+comparative Review of Turbulent Heat Transfer of Nanofluids - 2012 - International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer

Comparative review of turbulent heat transfer of nanouids
Wenhua Yu
a,
, David M. France
b
, Elena V. Timofeeva
a
, Dileep Singh
c
, Jules L. Routbort
a
a
Energy Systems Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
b
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, 842 West Taylor Street (m/c 251), Chicago, IL 60607, USA
c
Nuclear Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 23 November 2011
Received in revised form 4 June 2012
Accepted 11 June 2012
Available online 4 July 2012
Keywords:
Nanouid
Convective heat transfer
Turbulent ow
Heat transfer comparison
Heat transfer prediction
Heat transfer enhancement
a b s t r a c t
Three essential aspects of the turbulent-ow, convective heat transfer of nanouids relevant to their
applications are comparatively reviewed in detail based on both theoretical analyses and experimental
data. These aspects are: (a) selection the comparison criteria of the thermophysical property-related
heat transfer performance of nanouids and their base uids, (b) design the predictions of the heat
transfer coefcients of nanouids based on homogeneous uid models by using nanouid effective ther-
mophysical properties, and (c) effectiveness the enhancements of the heat transfer coefcients of nano-
uids over their base uids. This review, including research from the inception of nanouids to date,
quanties the accuracy of bases for future nanouid evaluation.
2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5381
2. Effective thermophysical properties of nanofluids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5381
3. Selection: comparison criteria of nanofluid heat transfer performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5382
3.1. Comparison bases: Reynolds number, flow velocity, and pumping power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5382
3.2. Figures of merit: Nusselt number, heat transfer coefficient, and Mouromtseff number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5383
3.3. Pumping power effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5383
3.4. Mass-specific heat capacity effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5384
3.5. Temperature effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5384
3.6. Thermophysical property-based figure-of-merit ratios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5384
3.7. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5384
4. Design: predictions of nanofluid heat transfer coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5386
4.1. Experimental database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5386
4.2. Component thermophysical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5386
4.3. Heat transfer coefficient comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5386
4.4. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5389
5. Effectiveness: enhancements of nanofluid heat transfer coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5390
5.1. Base fluid heat transfer coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5392
5.2. Nanofluid heat transfer coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5393
5.3. Heat transfer coefficient enhancement comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5393
5.4. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5394
6. Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5394
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5395
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5395
0017-9310/$ - see front matter 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2012.06.034
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 630 252 7361; fax: +1 630 252 5568.
E-mail addresses: wyu@anl.gov (W. Yu), dfrance@uic.edu (D.M. France), etimofeeva@anl.gov (E.V. Timofeeva), dsingh@anl.gov (D. Singh), routbort@anl.gov (J.L. Routbort).
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 53805396
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer
j our nal homepage: www. el sevi er . com/ l ocat e/ i j hmt
1. Introduction
Nanouids have become increasingly closer to an engineering
reality starting from their initial vision originated more than a
decade ago [1]. This trend is clearly reected and well documented
in numerous original research papers and in extensive state-of-
the-art review articles in the engineering literature that cover a
wide range of nanouid-related research and development includ-
ing nanouid preparation and characterization [222], nanouid
effective thermophysical property investigation [249], nanouid
heat transfer performance [46,9,10,1315,1719,22,24,28,29,31,
32,35,36,3840,4648,5055], and nanouid application explora-
tion [5,8,1315,19,22,29,40,46,56,57].
Accordingly, the main focus of nanouid research has gradually
shifted from effective thermophysical properties to heat transfer
coefcients, an area connected more directly to nanouid applica-
tions. This trend is especially true for one of the most common
nanouid cooling and heating applications: the turbulent-ow,
convective heat transfer of nanouids. However, while a great
number of original research papers concerning nanouid heat
transfer are available in the engineering literature, confusion exists
in the nanouid research community regarding appropriate nano-
uid heat transfer coefcient comparison, nanouid heat transfer
coefcient prediction, and nanouid heat transfer coefcient
enhancement. It is the purpose of the present study to compara-
tively review three essential aspects of the turbulent-ow, convec-
tive heat transfer of nanouids relevant to their applications based
on both theoretical analyses and experimental data including (a)
selection the comparison criteria of the thermophysical
property-related heat transfer performance of nanouids and their
base uids, (b) design the predictions of the heat transfer coef-
cients of nanouids based on homogeneous uid models by using
nanouid effective thermophysical properties, and (c) effective-
ness the enhancements of the heat transfer coefcients of nano-
uids over their base uids. It is expected that this in-depth review
will provide a framework for assessing the current status and for
specifying the future direction of convective heat transfer
researches and applications of nanouids in turbulent ow.
2. Effective thermophysical properties of nanouids
Because of their essential roles in forming the basis for analyz-
ing the turbulent-ow, convective heat transfer of nanouids, a
brief discussion of nanouid effective thermophysical properties
such as density, mass-specic heat capacity, dynamic viscosity,
and thermal conductivity is appropriate before the main results
of this study are presented.
For a nanouid denoted by the subscript e consisting of parti-
cles denoted by the subscript p suspended in a base uid denoted
by the subscript m with a mass of m
e
= m
m
+ m
p
and a volume of
V
e
= V
m
+ V
p
, the effective density q
e
can be calculated from the
component densities and the particle volume concentration based
on the physical principle of the mixture rule related to its
denition
q
e

m
e
V
e
m
m
m
p
V
e
V
m
q
m
V
p
q
p
V
e
1 v
p
q
m
v
p
q
p
1
where v
p
= V
p
/V
e
is the particle volume concentration. Fig. 1 shows
the nanouid-to-base uid density ratio q
e
/q
m
as a function of the
particle volume concentration v
p
for three particle-to-base uid
density ratios of q
p
/q
m
= 2, 4, and 8. It can be seen from Fig. 1 that
the nanouid-to-base uid density ratio increases substantially at
lower particle volume concentrations for larger values of q
p
/q
m
.
Nomenclature
c
p
mass-specic heat capacity
d diameter
f Fanning friction factor
f
resistance coefcient
FOM gure of merit
h heat transfer coefcient
k thermal conductivity
L length
m mass
Mo Mouromtseff Number
Nu Nusselt number
P pumping power
Pr Prandtl number
q heat
_ q heat ow rate
r gure-of-merit ratio
Re Reynolds number
T temperature
u velocity
V volume
v
p
particle volume concentration
Greek symbols
l dynamic viscosity
q density
Subscripts
e nanouid
f uid
in inlet
m base uid matrix
out outlet
p particle
w wall
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
0 1 2 3 4 5
D
e
n
s
i
t
y

r
a
t
i
o

e
/
m
Particle volume concentration v
p
(%)
p
/
m
=2
p
/
m
=4
p
/
m
=8
Fig. 1. Density ratio as a function of particle volume concentration.
W. Yu et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 53805396 5381
Similarly, for a thermal equilibrium nanouid with a tempera-
ture change of DT = DT
m
= DT
p
= DT
e
under a heat input of
q
e
= q
m
+ q
p
, the effective mass-specic heat capacity c
pe
can be cal-
culated from the component densities, the component mass-spe-
cic heat capacities, and the particle volume concentration based
on the physical principle of the mixture rule related to its
denition
c
pe

