co mma n d o ver
pro d uctive
reso urces a cts
a s a
ma jo r
co n stra in t o n tho se w o men w ho d o un d erta ke
fa rmin g fo r
the ho useho ld .
Pa rticipa tio n
in the
pro d uctio n
o f fo o d , mo reo ver,
d o es n o t
gua ra n tee
co mmen sura te
return s. All the
pa pers
d ea l w ith rice
fa rmin g,
but
they
a re illustra tive
o f
the
gen era l
situa tio n
rega rd in g fo o d security a mo n g po o r
w o men a n d
po in t
to the
urgen cy o f
public
mea sures
fo r
the
pro tectio n o f
this vuln era ble sectio n .
MAITH REYI KRISH NARAJ
rT
he
fo llo w in g
set o f
pa pers
d ea l w ith the in fluen ce o f
gen d er
o n fo o d
security.
Befo re w e
go
in to the issues ra ised in
these
pa pers,
it
ma y
be useful to reca ll so me o f the
o n go in g
d iscussio n s
perta in in g
to this
pro blem.
H o w is fo o d
security
co n ceptua lised ,
w ha t
steps
ha ve been ta ken a n d ho w
a ppro pria te
a re the
questio n s
tha t a rise in this co n text. F o o d
security, (hen ce-
fo rth F S), is co n tin gen t o n three ba sic
pa ra meters
-
a va ila bility,
a ccessibility
a n d
a ffo rd a bility. Ava ila bility
co mes fro m
pro d uc-
tio n a n d rela ted
a spects
o f
pro d uctivity
tha t susta in a d esired
level o f
pro d uctio n . Accessibility
is a bo ut d istributio n .
Spa tia l
co n stra in ts a re n o t the
ma jo r
o n es a s much a s
so cio -po litica l
o n es.
Peo ple
ca n a ffo rd fo o d if
they
ca n
buy
it a n d ha ve the
mea tis
to d o so . It is a lso
po ssible
to
get
F S
thro ugh
self-
pro visio n in g.
Bo th these a re lin ked to w ha t
Ama rtya
Sen ca lls
en d o w men t a n d
excha n ge
en titlemen ts. On e ca n
buy
fo o d if o n e
ha s the reso urces to d o so a n d such reso urces ha ve to co me fro m
a ssets such a s la n d a n d o ther
pro d uctive
mea n s o r
w a ge
la bo ur.
H o w
a d equa te
these
a re,
d etermin e o n e's
ca pa city
to
buy
fo o d
a ffo rd a bility.
The
pa pers
in this sectio n d ea l
precisely
w ith this
pro blem
o f
en d o w men t a n d
excha n ge
en titlemen t a s
rega rd s
w o men . Self-
pro visio n in g
either
thro ugh
subsisten ce
fa rmin g
o r co mmercia l
fa rmin g
o f fo o d
cro ps
tha t
yield
a ma rketa ble
surplus, hin ge
o n
a ho st o f
en a blin g
co n d itio n s -
la n d , cred it,
techn o lo gy,
in fra -
structure,
a va ila bility
o f
w a ter,
a n d o ther
n ecessa ry in puts
tha t
en ha n ce so il
fertility
but mo re tha n
a n y o ther,
the
ma jo r imped i-
men t ca n a rise fro m in stitutio n a l
a rra n gemen ts
tha t exist fo r
n ego tia tin g
such a ccess to these mea n s o f
pro d uctio n .
These a re
pretty simple
truths.
F a llin g very
much w ithin the
po litica l eco n o my
sphere, they
a re a lso mo st d ifficult to co n fro n t.
Assumin g
tha t there a re tho se w ho ca n
pro d uce
a
surplus
a n d
this ca n be d istributed to
o thers,
the terms a n d co n d itio n s un d er
w hich this is d o n e a re a d d itio n a l hurd les o n the
w a y.
There is
a
go o d
d ea l o f
co n tro versy
o n w hether fa rmers ben efit mo re fro m
co mmercia l
fa rmin g
w ith mo d em
techn o lo gy
o r tra d itio n a l
fa rn n in g
by
subsisten ce
fa rmin g.
Given the fa ct tha t in In d ia tha t the
a vera ge
size o f
ho ld in gs
w hich w a s a ro un d tw o hecta res in the
1970s ha s co me d o w n to 0.2
hecta res,
a n d tha t the
ma jo rity
o f
the hun d red millio n
ho ld in gs
a re sma ll a n d
ma rgin a l,
so lutio n s
to en ha n ce
pro d uctivity
o n these a re n o t
ea sy.
So me w o uld
a rgue
fo rget a griculture-let peo ple
d o n o n -fa rm w o rk o r in crea se
urba n isa tio n . While there is merit in this
o ptio n , given
the size
o f the rura l
po pula tio n ,
such d ra stic mea sures a re
likely
to further
in ten sify
the
pro blem
o f rura l
po verty
a n d lea d to
d ecrea sin g
return s fro m
a griculture
- w hich is w ha t in fa ct ha s been
ha p-
pen in g.
In ten sive
fa rmin g
w hich to o k
pla ce
un d er the
green
revo lutio n ha s run its co urse. No d o ubt it bo o sted
pro d uctio n
o f w hea t a n d
rice,
but co n fin ed a s it w a s
o n ly
to three sta tes,
there w a s
n eglect
o f o ther a rea s.
Besid es,
the in ten sive
fa rmin g
thro ugh high in puts
o f w a ter, fertilisers a n d
pesticid es
ha ve
bro ught
in
d eva sta tin g
en viro n men ta l o utco mes tha t ha ve ma d e
co n tin ued
pursuit
o f such metho d s d ifficult if n o t
impo ssible.
Agricultura l po licy pursued
so fa r ha s n o t ben efited the sma ll
a n d
ma rgin a l
fa rmers. Subsid ies in the fo rm o f free
po w er
a n d
irriga tio n
ha ve
o n ly
ben efited the richer sectio n s. With
d eclin in g public
in vestmen t in
a griculture,
the
pro spect
o f a
reprieve
is ever mo re d ista n t.
Well, to
put
the ma tter
succin ctly,
pro d uctio n
a n d
pro d uctivity
then ha ve been
d eeply
a ffected
by
ma cro
po licies.
