SIGNALING

Signaling - refers to specific signals on the transmission line that are used for controlling
the connection from the calling telephone to called telephone and signals that are used to
indicate the status of a call as it is being interconnected.
Classifications:
1. According to Network
2. According to Information
Line Signals for Supervision and Control . Register or Address Signals
containing subscriber numbers or other information
3. According to Direction
Sequence of Signals
Non-compelled - a signal in one direction is independent of whether or not a signal is
received in the opposite direction (ex. transmit of digits on bloc "). Semi-compelled -
there is acknowledgment signal for each signal sent, and in some case the forward signal
continuous an acknowledgment is received.
Subscriber Line signaling System Local
Network Signaling System National Network
Signaling System International Network
Signaling System
forward
backward
Fully compelled - each signal continues to be sent until an acknowledgment is
received, which remain on line until the original signal disappears.
Association of Signaling To Speech Path
Channel Associated Signaling - signaling necessary to set up a call and the speech
signal share the same transmission path.
Common Channel Signaling - signaling information for a group of speech circuits is
transmitted over a separate link, signals share a common transmission channel
separate from the speech signals.
Principles governing the choice of signaling systems:
1. types of need information to be transmitted
2. effects of equipment and circuit
3. maintenance requirement
4. standardization requirement
5. future use other than telephony
6. speed reliability
7. economic
SWITCHING
Two Basic Switching Techniques:
1. Time Switch - can switch any 8 bit PCM word from the incoming highway to any
time slot on the outgoing highway, whether a) cyclically written into the data
memory of the time switch from where they are read out by the call request or b)
sorted as directed by the call request so that they can be cyclically read out.
Switching Features:
switching process: the PCM word time slots are interchanged non-blocking:
all incoming highway are smaller than the number of time slots on the out going highway.
full availability: any incoming PCM word can be forwarded to any outgoing
time slot.
efficient and small: elements consist of LSI components ex. digital
exchanges
Space Switch - switches incoming highways to any outgoing highway with a change in the
physical circuit (spatial) position and without interchanging time slots ex. all
electromechanical switching equipment SXS.
Telephone Signaling
Signaling provides the means for operating and supervising a telephone communication
system. It establishes connections announce incoming calls, and reports the fact that a line
is busy.
Signaling functions
The following are signaling functions that must be transmitted for the basic operation
of a telephone system.
1. Ringing Signals
2. Supervisory Signals
3. Address Signals
Ringing Signals are used to operate a visible or audible alarm to alert someone of
an incoming call.
Supervisory Signals are used to convey information regarding switchboard
conditions (ON-HOOK or OFF-HOOK).
Address Signals convey dialing or digital information which is necessary to establish
the desired connections.
1. Subscriber Loop Signaling
The telephone is the closed circuit that is formed by the subscriber tel ephone and
the cable pair, and any other associated conductor necessary to make the connection to the
central office switching equipment.
In subscriber loops supervisory and address signals are accomplished by means of
direct current while alternating current is used for ringing. The dc current can be altered by a
change in direction, change in value, or by turning it ON or OFF. The range of loop signaling
is usually limited to about 25 miles because of the dc resistance of the conductors.
Three methods used to accomplish loop signaling are:
a. Wet-Dry
b. Reverse Battery, and
c. High-Low
In the wet-dry signaling, information is indicated by the presence (wet) or absence
(dry) of a battery and ground condition on the line at the called end of the trunk. Normally in
the wet condition, the battery is placed on the ring conductor and ground on the tip
conductor. See figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1 Wet-Dry Signaling
Reverse Battery loop signaling is accomplished by reversing the battery on the line
to indicate supervisory conditions. This is illustrated in Figure 3.2. for one condition, battery
is on the ring conductor. The opposite supervisory condition is indicated by reversing the
polarity of the battery, thus causing a polar relay to operate or release at the trunks.
High-Low Method is used principally for supervisory signaling within a central office
or from an automatic to a manual office. This signaling technique employs a marginal relay.
During on-hook condition, a high resistance is placed on the loop. For off-hook, the
resistance in the loop is reduced to a low value allowing more current to flow, and thereby
causing the marginal relay to operate. (See Figure 3.3).