q
e
m
e
DT

m
m
c
pm
m
p
c
pp
m
m
m
p
V
m
q
m
c
pm
V
p
q
p
c
pp
V
m
q
m
V
p
q
p
1 v
p
q
m
c
pm
v
p
q
p
c
pp
1 v
p
q
m
v
p
q
p
2
Fig. 2 shows the nanouid-to-base uid mass-specic heat capacity
ratio c
pe
/c
pm
as a function of the particle volume concentration v
p
for
various particle-to-base uid density ratios and particle-to-base
uid mass-specic heat capacity ratios. It can be seen in Fig. 2 that
c
pe
/c
pm
is considerably more sensitive to the density ratio q
p
/q
m
than to the specic heat ratio c
pp
/c
pm
in the range of interest.
The situations are more complicated for the effective dynamic
viscosity and the effective thermal conductivity. In addition to
the particle volume concentration and the corresponding compo-
nent properties such as the base uid dynamic viscosity, the base
uid thermal conductivity, and the particle thermal conductivity,
the effective dynamic viscosity and the effective thermal conduc-
tivity also depend on many other component- and application-re-
lated nanouid parameters. These parameters include the particle
size and distribution, the particle shape and orientation, the parti-
cle aggregation and cluster, the particle Brownian motion, the base
uid-particle interfacial layer and nature, the nanouid pH and
additive, and the nanouid temperature. To take the effects of
these inuence parameters into account, many physical
mechanisms and mathematical models have been proposed based
on theoretical analyses and experimental data for the dynamic vis-
cosity and for the effective thermal conductivity [10,16,27,33,
35,37,38,42,44]. For the effective dynamic viscosity l
e
, many of
the developed mathematical equations can generally be viewed
as a modication to the Einstein equation [58]
l
e
1 2:5v
p
l
m
3
which is a rst-order approximation as a function of the base uid
dynamic viscosity l
m
and the particle volume concentration v
p
ob-
tained by assuming that the disturbance of the ow pattern of the
base uid caused by a given particle does not overlap with the ow
disturbance caused by the presence of a second suspended particle.
For the effective thermal conductivity k
e
, many of the developed
mathematical equations can generally be viewed as a modication
to the Maxwell equation [59]
k
e
k
m
3v
p
k
p
k
m
2k
m
k
p
v
p
k
p
k
m
k
m
4
which is a rst-order approximation, based on the effective medium
theory, as a function of the base uid thermal conductivity k
m
, the
particle thermal conductivity k
p
, and the particle volume concentra-
tion v
p
. However, while they result in improvements to the above
rst-order approximate equations for predicting the effective dy-
namic viscosity and the effective thermal conductivity of nano-
uids, many of these developed mathematical models are of an
empirical nature with the empirical parameters to be determined
from the experimental data and therefore do not predict nor explain
all the experimental data well. Comprehensive physics-based math-
ematical models, which include the major inuence parameters and
can predict experimental data well, have yet to be developed. Cur-
rently, the most accurate and reliable approach for obtaining the
effective dynamic viscosity and the effective thermal conductivity
of a nanouid is through experimental measurements conducted
under the same conditions as its practical applications.
3. Selection: comparison criteria of nanouid heat transfer
performance
In selecting a nanouid for a specic application, it is necessary
to analyze the forced single-phase convective heat transfer perfor-
mance of a nanouid relative to its base uid. For this purpose, two
primary factors must be chosen: gures of merit and comparison
bases. Figures of merit are quantities used to characterize the
forced single-phase convective heat transfer performance and to
determine the utility of a nanouid relative to its base uid while
comparison bases specify the conditions under which gures of
merit are evaluated.
3.1. Comparison bases: Reynolds number, ow velocity, and pumping
power
Three bases, Reynolds number, ow velocity, and pumping
power have been used frequently in the engineering literature
for comparing the forced single-phase convective heat transfer
performance of a nanouid relative to its base uid. One of the
most important focuses of heat transfer research is to develop pre-
diction equations for the heat transfer coefcients based on theo-
retical analyses or experimental data or both. In order for those
equations to be used under various conguration and application
conditions, non-dimensional parameters are generally used for
representing the heat transfer coefcients, the uid thermophysi-
cal properties, the geometric congurations, etc. For forced sin-
gle-phase convective heat transfer, the non-dimensional
parameters include the Nusselt number Nu, the Prandtl number
Pr, the Reynolds number Re, etc.
Due to this common practice in the thermal science and heat
transfer research community, the Reynolds number is a natural
choice of the comparison basis for comparing the forced single-
phase convective heat transfer performance of a nanouid relative
to its base uid as witnessed by the large percentage of research
papers in the engineering literature. Unfortunately, while it is com-
monly used for the dimensional analysis of uid dynamics, for the
determination of dynamic similitude between different experi-
mental cases, and for the characterization of different ow re-
gimes, the Reynolds number is an inappropriate basis for
comparing the forced single-phase convective heat transfer perfor-
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
0 1 2 3 4 5
M
a
s
s
-
s
p
e
c
i
f
i
c