Seco n d ly they
ha ve a ffected mo st the vuln era ble fa rmers.
An o ther rescue lin e mo o ted is co n tra ct
fa rmin g.
But a s Sha rma
in his
pa ssio n a tely a rgued
a rticle
(2004) sa ys
w here it ha s been
tried a s in
Pun ja b
a n d o ther
pla ces,
it ha s fa vo ured
a gribusin ess.
Po ta to ,
to ma to o r o ther
pro d uce ma y give
the fa rmer a n a ssured
price,
but the co st a n d risks a re bo rn e
by
the fa rmer. Co n tra ct
fa rmin g
w hich w a s ushered in w ith
grea t
fa n fa re in La tin America
ha s been a mixed
blessin g.
Ma rket-o rien ted
pro d uctio n
ca n
po se
risks to ho useho ld fo o d
security.
An IF AD
stud y
in An d hra
Pra d esh fo un d tha t co n versio n o f
pa d d y
la n d to
gro w in g
expo rt cro ps
like
co tto n , flo w ers a n d
a qua
culture ha d the
fo llo w in g
sho rt-term results:
(i)
less la n d w a s a va ila ble fo r
gro w in g
fo o d
cro ps; (ii)
the la ck o f la n d red uced the a mo un t
o f fo o d
pro d uced
fo r the
fa mily,
a n d d ecrea sed w o men 's co n tro l
o ver in co me a n d therefo re fo o d
supply
sin ce w o men d o n o t
ma rket ca sh
cro ps; (iii)
ca sh in co me led to
grea ter a lco ho lism,
w hich red uced the a mo un t o f in co me a va ila ble fo r
fa mily
fo o d
2508 Eco n o mic a n d Po litica l
Weekly
Jun e
18, 2005
This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Wed, 19 Mar 2014 07:38:51 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
a n d used
up
a lso a
pro po rtio n
o f
gra in s
fo r
brew in g liquo r;
(iv)
beca use o f the d ecrea sed
fa mily
fo o d
supply,
w o men in
ma n y
ho useho ld s ha d to d ecrea se their o w n fo o d
in ta ke, but
a t the sa me time w o rk ha rd er to
get
ca sh in co me; a n d
(v) ma n y
mo re ha d to
rely hea vily
o n ,
w a ge
in co me a n d PDS fo r surviva l
[IF AD 2005].
Recen t fa rmer suicid es sho w ho w
relyin g
o n fickle
expo rt
ma rkets ca n
brin g
d isa ster. The risks a re to o
hea vy
fo r fa rmers
w ho
rely
o n d ebt to ta ke
a d va n ta ge
o f co mmercia l
o ppo rtun ities.
Develo pmen t pro jects
tha t
pro mo te
ma rket-o rien ted
pro d uctio n
sho uld en sure so me buffer fo r
po o r
ho useho ld s w ith a min imum
ba sic level o f fo o d . a s tho se
fa cin g
the
grea test
risk a re tho se
w ith limited la n d a n d la bo ur a n d in sufficien t fin a n cia l reso urces
to
ca rry
them
thro ugh
the tra n sitio n . Other un d esira ble o utco mes
ha ve been the co n cen tra tio n o n mo n o culture to the d etrimen t o f
bio d iversity,
critica l fo r en viro n men ta l hea lth a n d
lo n g-term
susta in a bility [H a w tin 2005].
To
quo te
a
tellin g pa ssa ge
fro m
H a w tin :
Po o r fa rmers a re a w a re o f the
rela tio n ship
betw een the
sta bility
a n d
susta in a bility
o f their
pro d uctio n systems
a n d the
d iversity
o f
cro ps
a n d
cro p
va rieties o n their la n d s. Their
ma n a gemen t
a n d use o f a
d iverge ra n ge
o f
pla n ts
ha ve so ften
helped
them
to survive un d er d ifficult co n d itio n s.
Cro ps
ma ture a t d ifferen t
times a n d ca n be
ea sily sto red ...they
a lso
pro vid e
a
n utritio n a lly
ba la n ced d iet.
The
sin gula r n eglect
o f
d ry
la n d fa rmin g a n d cerea ls o ther
tha n w hea t a n d rice in
po licy
ha s led to d eterio ra tio n in the
n utritio n a l level o f the
po o r.
Well so much fo r the
pro d uctio n
a n gle.
Wha t a bo ut d istributio n ? The
go vern men t
o f In d ia set
up
the
F o o d
Co rpo ra tio n
o f In d ia
(F CI)
un d er a
specia l
Act in 1964.
It ha d three
go a ls: (i)
effective
price suppo rt
fo r
fa rmers;
(ii)
d istributio n o f
fo o d gra in s thro ugh
ra tio n
sho p
o utlets to
co n sumers a t
prices they
co uld a ffo rd - the Public Distributio n
System (PDS);
a n d
(iii)
ma in ta in a
sa tisfa cto ry
level o f buffer
sto cks.
Ca terin g
to a
po pula tio n
o f o ver o n e billio n a n d
co verin g
582 d istricts in the
co un try,
F CI ha s a turn o ver o f
rupees
650
billio n . It
pro cures
fro m the sta tes mo re tha n
rupees
76 billio n
w o rth o f
gra in [F CI
sta tistics o n the
w eb].
An
in cred ibly
ma ssive
en terprise!
Behin d these w o n d erful
figures
lies a sa d
sto ry,
a
sto ry
so
pa ra d o xica l
a n d
tra gic. Acco rd in g
to a
repo rt
o f the
sta n d in g
co mmittee o f
Pa rlia men t, the co st to the n a tio n w hich F CI
impo ses
is a
sta ggerin g
Rs
62,000 millio n .1 The
tra ged y
o f ho w
F CI ha s fo rfeited its a uthen tic
go a ls thro ugh
PDS ha s been
d iscussed
ma n y
times in the
pa ges
o f this
w eekly.
The d isto rtio n s
a re: un even d istributio n a n d the fa ilure o f PDS to rea ch the
n eed y,
its
pa ten tly
urba n bia s a n d
po o r qua lity
a n d un relia ble
supply
in the ra tio n
sho ps.