Figure 3.3 High Low Signaling
E and M Signaling
This method of signaling employs two leads to connect the signaling equipment to
the trunk circuit. This two leads are designated E and M respectively. The M lead transmits
battery or ground signals to the distant end ol the circuits, while incoming signal s are
received on the E lead as either a ground on open condition. This, the M lead reflects
conditions al the near end ol tin; circuit while the E reflects conditions at the far end.
The three most prominent dc arrangement for E and M signaling over telephone
trunks are:
a. simplex
b. composite
c. duplex

Simplex Signaling as shown in Figure 3.4 makes use of center-tap coil placed at
the end of the VF trunk circuit. Signaling currents flow in both directions through the coils
and therefore, do not induce any interfering voltage into the voice channel. Conversely,
voice currents do not flow through the simplex conductors extending from the center -tap to
the coils.
Composite Signaling makes use of a filter at each end of the trunk to separate the
signaling current from the speech signal. Two composite signaling path can be obtained
from the two conductors of a VF trunk and four can be obtained from the panthom circuit
arrangement. This type of signaling, shown in Figure 3.5 is used typically on trunks derived
from quaded cable where the conductors are arrange in panthom groups.
Duplex Signaling use one conductor of the VF for signaling on a ground potential
compensation. Ground potential compensation is required because of the inherent
instability of ground return circuits. The signaling circuit is connected to the trunk pairs by
means of a center-tap and a capacitor as shown in Figure 3.6. This signaling arrangement
is used primarily in paired cable trunks.

Out of Band Signaling
This signaling technique makes use of one or more ac tones which lie within the
pass band of the transmission facility but just outside the voice band. This is illustrated in
Figure 3.7.
Channel filters of out-of-band signaling are designed with an upper cut-off
frequency well below the high frequency end of the voice channel. This is to reserve a
portion of the spectrum for the transmission of signaling tones. The most prevalent
frequencies used for out-of-spectrum for the transmission of signaling tones. The most
prevalent frequencies used for out-of-band signaling are 3700 hertz (Bell System Standard)
and 3825 hertz (CCITT Recommendation for International Circuits).
Fi gure 3.7 Si gnal i ng tone f or out of band
Advantages of Out-of-Band Signaling
1. It is economical because the telephone handset provides part of effective
filtering thus reducing equipment cost on the part of filter circuits.
2. Signaling has little chance to interfere with speech transmission thus permitting
extra functions such as regulations to be performed.
3. Improved signal reliability.

4. There is no need for guard circuits to prevent "talkdown".
talking down - falsely operating the signaling equipment with speech energy.
Disadvantages of Out-of-band Signaling
1. Equipment has to be built in to the carrier channel equipment and cannot be
separated.
2. It lacks flexibility when applied to long haul trunks.
3. It requires a repeater at the end of each link of a multi -link trunk In-band
Signaling
In this method, signaling tone are transmitted within the speech band, usually 1600, 2400 or
2600 Hz, although 2600 Hz is more widely used. See Figure 3.8
This system is arranged in manner such that supervisory signals are on the line only
before and at the termination of a call.
In band Signaling tone