h
e
a
t

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

r
a
t
i
o

c
p
e
/
c
p
m
Particle volume concentration v
p
(%)
p
/
m
=2
p
/
m
=4
p
/
m
=8
c
pp
/c
pm
=0.2
c
pp
/c
pm
=0.3
c
pp
/c
pm
=0.1
Fig. 2. Mass-specic heat capacity ratio as a function of particle volume
concentration.
5382 W. Yu et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 53805396
mance of a nanouid relative to its base uid for the following rea-
sons [60]. First, using the constant Reynolds number comparison
basis requires that the ow velocity for the more viscous nanouid
be higher than that for the less viscous base uid, which means
that the net result for the constant Reynolds number comparison
is a combination of the nanouid thermophysical property effect
and the ow velocity effect. Second, in contradiction to common
sense, the constant Reynolds number comparison indicates that
the nanouid convective heat transfer coefcient enhancement in-
creases as its dynamic viscosity increases, the reason for which is
again rooted in the ow velocity effect. Third, the constant Rey-
nolds number comparison completely ignores the pumping power
penalty associated with pumping the more viscous nanouid at a
higher ow velocity to reach the same Reynolds number as the less
viscous base uid. Therefore, the constant Reynolds number basis
should not be used for comparing the forced single-phase convec-
tive heat transfer performance of a nanouid relative to its base
uid because it distorts the physical situation. If increased pump-
ing power is required for the nanouid (to maintain the constant
Reynolds number with the base uid), it must also be available
to pump the base uid. Then, at increased Reynolds number, the
base uid often outperforms the nanouid although a constant
Reynolds number comparison would erroneously show otherwise.
For the constant ow velocity comparison, the ow velocities of
the nanouid and the base uid are the same. The constant ow
velocity comparison eliminates the ow velocity effect that is
inherently present in the constant Reynolds number comparison
and therefore is an appropriate basis for comparing the forced sin-
gle-phase convective heat transfer performance of a nanouid rel-
ative to its base uid. It should be noted that, under the constant
ow velocity comparison, the pumping power for the more viscous
nanouid is still higher than that for the less viscous base uid.
However, from a practical application viewpoint, when the ow
system under consideration is designed for a certain maximum
ow rate and when the ow pumping power is only a small portion
of the total power consumed, the constant ow velocity compari-
son provides a quite accurate picture of the forced single-phase
convective heat transfer performance of a nanouid relative to its
base uid [60]. In many applications the pumping power difference
between a nanouid and its base uid is small at the constant
velocity.
For the constant pumping power comparison, the forced single-
phase convective heat transfer performance of a nanouid is com-
pared to that of its base uid under the condition that the nano-
uid and the base uid use the same amount of pumping power,
which means that the ow velocity for the more viscous nanouid
is slightly lower than that for the less viscous base uid. If a certain
amount of energy is available to pump a nanouid, it must be con-
sidered to be available to pump the base uid as well. Therefore,
while it gives the most conservative criterion for a benecial nano-
uid, the constant pumping power, as the logical choice of the
comparison basis, represents the most unambiguous comparison
basis and should be used for comparing the forced single-phase
base uid whenever the necessary information is available [60].
3.2. Figures of merit: Nusselt number, heat transfer coefcient, and
Mouromtseff number
Simple gures of merit for comparing the forced single-phase
base uid include the Nusselt number, the heat transfer coefcient,
and the Mouromtseff number.
For the same reason as the Reynolds number being used as the
comparison basis, the Nusselt number is a natural choice of the
simple gure of merit for comparing the forced single-phase con-
vective heat transfer performance of a nanouid relative to its base
uid. However, the Nusselt number is an inappropriate gure of
merit for comparing the forced single-phase convective heat trans-
fer performance of two or more different uids. According to its
denition, the ratio of the convective heat transfer coefcient to
the conductive heat transfer coefcient of a uid, the Nusselt num-
ber is very useful for analyzing the heat transfer mechanisms and
for correlating forced single-phase convective heat transfer coef-
cients. When comparing the forced single-phase convective heat
transfer performance of two or more uids with different thermal
conductivities, it is the forced single-phase convective heat transfer
coefcient but not the convective-to-conductive heat transfer coef-
cient ratio that is important. Using the Nusselt number for com-
paring forced single-phase convective heat transfer performance
of different uids gives misleading information. For example a
low Nusselt number might be caused by a high thermal conductiv-
ity rather than a low forced single-phase convective heat transfer
coefcient.
From the viewpoint of practical applications, the heat transfer
coefcient h is a direct expression of the heat transfer capability
of a uid in forced single-phase convective heat transfer. It is an
appropriate simple gure of merit for comparing the forced sin-
gle-phase convective heat transfer performance of a nanouid rel-
ative to its base uid.
In additional to the forced single-phase convective heat transfer
coefcient, which can be used for the comparison of both theoret-
ical predictions and experimental data of different uids, there is
another simple gure of merit, called the Mouromtseff Number,
which is primarily used for the comparison of theoretical predic-
tions of different uids. The dimensional Mouromtseff Number
Mo, introduced in 1942 by Mouromtseff [61] to represent the effect
on the forced single-phase convective heat transfer coefcient h of
the combined uid thermophysical properties of density q, mass-
specic heat capacity c
p
, dynamic viscosity l, and thermal conduc-
tivity k, essentially is an alternative expression of the forced single-
phase convective heat transfer coefcient. It is dened as
Mo q
a
1
c
a
2
p
l
a
3
k
a
4
5
where the exponents a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, and a
4
are determined from a heat
transfer coefcient equation for the appropriate heat transfer mode.
The ratio of Mouromtseff Numbers for a nanouid to its base uid is
equivalent to the ratio of their heat transfer coefcients at the con-
stant velocity. As discussed above, this comparison is quite accurate
for nanouids.
3.3. Pumping power effects
The concept of the pumping power increase is often considered
as a negative effect in contrast with the concept of the heat transfer
coefcient enhancement as a positive effect for comparing the
forced single-phase convective heat transfer performance of differ-
ent uids. Therefore, the heat transfer coefcient h can be com-
bined with the pumping power P to form a combined gure of
merit, which is usually used in terms of the ratio of the heat trans-
fer coefcient enhancement to the pumping power increase rather
than the ratio of the heat transfer coefcient to the pumping power
[62]. For the comparison between a nanouid denoted by the sub-
script e and its base uid denoted by the subscript m, this com-
bined gure of merit can be expressed as
FOM h
e
=h
m
=P
e
=P
m
6
which reduces to the heat transfer coefcient ratio as a simple g-
ure of merit under the condition of the constant pumping power
comparison basis. A higher gure of merit value indicates more of
a gain in the heat transfer enhancement compared to the pumping
power increase. It should be noted that, in practical applications,
the pumping power effect may not have the simple relationship
to the heat transfer coefcient effect as suggested in the above g-
ure of merit and therefore can be better taken into account through
the constant pumping power being used as the comparison basis.
3.4. Mass-specic heat capacity effects
For comparing the forced single-phase convective heat transfer
performance of different uids, another very important thermo-
physical property is the capacity to store thermal energy, which
is usually described by the mass-specic heat capacity. A combined
gure of merit was suggested by Yeh and Chu [63] to capture the
combination effect of the uid thermal energy storage capacity
characterized by the mass-specic heat capacity c
p
, the heat trans-
fer capability characterized by the heat transfer coefcient h, and
the hydraulic performance characterized by the pumping power P
FOM c
p
h=P 7
It should be noted that (a) the way that the above gure of merit
combines the three primary parameters is arguable; (b) the mass-
specic heat capacity difference between a nanouid and its base
uid depends on the component thermophysical properties and
the particle volume concentration of the nanouid and generally
is not very large; and (c) as previously pointed out, the pumping
power effect can be better taken into account through the constant
pumping power being used as the comparison basis.
3.5. Temperature effects
The ultimate cooling or heating effects of a uid can be assessed
by wall or uid temperature changes. Moreover, practical heat
transfer systems are often conned to certain wall or uid temper-
ature limits. Therefore, for heat transfer system design purposes,
those temperature requirements naturally form comparison bases,
and, under these comparisons, the pumping power is usually em-
ployed as the gure of merit. Two commonly-used temperature-
related comparison bases are: the constant uid temperature
change T
n
T
fout
for cooling with the wall cooler than the bulk
uid or T
fout
T
n
for heating with the wall hotter than the bulk
uid and the constant wall-uid temperature difference T
f
T
w
for cooling or T
w
T
f
for heating [64]. The pumping power as the
gure of merit under the constant uid temperature change is used
under the condition of the uid temperature change much larger
than the wall-uid temperature difference and involves the effect
of the uid mass-specic heat capacity; the pumping power as a
gure of merit under the constant wall-uid temperature differ-
ence is used under the condition of the wall-uid temperature dif-
ference much larger than the uid temperature change and is
equivalent to comparing the pumping power under the constant
heat transfer coefcient basis. Both comparisons are dependent
on the heat transfer mode and the corresponding heat transfer
equation.
3.6. Thermophysical property-based gure-of-merit ratios
Considering one of the most commonly-encountered engineer-
ing heat transfer problems a forced single-phase internal ow
through a circular tube with the ow channel diameter of d and
the ow channel length of L, one can derive the mathematical
expressions of the gures of merit discussed above. One set of
these gures of merit can be obtained as functions of the thermo-
physical properties for hydrodynamically and thermally fully-
developed turbulent ow under the presumptions that the heat
transfer coefcient h is estimated from the DittusBoelter equation
as [65]
h 0:023Re
4=5
Pr
3=10
k=d 8a
for cooling or
h 0:023Re
4=5
Pr
2=5
k=d 8b
for heating, and that the Fanning friction factor f necessary for
pumping power calculations is estimated from the classical equa-
tion as
f 0:046Re
1=5
9a
or from the Blasius equation as [66]
f 0:0791Re
1=4
9b
The gure-of-merit ratios, thus obtained, for a nanouid to its based
uid under various comparison bases are listed in Table 1 where
r > 1 indicates that the nanouid has better heat transfer perfor-
mance than the base uid, and the larger the gure-of-merit ratio
r is, the better the nanouid performs compared to its base uid.
Several characteristics can be seen from Table 1 about gure-
of-merit ratios for a nanouid and its based uid in fully-developed
internal turbulent ow: (a) for the constant ow velocity compar-
ison with nanouids generally having P
e
/P
m
> 1 and c
pe
/c
pm
< 1, one
would always have r
1
> r
2
> r
3
, r
9
> r
10
> r
11
, r
17
> r
18
> r
19
, and
r
25
> r
26
> r
27
; (b) for the constant pumping power comparison
with P
e
/P
m
= 1 and c
pe
/c
pm
< 1 for most nanouids, one would have
r
4
= r
5
> r
6
, r
12
= r
13
> r
14
, r
20
= r
21
> r
22
, and r
28
= r
29
> r
30
; (c)
because the heat transfer coefcient ratio for the constant ow
velocity comparison is unrelated to the Fanning friction factor,
one would always have r
1
= r
9
and r
17
= r
25
; (d) the differences of
the gure-of-merit ratios between cooling and heating and
between the Fanning friction factor being estimated from the
classical equation or from the Blasius equation are insignicant
for the same comparison basis, which can be veried by comparing
the exponents of their property ratios; and (e) the gure-of-merit
ratios r
7
= r
23
= (q
e
/q
m
)
2
(c
pe
/c
pm
)
14/5
(l
e
/l
m
)
1/5
and r
15
= r
31
= (q
e
/
q
m
)
2
(c
pe
/c
pm
)
11/4
(l
e
/l
m
)
1/4
for the constant uid temperature
change comparison are unrelated to the thermal conductivity ratio
and are generally less than unity, which means that this compari-
son basis is unsuitable for comparing the heat transfer perfor-
mance of a nanouid to its base uid.
The density ratio q
e
/q
m
and the mass-specic heat capacity
ratio c
pe
/c
pm
, as pointed out previously, can be theoretically calcu-
lated for a certain nanouid, and therefore the gure-of-merit ra-
tios in Table 1 can be translated into relationships between the
dynamic viscosity ratio l
e
/l
m
and the thermal conductivity ratio
k
e
/k
m
by letting r = 1 for various comparison bases. Some of the
commonly-used gure-of-merit ratios are shown for l
e
/l
m
and
k
e
/k
m
relationships for both cooling and heating applications in
Fig. 3 where the curves represent the criteria r = 1. The regions
on the left of the curves (above the curves) in Fig. 3 represent
the improved heat transfer performance for a nanouid, and the
regions on the right of the curves (below the curves) represent
the deteriorated heat transfer performance for a nanouid. One
of the interesting features in Fig. 3 is that, on the l
e
/l
m
and k
e
/k
m
plane, the criteria of r = 1 for the heat transfer coefcient ratio un-
der the constant pumping power comparison and for the pumping
power ratio under the constant heat transfer coefcient compari-
son are the same curve, which implies that they are interchange-
able for judging a benecial nanouid. In fact, one has the
following relationships: r
7
4
r
2
8
, r
55
12
r
16
16
, r
7
20
r
2
24
, and r
55
28
r
16
32
.
3.7. Summary
The mass-specic heat capacity difference between a nanouid
and its base uid usually is not very large due to its low particle
Table 1
Figure-of-merit ratios for nanouids in fully-developed internal turbulent ow.
Flow Comparison basis Figure-of-merit ratio
Fully-developed internal turbulent ow for cooling with
the classical equation for the Fanning friction factor
h 0:023Re
4=5
Pr
3=10
k=d
0:023u
4=5
d
1=5
q
4=5
c
3=10
p
k
7=10
l
1=2
0:0487P
2=7
d
3=7
L
2=7
q
4=7
c
3=10
p
k
7=10
l
39=70
f 0:046Re
1=5
P p=2dLu
3
qf
0:0723d
4=5
Lu
14=5
q
4=5
l
1=5
0:1421L_ q
14=5
d
24=5
T
fin
T
fout
14=5
l
1=5
q
2
c
14=5
p
39159d
3=2
Lh
7=2
l
39=20
q
2
c
21=20
p
k
49=20
Flow velocity u
r
1

