www.hydrocarbonengineering.

com Reprinted from July2007 HYDROCARBONENGINEERING

F
lares are devices used to safely and efciently dispose of operational or
emergency relief of ammable gases and liquids
1
. They are somewhat
unique compared to other common combustion devices such as burners
because of the very wide range of owrates and compositions that they often
handle. This makes the design very challenging as ares often have to be
capable of safely handling gas ows from as low as several hundred pounds
per hour or less (purge rate) up to as much as a million or more pounds
per hour. This means a are must have a very wide turndown range, where
turndown is the ratio of the highest to lowest owrates of waste streams that
can be safely handled.
There have traditionally
been six important performance
parameters of interest for
most ares
2
. The rst is the
hydraulic capacity, which is
the maximum gas owrate that
can ow through the are at
a given pressure for a given
gas molecular weight and gas
temperature. While the gases
are safely combusted, smoke
is often generated. Since this
is the maximum design ow
that could occur during an
emergency, the primary focus is safely disposing of the gases and not on how
much smoke is generated.
The second parameter is the smokeless capacity. This is the maximum
ow of waste gases that can be sent to the are without producing signicant
levels of smoke. It is usually lower than the hydraulic capacity. A are is typically
designed so that the smokeless capacity is at least as much as the maximum
waste gas owrate expected during normal daily operation.
The third performance parameter of interest is the thermal radiation
generated by the are as a function of the waste gas owrate and composition
3
.
The radiation levels at specic points of interest are typically limited to avoid
injuring personnel and damaging equipment. The height of the are is then
determined by how tall the stack needs to be so that the radiation levels at
specied locations are maintained at or below desired levels.
The fourth parameter of interest in ares is noise. Excessive noise can injure
personnel, damage equipment, and property both inside and outside of the
plant.
The fth parameter is utility consumption rates at various waste owrates,
typically measured in terms of steam to hydrocarbon mass ratio for steam
assisted ares and horsepower required per unit hydrocarbon mass owrate
for air assisted ares. This parameter reects how efcient a are design is
in utilising the momentum of the steam in a steam assisted are, or the air
supplied by the blower in an air assisted are.
The sixth parameter is the minimum purge gas owrate required. The purge
gas is supplied for two purposes: to prevent air ingression into the stack, which
New steam assisted
flare technology
J. Hong, C. Baukal, M. Bastianen, J.
Bellovich and K. Leary, John Zink
Company, LLC, USA, present innovative
steam assisted flare technology.
Reprinted from HYDROCARBONENGINEERING July2007 www.hydrocarbonengineering.com
could produce an explosive mixture leading to severe
stack damage; and to prevent internal burning in the fuel
plenum that could lead to are tip failure. The purge rate
required to prevent stack damage is typically lower than
the purge rate required to prevent internal burning. In order
to prevent internal burning in a steam assisted are, centre
steam is often used. An additional (seventh) parameter that
has received considerable
attention recently is pollutant
emissions from ares
4
.
There are various types
of ares, depending on the
specic application. If the
waste gases are at a relatively
low pressure, then some type
of assist media is often used
to entrain air into the ame
to increase the smokeless
waste gas owrate. The two
most common assist media
are steam and air. In the
case of air assisted ares, one or more blowers supply
a portion of the combustion air to the are. Air assisted
ares are commonly used where steam is limited, such
as in locations where water is limited (e.g. the desert). For
steam assisted ares, steam is used to entrain a portion
of the combustion air to the are. For either type of assist
medium, most of the combustion air comes from the
ambient air surrounding the are ame.
Conventional steam assisted
flares
By far the most popular type of assisted are is steam
assisted, which is the type discussed here. Figure 1
shows the effectiveness of steam assist for increasing the
smokeless capacity of a are. There are many types of
steam assisted ares that are available. One common high
efciency design uses a bundle of tubes inside the are
stack where the waste gas ows outside the tubes and a
steam/air mixture ows inside the tubes. A typical design
is shown in Figure 2. There is no premixing inside the are,
so the combustion air and ammable waste products mix
at the exit of the are tip. The tip of a typical steam are is
shown in Figure 3. There are usually three different steam
supply lines for this type of are: to the tubes inside the
are; to the upper rim at the top of the are tip; and inside
the waste gas plenum of the are tip (often referred to as
centre steam). For optimum performance, each of these
lines is independently controlled. The steam supply to the
tubes inside the tip is used to entrain combustion air into
the interior of the ame to increase the smokeless capacity.
The steam supply to the upper rim of the tip minimises
wind effects and helps entrain combustion air into the
are ame. The centre steam supply is primarily to prevent
internal burning that can occur during very low waste gas
owrates where air can migrate inside the are gas plenum
due to buoyancy, cross wind and capping.