Advantages of In-band Signaling
1. It is very flexible in a sense that speech arid supervisory signals sham the
same transmission facility but at different times.
2. It does not require extra bandwidth since signals are passed directly lo voice
channels.
3. Signaling equipment is required only at the terminal station of a trunk made
up of several tandem links.
4. Signaling system can be made a part of the office switching equipment rather
than the particular carrier system thus making it easier to path trunk circuits
different carrier transmission system.
Disadvantages of In-band Signaling
1. The signaling tone which lie within the voice band may cause talkdown or the
so called false signaling due to the voice energy
2. Signaling tones cannot be used during conversation.
3. It is more complex and expensive because it requires more elaborate filtering
system.
Common Channel Signaling System (CCSS)
The basic concept of common channel is that all signaling for a number of voice
paths is carried over one common channel, instead of within each individual.
Advantages of CCSS
1. Savings to both telephone company and customers
2. Talk-down and Talk-off problems are eliminated
3. The need for signaling augmentation (greater gain for signaling times
during dialing) is eliminated.
4. Eliminate noise generated by in-band signaling components thus improving the
performance of voice channel.
5. Economical because filtering is unnecessary.
6. Eliminate phone-phreak.
j
Phone-phreak is an individual who has enough knowledge about telephone
system operation to access the system by generation of socially used signals. This kind
of telephone abusers can make long distance calls without being charged.
Alternate Channel Signaling
In this technique, two channels are selected. One will be used to carry the
signaling and the other will operate as a normal traffic carrying voice channel.
An error detector monitors the error rate in the signaling channel. If error is
tolerable, the system goes back to normal operation. If more than three error occurs for
a period of ten seconds, the line switch automatically switches the signaling channel
information to the alternate voice channel and the alternate channel information to the
signal channel. This process takes place in a manner that a customer will not know that
a switch has occurred.
Party Line System
A party line system is when two or more telephone sets are connected to the
local exchange through a single wire pair.
Ringing Connections
To signal to desired party, there are two types of connections for the
ringer:
a. Bridged Ringing
In this configuration, the ringer is connected across the tip and ring
transmission pair as shown in Figure 3.10.
b. Divide Ringing
This is also known as ground return ringing. I his widely used Inn; scheme
uses either the tip or ringing wire to ground as shown in Fiyuro 3 I I


Advantages of Divided over Bridged Ringing
1. The number of stations may be served by divided ringing is double that for a
bridged ringing.
2. Only one ringing frequency is needed to provide full -selective service to two
customers over the same loop.
Forms of Multiparty Signaling
1. Coded Ringing
With the telephone connected in parallel on the same line, a call for any part will activate
the ringers of every party. To indicate which party is being called, 'codes: (1 long ring, 2
short rings etc.) are usually used. Party identification is based on the number and duration
of rings. This technique requires only a single frequency ringing generator with the
interrupter providing the codes.
2. Multi-frequency Ringing
The frequency selective technique makes use of
1
five different frequencies to provide five
party service with a bridged connection, or ten-party service with a divided connection.
Harmonic ringers, each mechanically turned to respond to only one alternating current
frequency (such as 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 Hz) are used. The local exchange sends the proper
frequency to ring the desired party only as shown in Figure 3.12.
Figure 3.12 Ten-Party Frequency Selective Divided Ringer Connection
Frequency selective ringing offers the greater amount of fully selective
customer signaling. However, it does have one shortcoming, this is the requirement
for five ringing generator frequencies and five station ringers.
3. Superimposed Ringing
This technique uses both dc and as to provide fully selective two-party bridged
ringing or four-party ringing as shown in Figure 3.13.


Figure 3.13
With superimposed ringing two sets of dc potentials of opposite polarities (+38 to
+48 vdc) are applied to the tip and ring conductors for station selection. Telephone respond
to only one of the two polarities. This requires only a single- frequency ringing generator.
However, it can only supply selective signaling to four customers.
4. Reverse Ringing
There are several methods of revertive ringing depending on the ringer connection,
ringing scheme, and number of parties on the line.
Two of the more common types are:
1. Simultaneous Revertive
2. Alternative Revertive Ringing
Simultaneous Revertive is normally used for coded ringing system with either the
bridged or divided ringing connection. The central office applies the called partys ringing
code to the line and all ringers respond The ringing will stop as the called party pick up his
receiver.
Alternate Receiver is used in bridged and divided frequency and superimposed
ringing scheme. In this technique, the central office alternately
applies ringing to the called party, then the calling party, when the called party answers, the
ringing stops. ^