he
hm

Moe
Mom

q
e
q
m

4=5
cpe
cpm

3=10
l
e
l
m

1=2
ke
km

7=10
Flow velocity u
r
2

he =hm
Pe =Pm

cpe
cpm

3=10
l
e
l
m

7=10
ke
km

7=10
Flow velocity u
r
3

cpe he =Pe
cpmhm=Pm

cpe
cpm

13=10
l
e
l
m

7=10
ke
km

7=10
Pump power P
r
4

he
hm

q
e
q
m

4=7
cpe
cpm

3=10
l
e
l
m

39=70
ke
km

7=10
Pump power P
r
5

he =hm
Pe =Pm

he
hm

q
e
q
m

4=7
cpe
cpm

3=10
l
e
l
m

39=70
ke
km

7=10
Pump power P
r
6

cpe he =Pe
cpmhm=Pm

cpe he
cpmhm

q
e
q
m

4=7
cpe
cpm

13=10
l
e
l
m

39=70
ke
km

7=10
Temperature change T
n
T
fout
r
7

Pm
Pe

q
e
q
m

2
cpe
cpm

14=5
l
e
l
m

1=5
[64]
Temperature difference T
f
T
w
r
8

Pm
Pe

q
e
q
m

2
cpe
cpm

21=20
l
e
l
m

39=20
ke
km

49=20
Fully-developed internal turbulent ow for cooling with the
Blasius equation for the Fanning friction factor
h 0:023Re
4=5
Pr
3=10
k=d
0:023u
4=5
d
1=5
q
4=5
c
3=10
p
k
7=10
l
1=2
0:0422P
16=55
d
23=55
L
16=55
q
32=55
c
3=10
p
k
7=10
l
63=110
f 0:0791Re
1=4
P p=2dLu
3
qf
0:1242d
3=4
Lu
11=4
q
3=4
l
1=4
0:2414L_ q
11=4
d
19=4
T
fin
T
fout
11=4
l
1=4
q
2
c
11=4
p
53193d
23=16
Lh
55=16
l
63=32
q
2
c
33=32
p
k
77=32
Flow velocity u
r
9

he
hm

Moe
Mom

q
e
q
m

4=5
cpe
cpm

3=10
l
e
l
m

1=2
ke
km

7=10
Flow velocity u
r
10

he =hm
Pe =Pm

q
e
q
m

1=20
cpe
cpm

3=10
l
e
l
m

3=4
ke
km

7=10
Flow velocity u
r
11

cpe he =Pe
cpmhm=Pm

q
e
q
m

1=20
cpe
cpm

13=10
l
e
l
m

3=4
ke
km

7=10
Pump power P
r
12

he
hm

q
e
q
m

32=55
cpe
cpm

3=10
l
e
l
m

63=110
ke
km

7=10
Pump power P
r
13

he =hm
Pe =Pm

he
hm

q
e
q
m

32=55
cpe
cpm

3=10
l
e
l
m

63=110
ke
km

7=10
Pump power P
r
14

cpe he =Pe
cpmhm=Pm

cpe he
cpmhm

q
e
q
m

32=55
cpe
cpm

13=10
l
e
l
m

63=110
ke
km

7=10
n
T
fout
r
15

Pm
Pe

q
e
q
m

2
cpe
cpm

11=4
l
e
l
m

1=4
f
T
w
r
16

Pm
Pe

q
e
q
m

2
cpe
cpm

33=32
l
e
l
m

63=32
ke
km

77=32
Fully-developed internal turbulent ow for heating with the
classical equation for the Fanning friction factor
h 0:023Re
4=5
Pr
2=5
k=d
0:023u
4=5
d
1=5
q
4=5
c
2=5
p
k
3=5
l
2=5
0:0487P
2=7
d
3=7
L
2=7
q
4=7
c
2=5
p
k
3=5
l
16=35
f 0:046Re
1=5
P p=2dLu
3
qf
0:0723d
4=5
Lu
14=5
q
4=5
l
1=5
0:1421L_ q
14=5
d
24=5
T
fout
T
fin
14=5
l
1=5
q
2
c
14=5
p
39159d
3=2
Lh
7=2
l
8=5
q
2
c
7=5
p
k
21=10
Flow velocity u
r
17

he
hm

Moe
Mom

q
e
q
m

4=5
cpe
cpm

2=5
l
e
l
m

2=5
ke
km

3=5
Flow velocity u
r
18

he =hm
Pe =Pm

cpe
cpm

2=5
l
e
l
m

3=5
ke
km

3=5
Flow velocity u
r
19

he cpe =Pe
hmcpm=Pm

cpe
cpm

7=5
l
e
l
m

3=5
ke
km

3=5
Pumping power P
r
20

he
hm

q
e
q
m

4=7
cpe
cpm

2=5
l
e
l
m

16=35
ke
km

3=5
Pumping power P
r
21

he =hm
Pe =Pm

he
hm

q
e
q
m

4=7
cpe
cpm

2=5
l
e
l
m

16=35
ke
km

3=5
Pumping power P
r
22

he cpe =Pe
hmcpm=Pm

cpe he
cpmhm

q
e
q
m

4=7
cpe
cpm

7=5
l
e
l
m

16=35
ke
km

3=5
fout
T
n
r
23

Pm
Pe

q
e
q
m

2
cpe
cpm

14=5
l
e
l
m

1=5
w
T
f
r
24

Pm
Pe

q
e
q
m

2
cpe
cpm

7=5
l
e
l
m

8=5
ke
km

21=10
Fully-developed internal turbulent ow for heating with the
Blasius equation for the Fanning friction factor
h 0:023Re
4=5
Pr
2=5
k=d
0:023u
4=5
d
1=5
q
4=5
c
2=5
p
k
3=5
l
2=5
0:0422P
16=55
d
23=55
L
16=55
q
32=55
c
2=5
p
k
3=5
l
26=55
f 0:0791Re
1=4
P p=2dLu
3
qf
0:1242d
3=4
Lu
11=4
q
3=4
l
1=4
0:2414L_ q
11=4
d
19=4
T
fout
T
fin
11=4
l
1=4
q
2
c
11=4
p
53193d
23=16
Lh
55=16
l
13=8
q
2
c
11=8
p
k
33=16
Flow velocity u
r
25