One potential limitation of conventional steam assisted
ares is related to what can happen if the steam supplies
are not in the correct proportions. If the steam are is
not operated properly, a detrimental phenomenon called
capping can occur, if too much steam is supplied to the
upper steam ring and too little is supplied to the lower
steam ring. This is shown schematically in Figure 4. The
upper steam ows upward and inward toward the centre.
The collision above the are tip creates a zone with a
relatively high pressure, acting as a uidic dome or a cap
over the are tip that can force some of the ame down
inside the waste gas plenum, causing internal burning.
Depending on the severity, ames can actually be pushed
all the way back through the steam air tubes, resulting in
Figure 2. Schematic of an internal tube type steam assisted flare.
Figure 3. An internal tube type steam assisted flare.
Figure 1. Effectiveness of steam in smoke suppression: (left) without steam, (right) with steam.
www.hydrocarbonengineering.com Reprinted from July2007 HYDROCARBONENGINEERING
ame engulfment of the are tip. Prolonged capping can
damage the are due to the internal burning and ame
engulfment. Figure 5 shows a photo of a capped are.
Centre steam is often used to prevent internal burning
at purge rate ows by increasing the volume owrate
and therefore the velocity through the tip to prevent air
inltration. This is less expensive than simply increasing
the purge owrate of a purchased gas such as natural gas.
However, the centre steam ow still represents a signicant
cost. Using centre steam in freezing weather conditions
can sometimes cause the steam to condense and freeze,
plugging up the are tip. In cold weather conditions, it is
common to turn off the centre steam and increase the
purge gas owrate, which typically increases the operating
costs of the are.
New steam assisted flare
development
A development project was initiated to address some of
the limitations of conventional steam assisted ares. An
important objective of designing a new steam assisted are
was to reduce the amount of steam required to achieve
smokeless combustion of a given waste owrate. This can
be quantied as the ratio of the mass of steam needed per
unit mass of are gas (S/HC ratio), at a are gas owrate
where smoke is just beginning to be produced (sometimes
referred to as the incipient smoking rate). Reducing steam
consumption directly reduces utility costs. If the plant is
steam limited, reducing the steam ow to the are system
can also free up steam for other uses in the plant.
An extensive development programme, utilising
computational uid dynamic (CFD) modelling
5
, cold ow
modelling and large scale combustion testing
6
, led to a new
are design called the Steamizer XP (patent pending). A
drawing of one version of the XP is shown in Figure 6. The
XP consists of multiple modules connected to a common
waste gas supply header. An important innovation with this
design is that the steam/air tubes are straight, instead of
having a bend as in the conventional steam assisted are
design. This dramatically reduces the ow frictional losses.
The increased ow efciency optimises air entrainment for
a given steam owrate.
Extensive computer modelling was done to investigate
various aspects of the new are design. CFD, including
the effects of ame radiation, was used to study the heat
load effects caused by high or low waste gas ows during
high and low winds. Extensive thermal stress modelling
was also done to study the effects of ame radiation and
very high wind loading on the stresses created in the are
tip. A fatigue assessment was included based on the
ASME VIII Section II code. The stress analyses showed
that the design is very robust under the conditions
modelled.
Another important design feature of the XP design
is the shape of the nozzle outlet, whose purposes are to
efciently mix the air with the are gas and to minimise/
prevent internal burning. A proprietary geometry and ame
stabiliser conguration was developed with the help of CFD
modelling
5
.
Testing of various module congurations was
conducted in a full scale air entrainment test rig with
accurate measurement of both steam and entrained air
ows (Figure 7). Bent tubes as used in the conventional
design were compared against straight tubes in the
XP design. Extensive combustion testing was also
performed in John Zinks state of the art are test facility
6
.
The smokeless capacity, steam consumption rate,
thermal radiation output and other characteristics were
experimentally determined.
Moderated shear mixing
The new XP are design has some important benets
compared to conventional steam assisted are designs. The
design of the outlet nozzle is critical to the performance of
the XP are. One of the reasons for the special shape is to
enhance the mixing of the air and the waste gas. Figure 8
Figure 4. Schematic of capping (green represents fuel gas, blue
represents steam, and red represents flame).
Figure 5. A capped steam assisted flare.
Reprinted from HYDROCARBONENGINEERING July2007 www.hydrocarbonengineering.com
shows some simple schematic diagrams of different types
of mixing. The left diagram shows that mixing is low and
shear force is minimal when there are two parallel uid
streams of approximately the same velocities. The middle
diagram shows that mixing is greatly increased where one
stream is perpendicular to the other. In that case, the shear
between the two streams is very high, which enhances
mixing. The right diagram shows moderated mixing where
there is some shear between the uids, but not as much as
when they are perpendicular.
The XP are uses moderated shear mixing to improve
mixing compared to the conventional steam assisted are
design. The converging nozzle causes the waste stream to
intersect the steam/air stream at a slight angle. Extensive
modelling and testing have shown that the angle is critical,
otherwise capping can occur, which is why the mixing is
termed moderated. Furthermore, the optimal moderated
design minimises pressure losses for the given waste gas
ows.