This
implies
tha t the
po o r
fo r w ho m it w a s
mea n t w ere fo rced to
rely
o n the
o pen
ma rket. But a fter
libera lisa tio n , the in tro d uctio n o f
ta rgetin g n eed y
fa milies
by
ma kin g
a d istin ctio n o f belo w
po verty (BPL)
a n d a bo ve
po verty
(APL) ca tego ries
ha s exa cerba ted
pro blems,
a s BPL a n d APL a re
n o to rio usly subject
to
ma n ipula tio n by
in terested
pa rties.
At best
o f
times,
the BPL fa milies meet
ba rely
25
per
cen t o f their n eed s
thro ugh
the PDS. Wha t
rea lly
w en t
w ro n g
w ith the F CI's
system
is tha t the min imum
suppo rt price
a ssured to
surplus
fa rmers
thro ugh pro curemen t kept risin g
un d er
pressure
fro m the fa rm
lo bby
a n d the issue
price
o f the
gra in bega n
to be clo ser to the
ma rket
price.
In effect the
suppo sed 'subsid y'
to the co n sumers
rea lly
w en t to the rich fa rmers in three sta tes w ho
supply
the
bulk o f the F CI
pro curemen t. Even in the fo o d fo r w o rk
pro gra mmes
the cen tra l
go vern men t
meets
o n ly
50
per
cen t
thro ugh gra in
w hile the sta tes a re
expected
to
supply
the ca sh
co mpo n en t.
Given
the ca sh
stra pped
co n d itio n o f the sta tes,
this w a s n o t o f much
help.
Pra sha n t
Go a l,
secreta ry
to the chief
secreta ria t,
Po n d icherry,
w ith a ca n d o ur ra re
a mo n g
the
burea ucra cy
a d mitted (he
sa ys,
it is his
perso n a l o pin io n ):
"There is n eed to shift fro m the
existin g
expen sive, co rruptio n
rid d en in stitutio n a l
a rra n gemen ts
to tho se
tha t w ill en sure
chea p d elivery
o f
requisite qua lity gra in s
in a
tra n spa ren t
ma n n er, tha t a re a lso
self-ta rgetin g".
But w ho is to
bell the ca t?
[Go ya l 2002].
Altern a tives
suggested
ha ve been to
go
fo r
villa ge
level
gra in
ba n ks. These ha ve so fa r been tried in iso la ted
po ckets thro ugh
NGOs but n o w here ha ve these been
a ccepted
a s fea sible a t a ll
In d ia level. Other in itia tives
a ttempted by
NGOs a re fo r seed
co llectio n to
impro ve bio d iversity.
These a re a ll
priva te
en d ea vo urs
here a n d there.
Defin in g
F o o d
Security
We ha ve been
ta lkin g
o f
fo o d gra in supply
a n d its d istributio n
but F S is a bro a d er
co n cept.
There a re
ma n y
d efin itio n s
[Aya lew
2005].
To the Wo rld F o o d
Pro gra mme,
it is 'the a ssura n ce o f
ba la n ced
supply
a n d d ema n d o f
sta ple
fo o d s in the in tern a tio n a l
ma rket'.
Co n sid erin g
the in tern a tio n a l ma rket is n o t a ll tha t
frien d ly
to
po o r n a tio n s,
this d efin itio n seems to
imply
tha t if
the rich n a tio n s ha ve
en o ugh
tha t ta kes ca re o f a ll o f us. Deca d es
a go ,
in
1948,
the UN Decla ra tio n o f H uma n
Rights
in clud ed
the
right
to a n
a d equa te
sta n d a rd o f
livin g in clud in g
fo o d .
In 1966. the In tern a tio n a l Co ven a n t o n Eco n o mic a n d So cia l
Rights so ught
to en sure 'a n
a d equa te supply
o f w o rld
supply
in rela tio n to n eed '. Then In
1974, the Un iversa l Decla ra tio n o n
Era d ica tio n o f
H un ger
a n d Ma ln utritio n en un cia ted tha t
'every
ma n w o ma n a n d child ha s a n in a lien a ble
right
to be free fro m
hun ger'.
All these
pio us, glo ba l
d ecla ra tio n s ha ve d o n e little to
a lter the
rea lity
tha t 433 millio n in In d ia survive o n less tha n
1.00 $
per d a y
a n d tha t tha t In d ia ha s the
la rgest
n umber o f the
w o rld 's
po o r.
The Wo rld Ba n k's d efin itio n is mo re
a ccepta ble:
'a ccess
by
a ll
peo ple
a t a ll times to
en o ugh
fo o d fo r a n a ctive
a n d
hea lthy
life'. F S is n o t a n o n e o ff ma tter. F S ha s to be
Gen d er a n d F o o d
Security
The six
pa pers
in this sectio n a re d ra w n fro m a series o f semin a rs
co n d ucted
by
M S Sw a min a tha n Resea rch F o un d a tio n in
2004,
the In tern a tio n a l Yea r o f Rice, o n the
gen era l
theme o f
Gen d er,
Rice,
a n d F o o d
Security.
F ive o f the six
pa pers
in this sectio n
w ere
presen ted
a t the semin a r o n 'Gen d er Co n cern s a n d F o o d
Security
Issues in Rice Liveliho o d
Systems
in In d ia ' held a t
Chen n a i o n
September
2 a n d 3, 2004 w hile the sixth
pa per,
by
Sumi Krishn a , is d ra w n fro m her
keyn o te
a d d ress a t the
semin a r o n 'Gen d er Co n cern s a n d F o o d
Security
in Rice
F a rmin g
Systems', Wo rksho p
o n 'Rice
H erita ge
o f the No rth Ea st
-
Cha llen ges
a n d
Oppo rtun ities', ICAR,
Umiya m, Megha la ya :
No vember 5-6, 2004. All the
pa pers
ha ve been co n d en sed fo r
purpo ses
o f
presen ta tio n
here.
The Eco n o mic a n d Po litica l
Weekly
tha n ks Min a Sw a min a tha n
fo r
o rga n isin g
this co llectio n .