he
hm

Moe
Mom

q
e
q
m

4=5
cpe
cpm

2=5
l
e
l
m

2=5
ke
km

3=5
[60]
Flow velocity u
r
26

he =hm
Pe =Pm

q
e
q
m

1=20
cpe
cpm

2=5
l
e
l
m

13=20
ke
km

3=5
Flow velocity u
r
27

he cpe =Pe
hmcpm=Pm

q
e
q
m

1=20
cpe
cpm

7=5
l
e
l
m

13=20
ke
km

3=5
Pumping power P
r
28

he
hm

q
e
q
m

32=55
cpe
cpm

2=5
l
e
l
m

26=55
ke
km

3=5
[60]
Pumping power P
r
29

he =hm
Pe =Pm

he
hm

q
e
q
m

32=55
cpe
cpm

2=5
l
e
l
m

26=55
ke
km

3=5
Pumping power P
r
30

he cpe =Pe
hmcpm=Pm

cpe he
cpmhm

q
e
q
m

32=55
cpe
cpm

7=5
l
e
l
m

26=55
ke
km

3=5
fout
T
n
r
31

Pm
Pe

q
e
q
m

2
cpe
cpm

11=4
l
e
l
m

1=4
w
T
f
r
32

Pm
Pe

q
e
q
m

2
cpe
cpm

11=8
l
e
l
m

13=8
ke
km

33=16
volume concentration, and therefore the comparison criterion
choice of the forced single-phase convective heat transfer of a
nanouid and its base uids can generally be viewed as a balance
between its heat transfer enhancement and its pumping power in-
crease. While all of the comparison criteria discussed have been
adopted to some extent by nanouid research groups worldwide,
these comparison criteria can basically be classied into two main
categories based on the following principles: to achieve the highest
heat transfer coefcient under the condition of the constant pump-
ing power or to reach the lowest pumping power under the condi-
tion of the constant heat transfer coefcient.
4. Design: predictions of nanouid heat transfer coefcients
The ability to predict the heat transfer coefcient of a uid is
essential for successfully designing heat transfer systems using
the uid. As a suspension of a base uid and particles, a nanouid
is a two-phase and sometime multi-phase mixture. As an alterna-
tive to a rigorous mathematical treatment of this complicated ow
regime, engineering researchers of the nanouid community have
been adopting the approach that treats a nanouid as a homoge-
neous uid of effective thermophysical properties and predicts
its heat transfer coefcients with standard single-phase equations
for pure uids. The gure-of-merit ratio criteria presented in Table
1 are also based on this approach by using the DittusBoelter equa-
tion for its simplicity. In order to assess the accuracy of this ap-
proach, comparisons were made with experimental data of the
turbulent-ow convective heat transfer coefcients of nanouids
found in the engineering literature.
4.1. Experimental database
While a great number of experimental data of the turbulent-
ow convective heat transfer coefcients of nanouids exist in
the engineering literature, not all of them are suitable for examin-
ing their predictability using the standard single-phase equations
developed for pure uids. According to the purpose of the present
study, the chosen experimental database, as listed in Table 2, is
limited to convective heat transfer coefcients of nanouids under
the condition of internal turbulent ow through a circular tube
where nanouid effective thermophysical properties, nanouid
temperatures, nanouid ow velocities, and other necessary
parameters are obtainable. The chosen experimental database is
comprised of base uids of water (H
2
O) and ethylene glycol/water
mixture with a 50% volume concentration (50/50 C
2
H
6
O
2
/H
2
O) and
particles of alumina (Al
2
O
3
), copper (Cu), cupric oxide (CuO), dia-
mond, multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNT), silicon carbide
(SiC), silica (SiO
2
), titania (TiO
2
), and zirconia (ZrO
2
).
4.2. Component thermophysical properties
In addition to the effective dynamic viscosity and the effective
thermal conductivity, other thermophysical properties of the com-
ponents of the nanouids are also essential for comparing experi-
mental data with predictions. As part of the present study, accurate
sources, listed in Table 3, were compiled for the thermophysical
properties of density, mass-specic heat capacity, dynamic viscos-
ity and thermal conductivity.
4.3. Heat transfer coefcient comparisons
For the purpose of comparing experimental data with predic-
tions of the turbulent-ow convective heat transfer coefcients
of the nanouids, three commonly-used single-phase equations
for pure uids were used in the present study: the DittusBoelter
equation [65], the PetukhovPopov equation [106]
h
f
=8RePrk=d
1 3:4f
11:7 1:8Pr
1=3
f
=8
1=2
Pr
2=3
1
10
and the Gnielinski equation [107]
h
f
=8Re 1000Prk=d
1 12:7f
=8
1=2
Pr
2=3
1
11
where the friction coefcient f
is calculated using the following

equation [108]
f
1:82log Re 1:64
2
12
The comparison results between the experimental data and the pre-
dictions of the heat transfer coefcients of the nanouids are plotted
according to their component materials in Figs. 413. The compari-
sons can generally be divided into the following four groups: (a) all
three equations predict most of the experimental data within the
20% range, which includes the alumina-in-water nanouids [67
69], the titania-in-water nanouids [67,78,79], and the zirconia-
in-water nanouids [68] shown in Figs. 4, 11, and 12, respectively;
(b) two equations predict most of the experimental data within
the 20% range, which includes the copper-in-water nanouids
[70] and the silicon carbide-in-50/50 ethylene glycol/water nano-
uids [80] shown in Figs. 5 and 13, respectively; (c) one equation pre-
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
T
h
e
r
m
a
l

c
o
n
d
u
c
t
i
v
i
t
y

r
a
t
i
o

k
e
/
k
m
Dynamic viscosity ratio
e
/
m
r >1
r<1
r
1
=r
9
=1
r
4
=1 & r
8
=1
r
12
=1 & r
16
=1 (a) cooling
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
T
h
e
r
m
a
l