The improved mixing of the air and waste gas increases
the smokeless capacity for a given set of conditions
compared to the conventional design. Alternatively, a are
requiring less steam could be used for a given smokeless
capacity, compared to the conventional design.
The new nozzle design with moderated shear mixing
eliminates the centre steam and upper steam required on
the conventional design. This dramatically reduces the
steam requirements and capping caused by excessive
upper steam ow.
Secondary air entrainment
Another important design feature is dividing the outlet
area into multiple nozzles to improve mixing between the
secondary air and the are gas stream around and along
the ame. In the conventional design, the are gases in the
centre of the are primarily mix only with the air that has
been entrained into and through the steam/air tubes. Since
this is only a relatively small fraction of the total air needed
to completely combust the waste gases, air from around
the ame must be entrained to make up the balance of
the requirement. Although the air from around the ame is
termed secondary air and the air entrained into the steam/
air tube is termed primary air, the secondary air actually
accounts for the majority of the air required to completely
combust the waste gas. In the conventional design,
secondary air cannot get to the interior of the ame. The
multiple individual nozzles in the XP allow secondary air to
go between the nozzles into the centre of the are before
all the individual ames merge into a continuous ring of
ame with a hollow centre. Secondary air is entrained into
the hollow centre to further suppress smoke formation. The
tubes in the XP design are optimally spaced to minimise
the overall size of the tip, without adversely affecting the
secondary air entrainment capability. If the tubes are too
closely spaced, then air ow to the inner portion of the tip
would be restricted, thus reducing the smokeless capacity
of the are.
Improving the secondary air entrainment around the
are effectively either increases the smokeless capacity for
a given steam owrate, or reduces the steam owrate for
a given smokeless capacity, compared to the conventional
steam assisted are design.
Improved eductor efficiency
Another important feature of the XP are is the reduced
pressure losses or hydraulic resistance in the air/steam
passage compared to the conventional design, which
uses bent tubes. Extensive tests in this study showed that
the more angled the steam/air tubes, the less efcient
the steam is for entraining air and mixing it with the
waste gases. The less smooth the turn (e.g., mitered vs.
contoured elbows), the less the air entrainment for a given
steam owrate. Also, the closer the bend is to the steam/
air tube inlet, the lower the air entrainment. The XP are
eliminates the bends in the steam/air tubes which makes
the steam much more efcient at entraining air and mixing
entrained air with the waste gases. Again, this means
increased smokeless capacity for a given tip design and
steam owrate, or alternatively, less steam ow required for
a given smokeless capacity.
Figure 8. Examples of mixing: (left) low shear, (middle) high shear,
(right) moderated shear.
Figure 6. The XP flare (patent pending).
Figure 7. Cold flow air entrainment testing.
www.hydrocarbonengineering.com Reprinted from July2007 HYDROCARBONENGINEERING
Conclusion
The newly developed Steamizer XP are reduces or
eliminates the potential limitations of conventional
steam assisted ares. Extensive CFD modelling, cold
ow testing and full scale combustion testing were
used in the development programme. The XP utilises
straight steam/air tubes, proprietary nozzles and multiple
individual modules to produce moderated shear mixing,
increased secondary air entrainment and improved
eductor efciency. These features provide many benets,
including signicantly reduced steam requirements (>30%
reduction), two of the three steam supply lines eliminated,
simplied controls, longer tip life, and reduced installation
and operating costs. This innovative new technology will
improve are operations while simultaneously reducing
costs.
References
REED, R., Flaring and Disposal, Chapter 2 in Furnace Operations,
Gulf Publishing, Houston, 1973.
SCHWARTZ, R., WHITE, J. and BUSSMAN, W., Flares, Chapter 20
in the John Zink Combustion Handbook, edited by C. Baukal, CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2001.
HONG, J., WHITE, J. and BAUKAL, C., Accurately predict radiation
from flare stacks, Hydrocarbon Processing, Vol. 85, No. 6, pp. 79
- 81, 2006.
LEVY, R., RANDEL, L., HEALY, M. and WEAVER, D., Reducing
Emissions from Plant Flares, Proceedings of the Air & Waste
Management Assoc. Conf. & Exhibition, New Orleans, LA, June
2006, Paper #61.
BAUKAL, C., GERSHTEIN, V. and LI, X. (eds.), Computational
Fluid Dynamics in Industrial Combustion, CRC Press, Boca Raton,
FL, 2001.
HONG, J., BAUKAL, C., SCHWARTZ, R., and FLEIFIL, M.,
Industrial-Scale Flare Testing, Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol.
102, No. 5, pp. 47 - 54, 2006.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Figure 9. Air entrainment around XP modules.