Eco n o mic a n d Po litica l
Weekly
Jun e
18, 2005
2509
This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Wed, 19 Mar 2014 07:38:51 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
susta in a ble o ver time. Suicid e
by
fa rmers in In d ia
pro ve tha t
tempo ra ry
ca sh flo w d o es n o t
gua ra n tee
F S o ver time. No r d id
the
green
revo lutio n .
Un d er
libera lisa tio n ,
a gricultura l expo rts
a re
empha sised .
Our
go vern men t
so un d s
pro -po o r
in in tern a tio n a l meets. In the
a gricultura l
co mmittee o f
WTO,
In d ia a d vo ca ted a "ma rket
plus
a ppro a ch'.
In the
a greemen t
o n
a griculture (AOA)
a t the
Urugua y
ro un d there w a s
o sten sibly
a co n cern to
brin g d isciplin e
to o n e
o f the mo st d isto rted a rea s o f tra d e.
Euro pe
a n d No rth America
co d d le their
a gricultura l
secto r w ith ma ssive subsid ies a n d
pro tectio n ist po licies
a n d tra d e is tilted in their fa vo ur w hile
they
ta lk o f n o n -tra d e ba rriers fo r o ther co un tries. The
prea mble
in
AOA
reco gn ised
the
impo rta n ce
o f n o n -tra d e co n cern s like fo o d
security
a n d en viro n men ta l
pro tectio n .
This
a pplies especia lly
to co un tries like In d ia w ith a
sign ifica n t po pula tio n d epen d en t
o n
a griculture
fo r w ho m ma in ten a n ce o f liveliho o d is critica l.
In d ia
a rgued
fo r a flexible
a ppro a ch
w ithin AOA. To w ha t exten t
this w ill be ho n o ured is
a n ybo d y's guess.
F S is n o t
just
a ma tter o f fo o d -
qua lity
o f fo o d tha t en sures
n utritio n , a n d hea lthca re tha t
pro tects peo ple
fro m
d ebilita tin g
d isea ses o r in testin a l
pa ra sites
tha t lea k n utritio n a re a ll
pa rt
o f
it [Ra d ha krishn a 2005]. H en ce so lutio n s ca n n o t be a
sin gle
o n e
but a n
in tegra ted a ppro a ch.
In vestmen t in rura l a n d urba n
d evelo pmen t
tha t en sures the liveliho o d o f
peo ple
in a mea sure
tha t en a bles them to
get excha n ge
en titlemen ts a n d
build up
their
en d o w men ts like
a ssets, skill,
a ppro pria te techn o lo gy
a re
critica l,
but a bo ve a ll so cia l a n d
po litica l po w er
ma tter mo st. Public
expen d iture
o n sa fe
w a ter, sa n ita tio n , hea lth ca re, a n d
public
a ssista n ce fo r a ffo rd a ble fo o d a re a ll
pa rt
o f
en surin g
F S. "On e
ca n n o t in vest in o n e
a spect
o f
po verty.
There is n eed fo r a
ba la n ced
a ppro a ch,
w ith
la rge pro jects
in
ed uca tio n , hea lth,
n utritio n , rura l in fra structure. At
presen t
the
go vern men t
spen d s
4
per
cen t o n ed uca tio n a n d less tha n 1
per
cen t o n
hea lth" [Sa chs 2005].
The
Pla n n in g
Co mmissio n w ill be
settin g up
a F o o d a n d
Nutritio n
Security
Wa tch to fun ctio n a s a thin k ta n k o n fo o d a n d
n utritio n
security
issues a n d review
pro gra mmes. Ackn o w led g-
in g
tha t his
pa rty
ha d rid d en to
po w er
o n a w a ve o f
a gra ria n
d istress,
prime
min ister Ma n mo ha n
Sin gh
co mmitted his
go vern men t
to a n ew d ea l fo r rura l In d ia . We
ho pe
it w ill be
tra n sla ted in to a co n crete
rea lity [To l 2005].
A F o o d
In security
a n d
Vuln era bility
In fo rma tio n a n d
Ma ppin g System (F IVIMS)
a t the In tern a tio n a l level ha s been set
up
a n d the
go vern men t
o f In d ia w ill un d erta ke fo o d a n d n utritio n surveilla n ce in three
sta tes o f In d ia
[F AO 1999].
MS Sw a min a tha n Resea rch F o un d a tio n
(MSSRF )
ha s
pro -
d uced a F o o d
In security
Atla s fo r In d ia
(2002).
It fo llo w s the
F AO d efin itio n o f F S: 'F S is a situa tio n w hich exists w hen a ll
peo ple
a t a ll
times, ha ve
physica l
a n d eco n o mic a ccess to suf-
ficien t, sa fe a n d n utritio us fo o d to meet their
d ieta ry
n eed s a n d
fo o d
preferen ces
fo r a n a ctive a n d
hea lthy
life'.The Atla s uses
17 in d ica to rs tha t in clud e fo o d
a ffo rd a bility, a va ila bility, a bso rp-
tio n , a ccess, a ccess to
ho usin g,
d iscrimin a tio n in liveliho o d
a ccess, a ccess to
sa n ita tio n , hea lth a n d n utritio n a l o utco me.
Pro blems o f urba n
po verty
a re a s severe a n d multifa ceted a s tha t
o f rura l d istress.
The hea lth a n d
gro w th
o utco mes d ue to
po o r
fo o d
security
ha ve
been d o cumen ted bo th
by fa mily
hea lth
surveys
a n d the Nutritio n
F o un d a tio n o f In d ia there is a
high pro po rtio n o f stun tin g a n d
w a sta ge a mo n g child ren , preva len ce o f a n a emia
a mo n g w o men ,
high in cid en ce o f d isea ses like tuberculo sis, a n d blin d n ess d ue
to vita min A
d eficien cy.
Po o r n utritio n is a lso the ca use o f
ma tern a l d ea ths.
Gen d er a n d F o o d
Security
Wo men a re a ctive a t
every po in t
in the fo o d cha in a n d a re o ften
respo n sible
fo r
pro tectin g
the
in tegrity
o f fo o d a n d
en surin g
its
w ho leso men ess a n d
sa fety [F AO 2005].