c
o
n
d
u
c
t
i
v
i
t
y

r
a
t
i
o

k
e
/
k
m
Dynamic viscosity ratio
e
/
m
r >1
r<1
r
17
=r
25
=1
r
20
=1 & r
24
=1
r
28
=1 & r
32
=1 (b) heating
Fig. 3. Criteria for a benecial nanouid (an alumina-in-water nanouid at 25 C).
dicts most of the experimental data within the 20% range, which
includes the multiwalled carbon nanotube-in-water nanouids
[73], the silicon carbide-in-water nanouids [74,76], and the sil-
ica-in-water nanouids [77] shown in Figs. 810, respectively; and
(d) all three equations predict experimental data trends but with
some experimental data outside the 20% range, which includes
the cupric oxide-in-water nanouids [69,71] and the diamond-in-
water nanouids [69,72] shown in Figs. 6 and 7, respectively.
All of the predictions shown in Figs. 413 are reasonable with
the exception of two sets of data, and the differences in those cases
are attributed to inaccuracies in the effective thermophysical prop-
erties used in the predictions made in the present study. The heat
transfer data for cupric oxide-in-water nanouids [71] were re-
ported without measurements of the effective dynamic viscosity
and the effective thermal conductivity. Without this information
other data were excluded from the database of this study; however
an exception was made for these data because of their very low
particle concentrations of <0.236%. Because of the very low con-
centrations, it is reasonable to use property predictions from the
Einstein equation [58] for the dynamic viscosity and the Maxwell
equation [59] for the thermal conductivity when making heat
transfer coefcient predictions. However, the poor results of
Fig. 6 for these data indicate that even at these low particle concen-
trations the property predictions were too inaccurate. Also, in
obtaining the diamond-in-water experimental data [69], the effec-
tive dynamic viscosity measurement reported for the ve volume
percent concentration was considerably higher than and inconsis-
tent with the rest of the effective dynamic viscosity measurements
presented. This measurement was used in the predictions of Fig. 7
and is the likely cause of the poor agreement with the experimen-
Table 2
Experimental database for nanouid heat transfer coefcients.
Reference (author and year) Nanouid Concentration (%) Channel
(mm)
Note
Pak and Cho 1998 [67] 13-nm Al
2
O
3
in H
2
O (1) 1.34 and (2) 2.78 10.66 Measured l
e
and k
e
Williams et al. 2008 [68] 46-nm Al
2
O
3
in H
2
O (3) 0.9, (4) 1.8, and (5) 3.6 9.398 Fitted l
e
and k
e
Size from
DLS and TEM
Torii 2010 [69] 33-nm Al
2
O
3
in H
2
O (6) 0.1, (7) 1.0, and (8) 5.0 3.96 Measured l and k ratios
Xuan and Li 2003 [70] <100-nm Cu in H
2
O (9) 0.3, (10) 0.5, (11) 0.8, (12) 1.0, (13) 1.2,
(14) 1.5, and (15) 2.0
10 Measured l
e
and k
e
Fotukian and
Esfahany 2010 [71]
3050-nm CuO in H
2
O (16) 0.015, (17) 0.031, (18) 0.039, (19) 0.078, (20) 0.118, (21)
0.157, and (22) 0.236
5 Einstein equation for l
e
Maxwell
equation for k
e
Torii 2010 [69] 47-nm CuO in H
2
Torii and Yang 2009 [72] 210-nm diamond in H
2
Torii 2010 [69] 210-nm diamond in H
2
Liao and Liu 2009 [73] 1020-nm 12-lm
MWCNT in H
2
O
(32) 0.243, (33) 0.486, and (34) 0.978 1.02 Measured l and k ratios
Yu et al. 2009 [74] 170-nm SiC in H
2
O (35) 3.7 2.2733 Fitted l
e
and k
e
[75] Size from DLS
and SAXS
Timofeeva et al. 2010 [76] 16-nm SiC in H
2
O (36) 4.1 2.2733 Measured l
e
and k
e
Size from BET
2
O (37) 4.1 2.2733 Measured l
e
and k
e
Size from BET
2
O (38) 4.1 2.2733 Measured l
e
and k
e
Size from BET
2
O (39) 4.1 2.2733 Measured l
e
and k
e
Size from BET
Ferrouillat et al. 2011 [77] 22-nm SiO
2
in H
2
O (40) 2.33, (41) 7.95, and (42) 18.93 4 Measured l
e
and k
e
Pak and Cho 1998 [67] 27-nm TiO
2
in H
2
O (43) 0.99, (44) 2.04, and (45) 3.16 10.66 Measured l
e
and k
e
Duangthongsuk and
Wongwises 2009 [78]
21-nm TiO
2
in H
2
O (46) 0.2 8.13 Measured l
e
and k
e
[79]
Duangthongsuk and
Wongwises 2010 [79]
21-nm TiO
2
in H
2
O (47) 0.2, (48) 0.6, (49) 1.0, (50) 1.5, and (51) 2.0 8.13 Measured l
e
and k
e
Williams et al. 2008 [68] 60-nm ZrO
2
in H
2
O (52) 0.2, (53) 0.5, and (54) 0.9 9.398 Fitted l
e
and k
e
Size from
DLS and TEM
Timofeeva et al. 2011 [80] 16-nm SiC in 50/50
C
2
H
6
O
2
/H
2
O
(55) 4.0 2.2733 Measured l
e
and k
e
Size from BET
C
2
H
6
O
2
/H
2
O
(56) 4.0 2.2733 Measured l
e
and k
e
Size from BET
C
2
H
6
O
2
/H
2
O
(57) 4.0 2.2733 Measured l
e
and k
e
Size from BET
C
2
H
6
O
2
/H
2
O
(58) 1.0 and (59) 4.0 2.2733 Measured l
e
and k
e
Size from BET
Table 3
Thermophysical properties for nanouid components.
Material Density (kg/m
3
) Mass-specic heat capacity (J/kg K) Dynamic viscosity (Pas) Thermal conductivity (W/m K)
H
2
O Fitted equation [81] Fitted equation [81] Fitted equation [81] Fitted equation [81]
50/50 C
2
H
6
O
2
/H
2
O Data table [82] Data table [82] Data table [82] Data table [82]
Al
2
O
3
Data table [83] Data table [83] Data table [83]
Cu 8960 [84] Data table [85] Data table [86]
CuO 6310 [87] Data table [88] 17.6 [89]
Diamond 3520 [90] 509.1 [91] 2200 [92]
MWNT 1740 [93] Data plot [94] 3000 [95]
SiC Data table [96] Data table [96] Data table [96]
SiO
2
2200 [97] Data table [98] Data table [99]
TiO
2
4230 [100] Fitted equation [101] 11.7 [102]
ZrO
2
5680 [103] Fitted equation [104] 2 [105]
tal data. Note that the predictions for the rest experimental data in
Fig. 7, where no property inconsistencies were noted, are excellent
for all three prediction equations.
When differences between the experimental data and the theo-
retical predictions occur in Figs. 413, it is observed that the exper-
imental data are usually greater than the theoretical predictions.
This situation is consistent with additional effects of particle
interactions on the heat transfer coefcients such as increased
turbulence and reduced boundary layer thickness. From the com-
parisons of Figs. 413, the following observations were made with
0
5000
10000
15000
0 5000 10000 15000
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
Dittus-Boelter prediction (W/m
2
K)
(a)
+20%
-20%
0
5000
10000
15000
0 5000 10000 15000
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
Petukhov-Popov prediction (W/m
2
K)
(b)
+20%
-20%
0
3750
7500
11250
15000
0 3750 7500 11250 15000
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
Gnielinski prediction (W/m
2
K)
(c)
+20%
-20%
Fig. 5. Heat transfer coefcient comparison of copper-in-water nanouids.
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
0 10000 20000 30000 40000
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(a)
+20%
-20%
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
0 10000 20000 30000 40000
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(b)
+20%
-20%
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
0 10000 20000 30000 40000
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(c)
+20%
-20%
Fig. 4. Heat transfer coefcient comparison of alumina-in-water nanouids.
regard to the accuracy of the single-phase equations in predicting
nanouid heat transfer. With the exceptions of the experimental
data with inaccurate effective thermophysical properties discussed
above, the PetukhovPopov equation predicts all of the experimen-
tal data very well while the DittusBoelter equationandthe Gnielin-
ski equation predict the majority of the experimental data well.
4.4. Summary
A turbulent-ow nanouid with a low particle volume concen-
tration can normally be treated as a homogeneous uid because
its particles and base uid usually are well mixed. For such a
0
10000
20000
30000
0 10000 20000 30000
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(a)
+20%
-20%
0
10000
20000
30000
0 10000 20000 30000
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(b)
+20%
-20%
0
10000
20000
30000
0 10000 20000 30000
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(c)
+20%
-20%
Fig. 6. Heat transfer coefcient comparison of cupric oxide-in-water nanouids.
0
10000
20000
30000
0 10000 20000 30000
(26)
(27)
(28)
(29)
(30)
(31)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(a)
+20%
-20%
0
10000
20000
30000
0 10000 20000 30000
(26)
(27)
(28)
(29)
(30)
(31)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(b)
+20%
-20%
0
10000
20000
30000
0 10000 20000 30000
(26)
(27)
(28)
(29)
(30)
(31)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(c)
+20%
-20%
Fig. 7. Heat transfer coefcient comparison of diamond-in-water nanouids.
homogeneous turbulent-ow nanouid, the standard single-phase
heat transfer coefcient equations will provide quite accurate pre-
dictions. Therefore, if the effective thermophysical properties of a
nanouid are accurate, the heat transfer coefcient predictions
from the standard single-phase equations will be very good.
5. Effectiveness: enhancements of nanouid heat transfer
coefcients
The effectiveness of a nanouid over its base uid can generally
be measured by its heat transfer coefcient enhancement specied
as the ratio of the heat transfer coefcients of the nanouid to its
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
0 20000 40000 60000 80000
(32)
(33)
(34)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(a)
+20%
-20%
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
0 20000 40000 60000 80000
(32)
(33)
(34)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(b)
+20%
-20%
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
0 20000 40000 60000 80000
(32)
(33)
(34)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(c)
+20%
-20%
Fig. 8. Heat transfer coefcient comparison of multiwalled carbon nanotube-in-
water nanouids.
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000
(35)
(36)
(37)
(38)
(39)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(a)
+20%
-20%
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000
(35)
(36)
(37)
(38)
(39)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(b)
+20%
-20%
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000
(35)
(36)
(37)
(38)
(39)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(c)
+20%
-20%
Fig. 9. Heat transfer coefcient comparison of silicon carbide-in-water nanouids.
base uid. It should be noted that the concept of the heat transfer
coefcient enhancement of a nanouid must not be confused with
the concept of the heat transfer coefcient prediction of the nano-
uid. The former relates the heat transfer coefcient of the nano-
uid to that of its base uid while the latter relates the heat
transfer coefcient of the nanouid to its effective thermophysical
properties. A good heat transfer coefcient prediction of a nano-
uid does not necessarily indicate a good heat transfer coefcient
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
(40)
(41)
(42)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(a)
+20%
-20%
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
(40)
(41)
(42)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(b)
+20%
-20%
+20%
-20%
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
(40)
(41)
(42)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(c)
+20%
-20%
Fig. 10. Heat transfer coefcient comparison of silica-in-water nanouids.
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
0 10000 20000 30000 40000
(43)
(44)
(45)
(46)
(47)
(48)
(49)
(50)
(51)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
2
K
)
2
K)
(a)
+20%
-20%
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
0 10000 20000 30000 40000
(43)
(44)
(45)
(46)
(47)
(48)
(49)
(50)
(51)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(b)
+20%
-20%
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
0 10000 20000 30000 40000
(43)
(44)
(45)
(46)
(47)
(48)
(49)
(50)
(51)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(c)
+20%
-20%
Fig. 11. Heat transfer coefcient comparison of titania-in-water nanouids.
enhancement. By following the gure of merit approach discussed
previously, heat transfer coefcient enhancements were obtained
for the nanouid experimental database of the present study. The
comparison bases of the constant ow velocity and the constant
pumping power were used.
5.1. Base uid heat transfer coefcients
For the purpose of enhancement analyses of nanouids over
their base uids, accurate heat transfer coefcients of the
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
(52)
(53)
(54)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(a)
+20%
-20%
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
(52)
(53)
(54)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(b)
+20%
-20%
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
(52)
(53)
(54)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(c)
+20%
-20%
Fig. 12. Heat transfer coefcient comparison of zirconia-in-water nanouids.
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
(55)
(56)
(57)
(58)
(59)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(a)
+20%
-20%
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
(55)
(56)
(57)
(58)
(59)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(b)
+20%
-20%
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
(55)
(56)
(57)
(58)
(59)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
2
K)
(c)
+20%
-20%
Fig. 13. Heat transfer coefcient comparison of silicon carbide-in-50/50 ethylene
glycol/water nanouids.
nanouids and the base uids are essential. In many enhancement
predictions, the heat transfer coefcients of the nanouids are
experimentally measured and the heat transfer coefcients of the
base uids are theoretically predicted. The best predictions of the
heat transfer coefcients of the base uids in the database of the
present study were obtained by using the best prediction equations
with each set of data rather than a single equation for all. Those pre-
diction equations for the experimental database of the present
study are listed in Table 4 where the B designation refers to the base
uid of a particular experiment and the comparisons between the
experimental data and the theoretical predictions are plotted in
Fig. 14. It can be seen from Fig. 14 that the predictions are consid-
ered to be in very good agreement with the experimental data.
5.2. Nanouid heat transfer coefcients
The calculation of nanouid heat transfer enhancements in-
volves the same nanouid effective thermophysical properties as
the analysis of nanouid heat transfer coefcient predictions. Con-
sequently, the two data sets [69,71] discussed previously with re-
spect to property uncertainties were eliminated from the database.
The remaining experimental data were reorganized according to
nanouid component materials and are listed in Table 5 where
the E designation refers to the nanouid of a particular experiment.
5.3. Heat transfer coefcient enhancement comparisons
The experimental heat transfer coefcient enhancements of the
nanouids over their base uids were obtained by dividing the
experimental heat transfer coefcients of the nanouids by the pre-
dicted heat transfer coefcients of their base uids using the equa-
tions listed in Table 4. Two comparison bases were used: the
constant ow velocity and the constant pumping power. For the
constant ow velocity-based comparisons, the heat transfer
coefcients of the base uids were calculated directly fromthe pre-
diction equations listed in Table 4 with the same owvelocities and
temperatures of their corresponding nanouids. For the constant
pumping power-based comparisons, the ow velocities of the base
uids are different from those of their corresponding nanouids. In
the constant pumping power comparisons, the pumping power was
calculated as
P p=2dLu
3
qf 0:03955pd
3=4
Lu
11=4
q
3=4
l
1=4
13
Table 4
Prediction equations for base uid heat transfer coefcients.
Reference (author and year) Base uid Channel (mm) Prediction equation
Pak and Cho 1998 [67] (B1) H
2
O 10.66 h
m
= h
PetukhovPopov
Xuan and Li 2003 [70] (B2) H
2
O 10 h
m
= h
DittusBoelter
for h
m
< 5000 W/m
2
K
hm h
DittusBoelter
h
PetukhovPopov
=2
for h
m
P5000 W/m
2
K
Williams et al. 2008 [68] (B3) H
2
O 9.398 h
m
= h
PetukhovPopov
Duangthongsuk and Wongwises 2009 [78] (B4) H
2
O 8.13 h
m
= h
PetukhovPopov
for h
m
< 7000 W/m
2
K
h
m
= h
DittusBoelter
for h
m
P7000 W/m
2
K
Liao and Liu 2009 [73] (B5) H
2
O 1.02 h
m
= 1.10h
Gnielinski
for T = 29 C
h
m
= h
PetukhovPopov
for T = 58 C
Torii and Yang 2009 [72] (B6) H
2
O 3.96 h
m
= h
Gnielinski
Yu et al. 2009 [74], Timofeeva et al. 2010 [76] (B7) H
2
O 2.2733 h
m
= 1.12h
Gnielinski
Duangthongsuk and Wongwises 2010 [79] (B8) H
2
O 8.13 h
m
= 1.13h
DittusBoelter
for h
m
< 7000 W/m
2
K
hm h
DittusBoelter
h
PetukhovPopov
=2
for h
m
P7000 W/m
2
K
Fotukian and Esfahany 2010 [71] (B9) H
2
O 5 h
m
= h
DittusBoelter
Torii 2010 [69] (B10) H
2
O 3.96 hm h
DittusBoelter
h
Gnielinski
=2
Ferrouillat et al. 2011 [77] (B11) H
2
O 4 hm h
DittusBoelter
h
Gnielinski
=2 for heating
hm h
DittusBoelter
h
PetukhovPopov
=2 for cooling
Timofeeva et al. 2011 [80] (B12) 50/50 C
2
H
6
O
2
/H
2
O 2.2733 h
m
= 1.28h
Gnielinski
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
0 20000 40000 60000 80000
(B1)
(B2)
(B3)
(B4)
(B5)
(B6)
(B7)
(B8)
(B9)
(B10)
(B11)
(B12)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