Co min g
to the set o f
pa pers
in clud ed
here,
they
d o n o t a d d ress
F S
d irectly. They
d o n o t
go
in to issues o f in tra -ho useho ld d is-
tributio n o f fo o d but d ra w a tten tio n to the reso urces a va ila ble
to w o men fo r
pro curin g
fo o d
ma in ly thro ugh emplo ymen t. They
fo cus o n
excha n ge
en titlemen ts a n d n a rra te tren d s w hich
they
fin d
d isquietin g. Apa rt
fro m
in a d equa te o ppo rtun ities
fo r
w a ge
la bo ur, la ck o f co mma n d o ver
pro d uctive
reso urces a ct a s a
ma jo r
co n stra in t fo r tho se w o men w ho d o un d erta ke
fa rmin g
fo r the
ho useho ld .
Pa rticipa tio n
in the
pro d uctio n
o f fo o d d o es n o t
gua ra n tee
co mmen sura te return s.
In d epen d en t
la n d
rights ma y
n o t be a
pa n a cea .
H o useho ld
pro sperity ma y
lea d to lo ss o f
a uto n o my.
As
lo n g
a s
ma rria ge
is the ba sis o f
security
a n d so cia l
prestige,
w o men
ma y prefer
to ba n k o n
co mplia n ce
w ith so cia l
n o rms. On e o f the
thin gs,
femin ist
d isco urse, co n cern ed w ith
d o mestic vio len ce a n d subo rd in a tio n o f w o men in the
fa mily,
fo rgets
is tha t ho useho ld s un d erta ke
ma n y co o pera tive
ta sks a n d
w o men a s members o f ho useho ld s ha ve
high
sta kes in its
sta bility
a n d so cia l esteem.
They
d erive their ba sic
id en tity
fro m the
fa mily-ho useho ld . Nitya
Ra o a n d Pra veen a Ko d o th a d d ress the
issue o f la n d
rights
but fro m d ifferen t
a n gles.
Ra o
questio n s
the
premise un d erlyin g po licy
a n d d isco urse tha t
in d epen d en t
la n d
rights
fo r w o men w ill red uce
po verty.
Ko d o th exa min es the effect
o f
pro gressive
la n d refo rms in West
Ben ga l
a n d Kera la a n d
co n clud es tha t
they
resulted in
regressive
effects o n w o men .
To
Ra o , the shift in
po licy rega rd in g a gricultura l prmd uctio n
a n d la n d
ma n a gemen t, n a tio n a lly
a n d
in tern a tio n a lly
is ba sed o n
the
premise
tha t sin ce
a griculture
is
in crea sin gly beco min g
the
d o ma in o f
w o men , en ha n cemen t o f w o men 's en d o w men t
thro ugh
la n d w ill in crea se
pro d uctio n ,
red uce
po verty
a n d en sure fo o d
security.
This is
in spired
mo re
by
a n in strumen ta l
a ppro a ch
ra ther
tha n o ut o f a co mmitmen t to
equa l rights
a n d so cia l
justice.
She
sees n o evid en ce tha t la n d
o w n ership
red uces
po verty given
tha t
la n d sizes a re so sma ll a n d
a griculture
ha s beco me a
sin kin g ship
fo r the
ma jo rity
o f
po o r
fa rmers w ho co n stitute the bulk o f o ur
rura l
po pula tio n .
Experimen ts
in w a ste la n d
d evelo pmen t thro ugh
w o men 's
co llective ha ve been successful
o n ly
w here there is co n sid era ble
suppo rt
fro m NGOs. It is true w o men ha ve
fo ught
fo r la n d
rights
in
Bo d hga ya
but here
a ga in
it is
thro ugh
the in terven tio n o f
so cia l a ctivists a n d
suppo rt by
lo ca l men . Even here o n ce
w o men d id
get rights, they preferred
n o t to tra n sfer it to
d a ughters
a s
d a ughters
mo ve
a w a y
to their ma rita l ho me. Let us remember
tha t there is n o t much
public
la n d fo r d istributio n . Ara ble la n d
is tra n sferred
o n ly thro ugh
in herita n ce. La n d is a ma rker o f so cia l
sta tus,
prestige
a n d
id en tity.
Wo men see la n d a s rela ted to the
fa mily.
The ma le ro le is
perceived
to be tha t o f the
pro vid er
(even
if o ften ma les
repud ia te
it a n d a ba n d o n w o men if
thin gs
get ro ugh).
With the d ra stic red uctio n o f the ro le o f
a griculture
in
supplemen tin g
ho useho ld in co me, w o rk burd en o n w o men
a n d
girls
ha s in crea sed
grea tly.
"In a situa tio n o f restricted
mo bility a n d restricted cho ices, w o men
prefer the
security
o f
ma rria ge" a s Ra o
sa ys. It is the
so cia lly embed d ed n a ture o f
kin ship a n d
ma rria ge systems, its
stro n g a sso cia tio n w ith
2510
Eco n o mic a n d Po litica l
Weekly
Jun e
18, 2005
This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Wed, 19 Mar 2014 07:38:51 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
cultura l
id en tity
a n d
symbo lism
tha t ma kes it d ifferen t fro m
o ther
a spects
o f
gen d er
rela tio n s such a s sexua l ha ra ssmen t,
vio len ce, etc.
Ra o a d vo ca tes d iversifica tio n o f
emplo ymen t
fo r w o men . This
w a s a lso the co n clusio n a rrived a t
by Krishn a ra j
a n d Sha h
(2004).
H o w ever a s d iversifica tio n is n o t
go in g
to be
ea sy
in the sho rt
run ,
Ra o w o uld ha ve us
empha sise public
w o rks a n d fo o d
subsid y.
Ra o
implies
in her referen ce to Sa n tha l
Pa rga n a s
tha t men
everyw here pro vid e
the ba sics fo r the ho useho ld w hile w o men
pro vid e
the 'extra s'
thro ugh w o rkin g
a s
migra n t
la bo ur a s if it
is a
gen era l phen o men o n .
On the
co n tra ry
it is the o ther
w a y
- in mo st
pa rts,
w o men
pro vid e
the ba sics w hile men
pro vid e
the extra s. In
my
o w n field w o rk in Ma ha ra shtra in
a griculture
a s w ell a s
cra fts, subsisten ce w a s the
pred o min a n t
ro le o f w o men .