d
a
t
a

(
W
/
m
2
K
)
Prediction (W/m
2
K)
Fig. 14. Heat transfer coefcient comparison of base uids.
Table 5
Experimental database for nanouid heat transfer coefcient enhancements.
Reference (author and year) Nanouid Concentration
range (%)
Pak and Cho 1998 [67], Williams et al. 2008
[68], Torii 2010 [69]
(E1) Al
2
O
3
in
H
2
O
0.15.0
Xuan and Li 2003 [70] (E2) Cu in H
2
O 0.32.0
Torii 2010 [69] (E3) CuO in H
2
O 0.15.0
Torii and Yang 2009 [72], Torii 2010 [69] (E4) diamond in
H
2
O
0.11.0
Liao and Liu 2009 [73] (E5) MWCNT in
H
2
O
0.2430.978
Yu et al. 2009 [74], Timofeeva et al. 2010
[76]
(E6) SiC in H
2
O 3.74.1
Ferrouillat et al. 2011 [77] (E7) SiO
2
in H
2
O 2.3318.93
Pak and Cho 1998 [67], Duangthongsuk and
Wongwises 2009 [78], Duangthongsuk
and Wongwises 2010 [79]
(E8) TiO
2
in H
2
O 0.203.16
Williams et al. 2008 [68] (E9) ZrO
2
in H
2
O 0.20.9
Timofeeva et al. 2011 [80] (E10) SiC in 50/
50 C
2
H
6
O
2
/H
2
O
1.04.0
which was obtained by calculating the Fanning friction factor from
the Blasius equation [66]. This approach is supported by the fact
that the Fanning friction factor of a nanouid in turbulent ow fol-
lows the Blasius equation very well [6770,73,77,109]. Also as dis-
cussed previously, the heat transfer coefcient ratio of a nanouid
to its base uid is not signicantly affected by using the classical
equation or using the Blasius equation for the Fanning friction fac-
tor (<0.012 for the experimental database of the present study).
From Eq. (13), the base uid ow velocity u
m
for the constant
pumping power-based comparison (P
m
= P
e
) can be expressed as a
function of the experimentally-known nanouid velocity u
e
[60]
u
m
q
e
=q
m
3=11
l
e
=l
m
1=11
u
e
14
Therefore, for the constant pumping power-based comparisons, the
heat transfer coefcients of the base uids were calculated from the
prediction equations listed in Table 4 with the ow velocities com-
puted from Eq. (14). While it is possible to use all the experimental
data points for comparisons at the constant ow velocity and the
constant pumping power, the experimental heat transfer coefcient
enhancement ratios and corresponding gure-of-merit ratios are
only presented in Fig. 15 averaged over the nanouid component
material and the particle volume concentration. These average re-
sults represent the overall nanouid performance and are the most
important criteria for judging the benet of nanouid heat transfer.
In Fig. 15, (a) the horizontal unity line separates the regimes of
the experimental heat transfer coefcient enhancements (above)
and deteriorations (below); (b) the vertical unity line separates
the regimes of the gure-of-merit ratio enhancements (right) and
deteriorations (left); and (c) the line OO
0
separates the regimes of
the experimental heat transfer coefcient enhancement ratios lar-
ger (above) and smaller (below) than the corresponding gure-of-
merit ratios. It can be seen from Fig. 15 that the experimental heat
transfer enhancement ratios agree very well with the correspond-
ing gure-of-merit ratios with almost all of the data being within
20% range and most of the data being within 10% range. The g-
ure-of-merit ratios for all of the data with experimental heat trans-
fer coefcient deteriorations are smaller than unity (shaded
regime); however, the experimental heat transfer coefcient
enhancement ratios for some of the data with gure-of-merit ratio
deteriorations are larger than unity. Both are indicative of addi-
tional particle interaction effects on the heat transfer enhance-
ments of the nanouids. This particle interaction improvement is
also observed when the heat transfer coefcient ratios show
enhancements (greater than unity). In almost every case when
there are heat transfer coefcient enhancements, they are larger
than the corresponding gure-of-merit ratios.
It is observed in Fig. 15 that the constant ow velocity-based
comparisons and the constant pumping power-based comparisons
follow very similar patterns. However, considering the magnitudes
it is observed that the experimental heat transfer enhancement ra-
tios and the corresponding gure-of-merit ratios for the constant
pumping power-based comparisons are smaller than those for
the constant ow velocity-based comparisons. As discussed previ-
ously, the difference is small and is as expected.
5.4. Summary
While there are potential additional particle effects, the domi-
nant inuence factor on the heat transfer coefcient enhancement
of a nanouid over its base uid is its effective thermophysical
properties. These results further validate the treatment of a nano-
uid as a homogeneous uid with its effective thermophysical
properties. For such nanouids the constant velocity and constant
pumping power gure-of-merit ratios serve as good predictors of
the nanouid heat transfer enhancements.
6. Concluding remarks
With more than a decade of research and development of nano-
uid technologies, the main focus of nanouid investigations has
gradually shifted from laboratory effective thermophysical prop-
erty characterizations to practical heat transfer coefcient mea-
surements. This shift in focus is evident in the great number of
original research papers on nanouid heat transfer in the engineer-
ing literature. The present comparative review of convective heat
transfer of nanouids concentrates on one of the most com-
monly-encountered engineering heat transfer problems a forced
single-phase internal turbulent ow through a circular tube be-
cause of its key role in studying, designing, and implementing
practical turbulent-ow nanouid application systems. The analy-
ses of the experimental data from multiple research groups of the
convective heat transfer coefcients of nanouids in turbulent ow
in the engineering literature show that (a) turbulent-ow nano-
uids with low particle volume concentrations can normally be
treated as homogeneous uids due to the nature of their
well-mixed particles and base uids; (b) the additional effects of
particles on the convective heat transfer coefcients for such
homogeneous nanouids in turbulent ow are insignicant
compared to the dominant inuence factor the effective
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
(E1)
(E2)
(E3)
(E4)
(E5)
(E6)
(E7)
(E8)
(E9)
(E10)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

e
n
h
a
n
c
e
m
e
n
t

r
a
t
i
o
Figure-of-merit ratio
(a) flow velocity basis
+20%
-20%
O
O'
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
(E1)
(E2)
(E3)
(E4)
(E5)
(E6)
(E7)
(E8)
(E9)
(E10)
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
a
l

e
n
h
a
n
c
e
m
e
n
t

r
a
t
i
o
Figure-of-merit ratio
(b) pumping power basis
+20%
-20%
O
O'
Fig. 15. Heat transfer coefcient enhancement comparison of various nanouids.
thermophysical properties of the nanouids; (c) the convective
heat transfer coefcients of nanouids in turbulent ow can, there-
fore, be predicted quite accurately with standard single-phase
equations of DittusBoelter, PetukhovPopov, or Gnielinski; and
(d) the actual heat transfer coefcient enhancement ratios of nano-
uids over their base uids can also be predicted quite accurately
with the heat transfer coefcient ratios of the nanouids over their
base uids calculated with the DittusBoelter equation using the
thermophysical properties of the nanouids and their base uids
for the specic comparison bases of the constant ow velocity or
the constant pumping power; however, using the Reynolds num-
ber as a comparison basis is inappropriate, and using the Nusselt
number in place of the heat transfer coefcient is misleading for
nanouid enhancements. These ndings provide the possibility
and the basis for judging the heat transfer performance of nano-
uids under practical application conditions through their effective
thermophysical properties. Consequently, the results point to the
future research directions of engineering nanouids with the de-
sired heat transfer characteristics through the proper combinations
of their thermophysical properties, especially the effective dy-
namic viscosity and the effective thermal conductivity, by optimiz-
ing particle size, particle shape, particle coating, particle volume
concentration, base uid, and uid additive.
Acknowledgements
This work was sponsored by the Ofce of Vehicle Technologies
and the Ofce of Industrial Technology Program of the U.S. Depart-
ment of Energy under contract number DE-AC0206CH11357 at
Argonne National Laboratory, managed by UChicago Argonne LLC.
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