Acco un ts in this sectio n fro m ea stern Utta r Pra d esh a n d the n o rth-
ea st in d ica te ho w w o men en sure subsisten ce.
Ko d o th w ith d a ta a bo ut the
impa ct
o f
pro gressive
la n d refo rms
in West
Ben ga l
a n d Kera la , cho sen fo r their d o min a n t Left
presen ce
ha s so mew ha t co n tro versia l co n clusio n s. She n o tices
in crea se in
d o w ry pra ctice
even
a mo n g
the
po o rer
sectio n s.
Alien a tio n o f la n d o n a cco un t o f
d o w ry
is
pro n o un ced a mo n g
a gricultura l
la bo ur a n d sma ll
pea sa n t
ho useho ld s a s w ell a s
a mo n g w o rkin g
cla sses a n d lo w er ca stes in Kera la w ho
previo usly
d id n o t o w n la n d but received so me in Kera la . This is a cco m-
pa n ied by
w ithd ra w a l fro m
pa id
la bo ur fo r w o men . She sees this
a s the
a spira tio n
fo r a
higher
so cia l sta tus. There a re co n tra sts
betw een West
Ben ga l
a n d Kera la w ith
respect
to
un d erlyin g
co n d itio n s. Kera la ha d
go n e
thro ugh
so cia l refo rm w hich
resulted in co n so lid a tio n o f ca stes a n d therefo re ha s
stren gth-
en ed ca ste id en tities. In the
ba ckgro un d
o f
po liticised
ca ste a n d
religio n ,
ra d ica l refo rms go t w a tered d o w n ,
stren gthen ed
fo rmer
ten a n ts a n d mid d le sectio n s, w hile in herited so cia l n o rms w ere
reta in ed . Wo men ha d
a lrea d y
lo st
pro perty
w ith the
w itherin g
o f
ma trilin y. Ma rria ge
beca me
impo rta n t
in
red efin in g pro perty
rela tio n s. The
emergen ce
o f
d o w ry
a fter the 1960s a n d in crea se
in
expen sive ma rria ges
a n d
expen d iture
o n life
cycle
ceremo n ies
a re
expressio n s
o f n ew fo un d
pro sperity,
fuelled a lso
by
remit-
ta n ces fre -
gulf migra tio n a mo n g
sectio n s o f the
po pula tio n .
Ko d o th ma rsha ls d a ta fro m
ma n y
field stud ies to esta blish
these tren d s.
In West
Ben ga l, a gricultura l pro d uctio n
in crea sed in the 1980s
a n d rice cultiva tio n w a s
by
sma ll
pea sa n ts.
There w a s n o
a g-
grega tio n
o f ca ste in terests, ca ste d ivisio n s w ere
fra gmen ted
a n d
the Left w a s un a ble to rise a bo ve the in terests o f the mid d le a n d
upper
sectio n s. There ha s been a
pro gressive
shift fro m brid e
price
to
d o w ry
a n d
girls
a re ma rried
yo un g
to
esca pe d o w ry.
In herita n ce is
a lw a ys
d etermin ed
by
so cia l
gro up
in terests. The
go vern men t
o f In d ia 's
stipula tio n rega rd in g jo in t pa tta s
w a s
ign o red .
While in bo th sta tes, the
pro po rtio n
o f w o men in n o n -
fa rm a ctivities in crea sed , in Kera la it w a s mo re in ho useho ld
in d ustry.
This d iversifica tio n o f w o men 's
emplo ymen t
w a s
in tertw in ed w ith
gen d er
co n serva tism. The n et result ha s been
w o men 's liveliho o d
security
ha s been a n cho red in
ma rria ge.
In
this
scen a rio , w id o w s, d ivo rced o r
sin gle
w o men a re a t a d is-
a d va n ta ge.
Ko d o th's o bserva tio n
rega rd in g
the
pull
o f so cia l
mo bility
a re
va lid a n d w ell ta ken .
H o w ever,
o n e a lso ha s to un d ersta n d tha t
if w o men
a gree
to
d ispen se
w ith
in d epen d en t
in co me
ea rn in g
w o rk, it is n o t
en tirely
d ue to co n serva tive so cia l n o rms tha t
gra n ts higher sta tus to 'fema le seclusio n ', but a lso the sheer
burd en o f ha rd
physica l
la bo ur w ith lo w return s, the d o uble
burd en o f
fa mily
w o rk
plus
o utsid e
w o rk,
the
lo n g ho urs,
the
terms a n d co n d itio n s o f tha t w o rk. These a re
equa lly in fluen cin g
fa cto rs.
Ma n y
o f
us,
w ho a re in w hite-co lla r
pro fessio n s,
fa il to
gra sp
the
en erva tin g,
so ul
killin g a spects
o f the
d rud gery
in vo lved
in ma n ua l w o rk. All
thro ugh
huma n
histo ry, peo ple
ha ve tried
to
esca pe
ma n ua l la bo ur a n d so cia l
privilege
mea n t tha t
they get
so me else
(tho se
w ho a re
vuln era ble, w itho ut
reso urces)
to d o
their
jo b.
In d ia
perfected
this
system by
a
superbly
a rticula ted
ca ste
system.
Thelma Pa ris, Abha
Sin gh, Jo yce
Luis a n d Ma ha bu H o ssa in
in their
pa per
o n
impa ct
o f ma le la bo ur
migra tio n
o n w o men
in rice fa rms in ea stern Utta r Pra d esh d o cumen t the
high respo n -
sibility
fo r
keepin g
the
fa mily
fa rm
impo sed
o n w o men left
behin d .
They
ta ke o ver a ll
fa rmin g respo n sibilities in clud in g
ma n a gemen t
a n d
d ecisio n -ma kin g.
H o w ever
la ckin g
the reso urces
fo r
en ha n cin g pro d uctivity,
the
yield s
a re n o t
sa tisfa cto ry
either
a mo n g
the ho useho ld s w ith
migra n ts
o r w itho ut
migra n ts.
The
remitta n ces
by migra n ts go
to meet so cia l a n d
religio us o bliga -
tio n s a n d fo r
ga in in g
a ssets like
pucca
ho uses. These
fin d in gs
d rive ho me the
po in t
tha t
respo n sibility
o n w o men d o es n o t
ma ke fo r mo re
equita ble gen d er
rela tio n s. While
fa mily
fa rm
ma n a gemen t
d o es
pro vid e
fo r a mea sure o f fo o d
security,
it is
la id
un ila tera lly
o n the sho uld ers o f w o men .
'F emin isa tio n ' o f
Agriculture
Simila r co n clusio n s
rega rd in g
'femin isa tio n ' o f
a griculture
is
ma d e
by
Sw a rn a
Vepa by lo o kin g
a t cen sus d a ta . H o w ever cen sus
d a ta o r ma cro d a ta is n o t
helpful
to esta blish tren d s a s d efin itio n s
a n d
co vera ge
lea ve much to be d esired .
Despite
effo rts ma d e
o ver the
yea rs
to
impro ve co vera ge
o f w o men 's w o rk in rura l
a rea s
by pro per
in clusio n o f
un pa id pro d uctive w o rk,
there ha s
been
o n ly ma rgin a l impro vemen t.
The d efin itio n o f cultiva to rs
in the cen sus relies o n
o w n ership
o f la n d so tha t even
tho ugh
w o men
a ctua lly
cultiva te
they
a re seen a s
fa mily
la bo ur. H en ce
this fa ct is n o t reflected in the
pro po rtio n
o f men a n d w o men
cultiva to rs w hich ma ke so me
peo ple d ispute
tha t there is
femin isa tio n o f
a griculture
in In d ia .
Lea vin g
a sid e these tech-
n ica lities,
n o o n e ca n
d en y
the fa ct tha t w o men co n tin ue to be
immersed in
a griculture
a n d bea r a
hea vy
burd en o f
fa rmin g
ta sks
w ith less a ccess to n o n -fa rm w o rk tha n men . Sumi Krishn a
ca ptures
this
rea lity
tha t the
price
o f rice is
gen d ered
- in o ther
w o rd s the co st o f fo o d
security
is bo rn e
by
w o men . She exa min es
in d eta il the
fa rmin g system
in the n o rth-ea st. Wo men here ha ve
preserved bio d iversity,
ha ve exten sive
kn o w led ge
o f seed s a n d
their cha ra cteristics. In terms o f to ta l a mo un t o f
w o rk,
w o men 's
sha re fa r exceed s tha t o f men . The
ma jo rity
o f the so cieties a re
pa trilin ea l
w ith the
exceptio n
o f a
few , like the Ga ro s a n d Kha sis.
Gen era lly
beca use w o men ha ve mo re freed o m to mo ve
a bo ut,
un d erta ke
ma rketin g,
ha ve less strict sexua l co d es, a re n o t bo un d
by o ppressive ma rria ges,
the
rea lity
tha t w o men 's lives a re
subject
to
un d erlyin g
so cia l n o rms a n d
pra ctices
is o bscured . Wo men
a re exclud ed fro m
co mmun ity
d ecisio n s. Po o r eco n o mic co n -
d itio n s w hich n ecessita te
grea ter co o pera tio n
in
jo in t
a ctivities
hid e
un equa l po w er
in
gen d er
rela tio n s.
Ba rba ra H a rris d ea ls w ith
po st-ha rvest
w o rk o f w o men a n d
d elvin g thro ugh histo ry
tra ces the
ma rgin a lisa tio n
o f w o men fro m
a n ea rlier
pre-emin en t po sitio n
in these a ctivities d ue to
co mmercia lisa tio n a n d co mmo d ifica tio n . It is a
very co mplica ted
pa per
w here she tries to
a pply
tw o theo ries
-
tha t o f Esther
Bo serup
a n d Ursula H uw s to the
po st-ha rvest rice
o pera tio n s
in
Eco n o mic a n d Po litica l
Weekly
Jun e 18, 2005
2511
This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Wed, 19 Mar 2014 07:38:51 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
o rd er to d emo n stra te tha t bo th a re o ff the ma rk a n d a re
o n ly
pa rtia lly right. Bo serup'
s thesis is tha t
plo ugh a griculture
red uced
o ppo rtun ities
fo r w o men in
pro d uctive
w o rk in so uth Asia . H uw s
ta lked o f 'co mmo d ifica tio n '
n a mely,
ho w
pro d ucts
o r services
tha t ha d use va lue beca me
o bjects
fo r sa le a n d
purcha se.
H a rris
sho w s tha t w o men d id n o t lo se
pro d uctive
w o rk but beca me
w a ge
la bo ur w ithin rice
fa rmin g systems
in a d d itio n to
en ga gin g
in
petty pro d uctio n
a n d tra d e.
In stea d ,
a
rema rka bly
sta ble structure
o f d ema n d fo r ba sic
w a ge go o d s
a n d services un d er
petty pro -
d uctio n survived a n d
expa n d ed
in In d ia . In
Ben ga l,
w o men
husked
pa d d y thro ugh
the tra d itio n a l 'd heki' fo r ca sh -
hirin g
themselves o ut o r
hirin g
o thers. With the in tro d uctio n o f rice
hullers this ta sk w a s ta ken o ver
by
men . In the seco n d
pha se,
w ith the in tro d uctio n o f mo d ern rice mills this tren d w a s further
a ccen tua ted . In the
Pun ja b,
there w a s mo re o f ca sua l ma le la bo ur
w ith mecha n isa tio n a n d w o men in
fa mily
fa rms subsid ised the
a ctivity by co o kin g
fo o d fo r la bo ur.
The in tro d uctio n o f mo d ern mills in crea sed the sca le o f
co mmercia lisa tio n ,
it a lso led to a lo t o f
by pro d ucts
-
husk a s
fuel fo r the
mills, rice bra n a s ca ttle
feed ,
bra n a s in d ustria l so lven t
extra cto rs,
bro ken rice
po w d ered
a s
o rga n ic
fertiliser a n d a s ba se
fo r co smetics. These mills a re run
by fa mily
co n cern s a s w ell
a s
co mpa n ies.
H uw s
theo ry
o f co mmo d ifca tio n
a pplies o n ly
to
w o men in the ho useho ld s w here mills a re co mmercia l
en terprises.
H ere w o men
perfo rm
n o
pro d uctive
w o rk in
po st-ha rvest
a ctivi-
ties but
buy
a n d sell w ha t
they
used to d o fo r themselves ea rlier.
The
theo ry
d o es n o t
a pply
to the
ma jo rity
o f rura l w o men .
The in tro d uctio n o f rice mills in crea sed the n umber o f live-
liho o d s -
sub-a gen ts, pa d d y bro kers,
petty
mill
pro d ucers,
n ew
puffin g un its, itin era n t
tra d ers, n ew ren ta l
ma rkets, ma rkets fo r
seco n d -ha n d
ma chin es,
d ryin g
field s fo r
rice,
pa rbo ilin g un its,
pa rbo ilin g ma chin ery
un its a n d a ho st o f rela ted a ctivities. Rice
en ters the fo o d cha in a s
rice,
co o kin g
o il a n d mea t
(pro d uced
by
ca ttle feed o f
bra n ).
The H a rris
sa ga
en d s o n a sa d d er n o te
-
w hile w o men 's
emplo ymen t expa n d ed ,
rea l
w a ges in crea sed ,
a ctua lisa tio n a n d
in security
w ere a tten d a n t fea tures. Self
pro vi-
sio n in g
w hich
ga ve
w o men d irect co n tro l o ver fo o d
supply
is
n o w
repla ced by
the n eed to lo o k fo r n o n -fa rm w o rk w ith
po o r
return s rela tive to la bo ur.
The
pa pers
d ea l w ith rice
fa rmin g
a s this w a s the
subject
o f
the semin a r fo r w hich it w a s in ten d ed .
They
d o n o t d ea l w ith
qua lity
o f fo o d o r o ther
d evelo pmen ta l
n eed s like
hea lth,
sa n ita tio n o r sa fe w a ter.
They
a re ho w ever illustra tive o f the
gen era l
situa tio n
rega rd in g
fo o d
in security a mo n g po o r
w o men
a n d
po in t
to the
urgen cy
o f
public
mea sures fo r
pro tectio n
o f
this vuln era ble sectio n . EI
Ema il:
ma ithreyi_krishn a ra j @ya ho o .co m
No te
1
Quo ted by
Sha rma ; he d o es n o t
give
the d a te
Referen ces
Aya lew ,
Md a ku
(2005):
'Wha t is F o o d
Security'?
F a min e a n d
H un ger'. http:/
/w w w .bra d .a c.uk.
F AO
(1999): 'Develo pmen t
o f F o o d
In security
a n d
Vuln era bility Ma ppin g
Systems
in In d ia : A
Repo rt',
F AO. Ro me.
-
(2005): 'Gen d er a n d F o o d
Security', http://w w w .F AO.o rg/gen d er/17687
Go ya l,
Pra sha n t
(2002): 'F o o d
In security
in In d ia ', The H in d u,
Ja n ua ry
10.
H a w tin ,
Geo ffery (2005):
'Gen etic
Diversity
a n d F o o d
Security.
In tern a tio n a l
Pla n t Gen etic Reso urces In stitute'. Un esco Co urier.
Ma y.
IF AD
(2005):
'In d ia :
Impa ct
o f Ma rket Orien ted
Pro d uctio n ', In tern a tio n a l
F o un d a tio n fo r
Agricultura l d evelo pmen t, http://w w w . F AO.o rg.
Krishn a ra j, Ma ithreyi
a n d Amita Sha h (2004): 'Wo men F a rmers in In d ia :
Declin in g Optio n s
a n d F uture Po sibilities', Dra ft
Repo rt, Guja ra t
In stitute
o f
Develo pmen t Resea rch, Ahmed a ba d .
M S Sw a min a tha n Resea rch F o un d a tio n
(2002):
'F o o d
In security Atla s',
MSSRF .
Ra d ha krishn a , R
(2005): 'F o o d a n d Nutritio n
Security
fo r the Po o r in
In d ia ',
Eco n o mic a n d Po litica l Weekly,
April
30.
Sha rma , Devin d er
(2004): 'Altern a tive
Stra tegies
fo r In d ia 's
Develo pmen t',
http://w w w .ma n fully.o rg.fo o d /ln d ia
The H in d u: In d ia
(2002): 'To gether Orga n isa tio n Repo rt
o n Ma len a d u Seed
Co llectio n '.
Ja n ua ry
10.
The Times
o f
In d ia
(2005): 'Pla n
pa n el
to set
up
F o o d
Security Wa tch',
Ma rch 8.
SPECIAL ISSUE
NATIONAL ELECTION STUDY 2004
December
18,
2004
Na tio n a l Electio n
Stud y
2004: An In tro d uctio n
-Lo kn iti Tea m
The Elusive Ma n d a te o f 2004
-Yo gen d ra
Ya d a v
Co n stra in ts o n Electo ra l Mo bilisa tio n
-Pra ta p
Bha n u Mehta
Demo cra cy,
Eco n o mic Refo rms a n d Electio n Results in In d ia
-K C Suri
Pa rticipa to ry
No rm: H o w Bro a d -ba sed Is It?
-Suha s
Pa lshika r,
Sa n ja y
Kuma r
Electo ra l Co a litio n s in 2004 Gen era l Electio n s:
Theo ry
a n d Evid en ce
-E Srid ha ra n
Ma jo rita ria n
Mid d le Gro un d ?
-Suha s Pa lshika r
H o w Gen d ered Wa s Wo men 's
Pa rticipa tio n
in Electio n 2004?
-Ra jeshw a ri Deshpa n d e
Assessin g
the Electo ra l
System:
A Po sitive Verd ict
-Ritu Ra o
An a lyses
o f Sta tes
Appen d ix
F o r
co pies
w rite to :
Circula tio n
Ma n a ger,
Eco n o mic a n d Po litica l
Weekly,
H itka ri
H o use, 284, Sha hid
Bha ga tsin gh Ro a d , Mumba i 400 001.
ema il:
circula tio n @epw .o rg.in
2512
Eco n o mic a n d Po litica l
Weekly
Jun e
18,
2005
This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Wed, 19 Mar 2014 07:38:51 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions