G.P.T.

C KORATTY Page 1






DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION
(2012-2015)
GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
KORATTY
G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 2

IN-PLANT TRAINING
FERTILESERS AND CHEMICALS TRAVENCORE LIMITED,
UDYOGAMANDAL
BY

AJOY PAULSON
ARJUN V.
JITHIN. N. K.
KANNAN. K. R.
LOY THOMAS
NIKHIL. K. G.
SHITHIN JOHNSON
SREEJITH C MENON
VINU VARGHESE
VISHNU. C. V.
YADHUKRISHNAN. K. S.

DEPARTEMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION
(2012-2015)
G.P.T.C. KORATTY

G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

On the completion of our report, we have had to take the help and guidelines of
some respected persons, First we would like to thank god for giving as sound
mind and strength to be able to complete our industrial training report. We
would like to offer our gratitude to Mr.Joy Ukkan,Dy.manager(Trg) for giving us
an opportunity to earn this valuable experience in this reputed industry.
We would also like to express our thanks to Mr. Satheesh Kumar M, PD
department and Mr. Jose Kurian, UD department for providing us the necessary
help to start our in-plant training in their respective departments. We would
further like to give our whole hearted thanks to all the plant managers, Heads of
safety Departments and Engineers of both departments for their insightful
knowledge and their cooperation of the industry.
We would also like to thank our parents for their constant support and prayers
as we com pleated this in-plant training



G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 4

ABSTRACT
The FACT produces a major product Factomfos, Captrolactum,
AmmoniumSulphate, Ammonium Phosphate, Sulphuric Acid, ammonia,
phosphoric Acid and byproduct is Gypsum. The different sections in FACT (CD) are
NP Plant, SAP, PAP, Ammonium Handling site and Bagging section. In NP plant
Factomfos is produced. In SAP Production of Sulphuric Acid is carrying out the raw
material are collected from the Latin American Countries. In PAP phosphoric acid
is producing from rocks and Gypsum is produced as byproduct. In ammonia
handling site, liquid state ammonia is stored in a storage tank by refrigeration and
control. The vaporization Ammonia is being restricted. The final plant is the
Bagging plant, in this the weighting and packing of final product (Factomfos) is
done. DCS systems are used in NP and sulphuric Acid plant for control and
measurement



G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 5

TABLE OF CONTENT



INTRODUCTION
SAFETY
PLANTS
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
LEVEL
FLOW
VIBRATION
CONCLUTION



G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 6

INTRODUCTION
The Fertilizer and chemical Travancore LTD (FACT) is a fertilizer and
Chemical manufacturing company in Cochin incorporated in 1943, Units of FACT
in Cochin

Udyogamandal Division (UD)
Cochin Division (CD)
Petrochemical Division (PD)
FACT Engineering and Design Organization
(FEDO)
FACT Engineering Works (FEW)
Marketing Division



The company has also interested in petrochemical, hydrometallurgy, chemicals
and pharmaceuticals
The main products of FACT are Factomfos, caprolactum, Ammonium Sulphate,
Ammonium phosphate, sulphuric acid Ammonia and other complex fertilizer. The
major byproduct is Gypsum


G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 7

FACT
Fertilizers and Chemicals Travancore (FACT ) is a fertilizer and chemical
manufacturing company
In Kochi, Kerala, India was incorporated in 1943. In 1947 FACT started production
of Ammonium Sulphate with an installed capacity of 50000 MT per annum at
Udyogamandal near Cochin. It is one of largest chemical manufacturing facilities
in Kerala. The company has 2 production units Udyogamandal Division (UD) and
Cochin Division (CD). The Caprolactam plant was commissioned in 1990. Main
products of the company are Factomfos, Ultraphos, Ammonium Sulphate,
Ammonium phosphate, Caprolactum, Sulphuric Acid, Ammonia, Phosphoric Acid
and other complex fertilizers. Nitric acid and Soda ash are major byproducts.
The factor commences production of ammonium sulphate in 1947 at drawn
of Indian Independence using wood as the raw material for production of
ammonia. With the efflux of time, wood gasification became uneconomic and was
replaced with naphtha reforming process. Through a series of expansion
programs, FACT soon became the producer of the widest range of fertilizers
suited for all crops and all soil types in India. It became a Kerala State public
sector enterprise in 1960 and in 1962; it came under the Government of India.
Diversification to Full-fledged Engineering Services (FEW) in the fertilizer field and
allied areas followed. The next major step forward was the diversification of
petrochemicals, an important milestone in the growth of the company. FACT has
formed a Joint Venture Company with Rashtriya Chemicals & Fertilizers Limited
for manufacturing load bearing panels and other building products using
phosphogypsum


G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 8

SAFTY IN OPERATION AND MANTANENCE WORKS
All operating and service personal must wear approved types of dress. The use of
loose dresses like dhotis, pajamas, neckties or scarf is forbidden. Proper tools,
maintained in good condition must be used. They should be used correctly. This
applies not only to hand tools, but also to portable power tools, lifting tackles,
sling, etc. It is the duty of the persons in charge of operational or maintenance
work to ensure that the equipment is adequate to the task programmed and that
the avoidable risk is taken.
Areas where operational or maintenance works are being carried out, must be
kept clean and safe-free from obstructions, unnecessary materials scatted about.
It should also be ensured that the equipment is adequate to the task programmed
and that the no avoidable risk is taken
Areas where operational or maintenance works are being carried out, must be
kept clean and safe-free from obstructions, unnecessary materials scattered
about. It should also be ensured that there is proper light and ventilation, free of
any poisonous or irritant gases.
Before entering any tank, vessel or confined space it should be ensure that the
equipment is isolated, purged and tested for safe working. The interior should be
free from poisonous atmosphere and it should be dependent upon for effective
isolation. Connecting pipe line should be blanked or a filler piece is used.
No men may work inside a tank or closer space without a man to guard outside. A
safety belt and a tail line of rope may also be own, if thought desirable by the
concern officer.
When working in an isolated location, keep in contact with the superior
frequently. Use only flame proof lights and torches in hazardous areas,


G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 9

CONTROL OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS IN
STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION
Most hazardous chemicals are handled several times in loading, unloading,
transporting and stored, during the distribution chain from manufacturing to final
use which are toxic, corrosive flammable or explosive in nature and which present
some form of hazards to men, material and environment. The inherent properties
of toxicity and flammability cannot be isolated from the chemicals, but knowing
the hazards of chemicals the handling can be plant that the handlers are free from
hazards.

THE KEY FACTORS IN HANDLING CHEMICALS

KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHEMICALS AND HAZARDS


1. Recognize the chemicals before starting any process or handling.

2. Understand the hazards associated with the particular classes of dangerous
chemicals to be stored or handled.

3. Understand the labeling systems used to identify specific hazards.

4. Familiar with the precautionary methods to be taken.

5. Safety procedures in forced at each movement.


PROPER TRAINING


1. Training classes should be arranged to the concerned employees of the
hazardous chemicals handling department or warehouses or drivers of the
transporting vehicles.

G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 10

2. Periodic mock drill should be practiced.

3. Emergency procedures to be taken or cleanly known.


PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES

1. Employees who may be exposed to materials such as ammonia,sulphuric
acid,arsenic,chlorine or other chemicals shall consult the safety authority for
definite instructions regarding protective equipment to be used while handling.

2. Handle chemicals with great care and avoid spillage on floor or human body.

3. Running water connection should always, kept near the equipment, which
contain corrosive chemical.


G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 11

PLANTS

SULPHURIC ACID PLANT
The sulphuric acid plant is designed to produce 1000tpd of monohydrate.The
plant is based on the double conversion double absorption (DCDA) process and
was designed by FEDO in collaboration with Davy Power Gas Gmbh (originally
CHEMIBAU).
The basic reactions involved in the manufacture o sulphuric acid by the contact
process are as follows:
a. Cumbustion of sulphur with air to produce sulphur dioxide
S+O
2 ->
SO
2

b. catalytic oxidation of sulphur dioxide with oxygen in the air steam, to sulphur
trioxide
SO
2
+1/2O
2
<->SO
3

c. Combination of the sulphur trioxide with water in 98.4% sulphuric acid.
SO
3
+H
2
O->H
2
SO
4
PROCESS

The sulphur (99.5% purity) is melted in melting pits having steam coils and the
molten sulphur is stored in a clean storage tank after filtration in a leaf filter.
From here this sulphur is pumped to the combustion furnace by the sulphur
burner pump.
In the combustion furnace sulphur is burnt in a controlled quantity of combustion
air supplied by a steam driven air blower through an air drying tower where the
air is dried in circulated steam of concentrated sulphuric acid.
G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 12

The dry gas from the combustion chamber, containing 10%SO
2
,is cooled from
1100
0
C to 430
0
C in a waste heat boiler with evaporator and super heater (K
1
).
There is a provision for the process gas to partly bypass K
1
and this is utilized to
help to maintain the gas temperature at 430
0
C before admission to the converter
(D-3).
To obtain the conversion of 99.5% of the SO
3
content of the converted gas has to
be reduced. The gas from the third bed is cooled in a boiler cum economizer (W-
4) to 200
0
C and it led into the intermediate absorption tower (D-4). Here the SO
3

in the gas is absorbed and the gas in the process gets cool down to 65
0
C. As the
minimum reaction temperature is 420
0
C the gas steam is heated in the final and
intermediate heat exchanges (W5 & W2) before being admitted to the fourth
bed. Here the final conversion takes place raising the total percentage of
conversion to 99.5% or above. The temperature arises to 439
0
C in the last layer.
The gas is then cooled to 200
0
C in the final heat exchanger (W5) and then
economizer (w6) and then led to the final absorption tower (D-5) where the SO
3
is
absorbed in circulating acid to produce sulphuric acid.
The circulating acid in the air drying tower gets diluted and hence 98.5% acid from
the intermediate absorption tower is fed into it to keep the strength of the
circulating acid above 96%. A portion of this circulating acid is send to the
intermediate absorption tower to help keep the strength of the product acid at
98.5%.
The product acid from the intermediate absorption tower is admitted to the
bottom of the final absorption tower. The product (98% sulphuric acid) is
withdrawn from the final absorption tower and cooled to about 40
0
C in a plate
cooler. To prevent mist carry over along with gasses going out, the intermediate
absorption tower and the final absorption tower have mist elimination at the top.
The gasses from the final absorption tower after passing through the mist
eliminator go out through the stack. The SO
2
content of the vented gasses is 600
ppm.

G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 13

AMMONIUM HANDLING PLANT

Ammonia is one of the reactors and used to form factomfos. Liquid state
Ammonia is used in the reactor at 33
0
C temperature the vapor ammonia
condensed to liquid state ammonia. The ammonia is imported at Willington Island
from foreign countries in ships. Liquid ammonia is transported to CD through
truckers or Barger. Breathing of Ammonia causes injuries of health. It cause cold
burg. In ammonium storage tank, it always maintains 33
0
C temperature.
Ammonia is transferred to storage tank from the tanker or lamer by pushing with
NH
3
vapor.
LACTAM PLANT
The lactam plant is responsible for the reaction between Cyclohexanone and
Hydroxyl Amine to give the final product Cprolactum and few other by products.
This manufacture occurs in a series of different processes that operate at
different pressure and temperature conditions and in the presence of various
catalysts.
OXIMATION
In this step Cyclohexanone reacts with Hydroxyl Amine to give an Oxime. This
reaction takes place at low temperature and at a pH value regulated at value 4.5.
Ammonia water is added to the reaction to maintain the pH value at 4.5.The
other product which is formed here is Ammonium Sulphate (O.A.S.). Weight of
O.A.S. formed in this process during manufacture of 1 tone lactam in the industry
is 1.7 tones.
Rearrangement (Beckmans Rearrangement)
Here the above formed Oxime in the presence of catalyst oleum at a temperature
of 125
0
Crearranges itself to give lactam. The products are called the rearranged
mixture.
G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 14

This rearrangement can also lead to unwanted arrangements and reactions which
gives rise to impurities.


Purification (Neutralization)
The rearranged mixture is treated with ammonium water to give 70% Crude
Lactam and Ammonium Sulphate(L.A.S.).Weight of L.A.S formed in this process
during manufacture of 1 tonne lactam in the industry is 2.8 tones.
Combined, Ammonium Sulphate is produced at abt 4.5 tones per 1 tone
Cprolactam.
Lactam Extraction
The above solution is treated with Benzene so as to extract the desired lactam.
The product formed here is 20% Benzene Lactam and Ammonium Sulphate. The
extraction takes place in a large rotary disc.
Re-extraction
Benzene Lactam is treated with process condensate from evaporation column
give Aqueous Lactam and Benzene. All impurities initially present in the crude
lactam mixture is removed by Benzene and is found in the co-product of the re-
extraction reaction. This process is carried out in a packed pulsation column.
Ion Exchangers
These are a series of alternating anion and cation exchangers where ions of
Ammonium Sulphate are removed. This help to reduce the conductivity of lactam
thus increasing the quality of the product.


G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 15

Hydrogenation
In the presence of Ranny Ni Catalyst and Hydrogen atmosphere, unsaturated
compounds present in the lactam product are reduced. Temperature condition of
90
0
C and a pressure of 7-9 kg/m
2
are maintained.
Evaporation Section
A triple effect evaporator is used to increase the concentration of the lactam
product from 30% to 90%.
Knock-out Drum & Flash Column
The knock-out drum and flash column help to increase the concentration from
90% to 99.9%.
Lactam Distillation
Caustic Soda is added before distillation. A high vacuum of 4mm Hg is maintained
with a temperature of 128
0
C and hydrogen impurities are removed to further
increases purity level of Lactam product.
Flaking
Lactam has a melting point of 69
0
C. Molten lactam is present at 90
0
C. To produce
flakes of lactam, temperature is cooled down from 90
0
C to below 69
0
C
Hot Water Systems
To prevent solidification from occurring during flow through pipe lines, lines and
equipment are traced and jacketed with hot water to keep the temperature from
going below 69
0
C
The above mentioned processes are the steps required for the production of high
quality Caprolactam.


G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 16

HYAM PLANT

This plant is responsible for the production of Hydroxyl Amine. There are a series
of processes which are undergone to get the final product Hydroxyl Amine.

Preparation of Ammonia Water
Ammonia is made into solution and thus aqueous solution of ammonia is
prepared.

Production of carbonates and bicarbonates
Carbon dioxide is passed counter-currently against ammonia water in a
absorption colum where the end products are ammonium carbonates and
bicarbonates. Since this is an exothermic reaction cooling in sides of the tower is
provided.

Oxidation Columns (To obtain NO2 and NO)
Explosive limits of ammonia are between 14%-26%. Ammonia is auto ignited at a
temperature of 6500C. 55% oxidation takes place and NO, NO2 are formed. Since
this is an exothermic reaction cooling coils run along the sides of column. The
catalysts used are Platinum Rhodium electrodes.

Ammonium Nitrate Production
Ammonium carbonates and bicarbonates react with the NO and NO2 products
from the oxidation columns to give Ammonium Nitrate.

HADSA and HAMSA
Ammonium Nitrate is reacted with Sulphur Dioxide to give Hydroxyl amino
disulphonic ammonia (HADSA) which is further treated to give Hydroxyl amino
monosulphonic ammonia (HAMSA).
HYAM Sulphate Production
The above formed HADSA undergoes hydrolysis for approx. 4 hours to obtain HYAM sulphate.






G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 17

HYAM Neutralisation
This step is done to remove impurities to finally obtain a purer solution of HYAM.
The final product contains 55% HYAM, some percentage of Ammonium Sulphate
and Ammonium Nitrate.

Off Gas Reactor
Excess NO and NO2 gases are passed through the off gas reactor where it is
reduced to N2. This gas is then safely passed into the atmosphere. Here the
catalyst uses is Titanium dioxide.
BAGGING PLANT
It is for bagging the final products has the weight of 50kg. The instruments used in
this section are made by Richard Sincon and Chromos Richardson. It make is 16 to
20 bag/min. Single Spot Single bucket technique is used in this plant. First step is
that fill the bucket. Two stages of feeding are occurred, main feeding and fine
feeding. Main feeding fill the 36kg of final product in the bucket and fine feeding
consist of 14kg of final product in dual in flight in materials after completing the
50kg feeding in the bucket by using solenoids open the mouth of bucket. The bag
is fixed in the mouth of the bucket gets open by this way bag is filled.



G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 18

TEMPERATURE
A temperature is a numerical measure of hot and cold. Its measurement is by
detection of heat radiation, particle velocity, kinetic energy, or most commonly,
by the bulk behavior of a thermometric material. It may be calibrated in any of
various temperature scales, Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin, etc.
Measurements with a small thermometer, or by detection of heat radiation, can
show that the temperature of a body of material can vary from time to time and
from place to place within it. If changes happen too fast, or with too small a
spacing, within a body, it may be impossible to define its temperature. Thus the
concept of temperature in general has an empirical content.
Within a body that exchanges no energy or matter with its surroundings,
temperature tends to become spatially uniform as time passes. When a path
permeable only to heat is open between two bodies, energy always transfer
spontaneously as heat from a hotter body to a colder one. The transfer rate
depends on the nature of the path. If they are connected by a path permeable
only to heat, and no heat flows between them, then the two bodies are equally
hot. If changes are slow and spatially smooth enough to allow consistent
comparisons of their hotness with other bodies that are respectively in their own
states of internal thermodynamic equilibrium, they obey the Zeroth law of
thermodynamic and then they have well defined and equal temperatures. Then
thermodynamics provides a fundamental physical definition of temperature, on
an absolute scale, relying on the second law of thermodynamics.
TEMPARATURE ELEMENTS
BIMETALLIC

A bimetallic strip is used to convert a temperature change into mechanical
displacement. The strip consists of two strips of different metals which expand at
different rates as they are heated, usually steel and copper, or in some cases steel
and brass. The strips are joined together throughout their length by
riveting, brazing or welding. The different expansions force the flat strip to bend
one way if heated, and in the opposite direction if cooled below its initial temperature.
The metal with the higher coefficient of thermal expansion is on outer side of the
G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 19

curve when the strip is heated and on the inner side when cooled

The sideways displacement of the strip is much larger than the small lengthways
expansion in either of the two metals. This effect is used in a range of mechanical
and electrical devices. In some applications the bimetal strip is used in the flat
form. In others, it is wrapped into a coil for compactness. The greater length of
the coiled version gives improved sensitivity.

FILLED SYSTEM THERMOMETER

The gas or gas and liquid are contained usually in a sealed metal tubing and bulb
system.
If you have an electric or gas oven in the USA, chances are the temperature
sensor in the oven looks like a metal tube with a fat bump on the end. Thats a
filled system thermometer.
G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 20

The gas types were used in many industrial applications and for establishing
portions of the thermodynamic temperature scale. They can be very simple, non-
powered devices with great reliability and repeatability.
RTD
Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors (RTDs),
are sensors used to measure temperature by correlating the resistance of the RTD
element with temperature. Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled
wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The element is usually quite fragile,
so it is often placed inside a sheathed probe to protect it. The RTD element is
made from a pure material, typically platinum, nickel or copper. The material has
a predictable change in resistance as the temperature changes and it is this
predictable change that is used to determine temperature.
They are slowly replacing the use of thermocouples in many industrial
applications below 600 C, due to higher accuracy and repeatability
Common RTD sensing elements constructed
of platinum, copper or nickel have a repeatable resistance versus temperature
relationship (R vs. T) and operating temperature range. The R vs. T relationship is
defined as the amount of resistance change of the sensor per degree of
temperature change
]
The relative change in resistance (temperature coefficient of
resistance) varies only slightly over the useful range of the sensor.
Platinum was proposed by Sir william Siemens as an element for resistance
temperature detector at the Bakerian lecture in 187 it is a noble metal and has
the most stable resistance-temperature relationship over the largest temperature
range. Nickel elements have a limited temperature range because the amount of
change in resistance per degree of change in temperature becomes very non-
linear at temperatures over 572 F (300 C). Copper has a very linear resistance-
temperature relationship, however copper oxidizes at moderate temperatures
and cannot be used over 302 F (150 C).
Platinum is the best metal for RTDs because it follows a very linear resistance-
temperature relationship and it follows the R vs. T relationship in a highly
G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 21

repeatable manner over a wide temperature range. The unique properties of
platinum make it the material of choice for temperature standards over the range
of -272.5 C to 961.78 C, and is used in the sensors that define the International
Temperature Standard,ITS-90. Platinum is chosen also because of its chemical
inertness.
The significant characteristic of metals used as resistive elements is the linear
approximation of the resistance versus temperature relationship between 0 and
100 C. This temperature coefficient of resistance is called alpha, . The equation
below defines ; its units are ohm/ohm/C.

THERMOCOUPLE
A thermocouple is a temperature-measuring device consisting of two dissimilar
conductors that contact each other at one or more spots. It produces
a voltage when the temperature of one of the spots differs from the reference
temperature at other parts of the circuit. Thermocouples are a widely used type
of temperature sensor for measurement and control, and can also convert a
temperature gradient into electricity. Commercial thermocouples are
inexpensive, interchangeable, are supplied with standard connectors, and can
measure a wide range of temperatures. In contrast to most other methods of
temperature measurement, thermocouples are self powered and require no
external form of excitation. The main limitation with thermocouples is accuracy;
system errors of less than one degree Celsius (C) can be difficult to achieve.

Any junction of dissimilar metals will produce an electric potential related to
temperature. Thermocouples for practical measurement of temperature are
G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 22

junctions of specific alloys which have a predictable and repeatable relationship
between temperature and voltage. Different alloys are used for different
temperature ranges. Properties such as resistance to corrosion may also be
important when choosing a type of thermocouple. Where the measurement point
is far from the measuring instrument, the intermediate connection can be made
by extension wires which are less costly than the materials used to make the
sensor. Thermocouples are usually standardized against a reference temperature
of 0 degrees Celsius; practical instruments use electronic methods of cold-
junction compensation to adjust for varying temperature at the instrument
terminals. Electronic instruments can also compensate for the varying
characteristics of the thermocouple, and so improve the precision and accuracy of
measurements.
Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry; applications include
temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and
other industrial processes. Thermocouples are also used in homes, offices and
businesses as the temperature sensors in thermostats, and also as flame sensors
in safety devices for gas-powered major appliance

THERMOWELL

Thermo wells are tubular fittings used to protect temperature sensors installed in
industrial processes. A thermo well consists of a tube closed at one end and
mounted in the process stream. A temperature sensor such as a thermometer,
thermocouple or resistance temperature detector is inserted in the open end of
the tube, which is usually in the open air outside the process piping or vessel and
any thermal insulation. The process fluid transfers heat to the thermo well wall,
which in turn transfer heat to the sensor. Since more mass is present, the sensor's
response to process temperature changes is delayed. If the sensor fails, it can be
easily replaced without draining the vessel or piping. To be representative of the
average temperature of fluid, the thermo well must extend a few per cent of the
G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 23

inside diameter of the process pipe or vessel.

A thermo well is typically machined from solid bar stock and gun-drilled to ensure
a long straight bore that closely approximates the diameter of the installed sensor
(ex: a .260" bore matching a .250" sensor). A thermo well is typically mounted
into the process stream by way of a threaded, welded, sanitary cap or flanged
process connection. The temperature sensor such as a thermometer,
thermocouple or resistance temperature detector is inserted in the open end of
the thermo well and typically spring loaded to ensure that the outside tip of the
temperature sensor is in metal to metal contact with the inside tip of the thermo
well


G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 24

PRESSURE
Pressure is force per unit area applied in a direction perpendicular to the surface
of an object. Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to the local atmospheric or
ambient pressure. Pressure is measured in any unit of force divided by any unit of
area. The SI unit of pressure is the Newton per square meter, which is called the
Pascal (Pa) after the seventeenth-century philosopher and scientist Blaise Pascal.
A pressure of 1 Pa is small; it approximately equals the pressure exerted by a
dollar bill rest Pressure is the amount of force acting per unit area. The symbol of
pressure is p.
Formula

Mathematically:

Where:
Is the pressure
is the normal force,
Is the area of the surface on contact.
in flat on a table. Everyday pressures are often stated in kilopascals (1 kPa = 1000
Pa).



G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 25

PRESSURE ELEMENTS
BOURDEN TUBE
The Bourdon pressure gauge uses the principle that a flattened tube tends to
straighten or regain its circular form in cross-section when pressurized. Although
this change in cross-section may be hardly noticeable, and thus involving
moderate stresses within the elastic range of easily workable materials, the
strain of the material of the tube is magnified by forming the tube into a C shape
or even a helix, such that the entire tube tends to straighten out or uncoil,
elastically, as it is pressurized. Eugene Bourdon patented his gauge in France in
1849, and it was widely adopted because of its superior sensitivity, linearity, and
accuracy; Edward Ashcroft purchased Bourdon's American patent rights in 1852
and became a major manufacturer of gauges. Also in 1849, Bernard Schaeffer in
Magdeburg, Germany patented a successful diaphragm (see below) pressure
gauge, which, together with the Bourdon gauge, revolutionized pressure
measurement in industry. But in 1875 after Bourdon's patents expired, his
company Schaffer and Budenberg also manufactured Bourdon tube gauges.
In practice, a flattened thin-wall, closed-end tube is connected at the hollow end
to a fixed pipe containing the fluid pressure to be measured. As the pressure
increases, the closed end moves in an arc, and this motion is converted into the
rotation of a (segment of a) gear by a connecting link that is usually adjustable. A
small-diameter pinion gear is on the pointer shaft, so the motion is magnified
further by the gear ratio. The positioning of the indicator card behind the pointer,
the initial pointer shaft position, the linkage length and initial position all provide
means to calibrate the pointer to indicate the desired range of pressure for
variations in the behavior of the Bourdon tube itself. Differential pressure can be
measured by gauges containing two different Bourdon tubes, with connecting
linkages.
Bourdon tubes measure gauge pressure, relative to ambient atmospheric
pressure, as opposed to absolute pressure; vacuum is sensed as a reverse motion.
Some aneroid barometers use Bourdon tubes closed at ends (but most use
diaphragms or capsules, see below). When the measured pressure is rapidly
pulsing, such as when the gauge is near a reciprocating pump, an orifice
restriction in the connecting pipe is frequently used to avoid unnecessary wear on
the gears and provide an average reading; when the whole gauge is subject to
G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 26

mechanical vibration, the entire case including the pointer and indicator card can
be filled with an oil or glycerin. Tapping on the face of the gauge is not
recommended as it will tend to falsify actual readings initially presented by the
gauge. The Bourdon tube is separate from the face of the gauge and thus has no
effect on the actual reading of pressure. Typical high-quality modern gauges
provide an accuracy of 2% of span, and a special high-precision gauge can be as
accurate as 0.1% of full scale
In the following illustrations the transparent cover face of the pictured
combination pressure and vacuum gauge has been removed and the mechanism
removed from the case. This particular gauge is a combination vacuum and
pressure gauge used for automotive diagnosis:


Indicator side with card and dial

G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 27


Mechanical side with Bourdon tube
The left side of the face, used for measuring manifold vacuum, is calibrated
in centimeters on its inner scale and inches of mercury on its outer scale.
the right portion of the face is used to measure fuel pump pressure or turbo
boost and is calibrated infractions of 1 kgf/cm
2
on its inner scale and pounds
per square inch on its outer scale


LOAD CELL

A load cell is a transducer that is used to convert a force into an electrical signal.
This conversion is indirect and happens in two stages. Through a mechanical
arrangement, the force being sensed deforms a strain gauge. The strain gauge
measures the deformation (strain) as an electrical signal, because the strain
changes the effective electrical resistance of the wire. A load cell usually consists
of four strain gauges in a Wheatstone bridge configuration. Load cells of one
strain gauge (Quarter Bridge) or two strain gauges (half bridge) are also
available. The electrical signal output is typically in the order of a few mill volts
and requires amplification by an instrumentation amplifier before it can be used.
The output of the transducer can be scaled to calculate the force applied to the
transducer. The various types of load cells that exist include Hydraulic load cells,
Pneumatic load cells and Strain gauge load cells the cell uses conventional piston
and cylinder arrangement. The piston is placed in a thin elastic diaphragm. The
piston doesn't actually come in contact with the load cell.
G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 28

Mechanical stops are placed to prevent over strain of
the diaphragm when the loads exceed certain limit. The load cell is completely
filled with oil. When the load is applied on the piston, the movement of the piston
and the diaphragm arrangement result in an increase of oil pressure which in turn
produces a change in the pressure on a Bourdon tube connected with the load
cells. Because this sensor has no electrical components, it is ideal for use in
hazardous areas. Typical hydraulic load cell applications include tank, bin and
hopper weighing
G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 29

LEVEL
Level measurement is the measurement of liquid in a tank. This measurement is
an important think in industry. There are so many kinds of instruments to
measure level
DISPLACER LEVEL INDICATER
Electronic displacer level transmitter technology operates by detecting changes in
buoyancy force caused by liquid level change. These forces act upon the spring
supported displacer causing vertical motion of the core within a linear variable
differential transformer.
As the core position changes with liquid level, voltages are induced across the
secondary windings of the LVDT. These signals are processed in the electronic
circuitry and used to control the current in the 4-20 mA current loops. The
enclosing tube acts as a static isolation barrier between the LVDT and the process
media.

FLOAT
Liquid level floats, also known as float balls, are spherical, cylindrical, oblong or
similarly shaped objects, made from either rigid or flexible material, that
are buoyant in water and other liquids. They are non-electrical hardware
frequently used as visual sight-indicators for surface demarcation and level
measurement. They may also be incorporated into switch mechanisms or
G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 30

translucent fluid-tubes as a component in monitoring or controlling liquid level.

Liquid level floats, or float switches, use the principle of material buoyancy
(differential densities) to follow fluid levels. Solid floats are often made of plastics
with a density less than water or other application liquid, and so they float.
Hollow floats filled with air are much less dense than water or other liquids, and
are appropriate for some applications.
Stainless Steel Magnetic floats are tubed magnetic floats, used for reed switch
activation; they have a hollow tubed connection running through them. These
magnetic floats have become standard equipment where strength, corrosion
resistance and buoyancy are necessary. They are manufactured by welding two
drawn half shells together. The welding process is critical for the strength and
durability of the float. The weld is a full penetration weld providing a smoothly
finished seam, hardly distinguishable from the rest of the float surface
RADIATION LEVEL INDICATOR
Radar technology is mainly put into use for detection of level in continuous level
measurement applications. Radar level transmitters provide non contact type of
level measurement in case of liquids in a metal tank. They make use
of EM i.e. electromagnetic waves usually in the microwave X-band range which is
near about 10 GHz. Hence, they can be also known as microwave level
measurement devices. However there are some differences between radar and
microwave types. They are:
Power levels in case of radar systems are about 0.01 mW/cm2 whereas in
case of microwave systems, these levels range from 0.1 to 5 mW/cm2.
Microwaves can work at higher energy levels; hence they are competent
enough to endure extra coating as compared to radar level detectors.
A radar level detector basically includes:
G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 31

A transmitter with an inbuilt solid-state oscillator
A radar antenna
A receiver along with a signal processor and an operator interface

The operation of all radar level detectors involves sending microwave beams
emitted by a sensor to the surface of liquid in a tank. The electromagnetic waves
after hitting the fluids surface returns back to the sensor which is mounted at the
top of the tank or vessel. The time taken by the signal to return back i.e. time of
flight (TOF) is then determined to measure the level of fluid in the tank.


CAPACITIVE TYPE LEVEL DETECTER


Capacitance type level measurement is based on the physical properties of
capacitor. Capacitance of a capacitor formed by two parallel plate electrodes is
Directly proportional to area A of the electrode.
Inversely proportional to distance d between the plates &
G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 32

Directly proportional to die-electric positioned in between them.
C = A /d
The probe of the level sensor forms an electrical capacitor with the
surrounding metal container wall when the vessel empty; an initial
capacitance exists between the electrode level sensor & the metal wall.
When the sensor is covered with liquid the value of this capacitor increases
and the capacitance change is measured and converted into an output
signal proportional to the capacitance change.

Depending on the application is requirement, a part or fully insulated
flexible or solid rod probe is selected. The probe head contains the electric
capacitance and current transducer.
The system consists of 2 units
*Indicator:-Mounted where indication is required.
*Probe Unit:-Mounted on top of the tank.
These are used for conductive and non-conductive liquids.
Conductive liquids:- Water, Effluent, Milk, Beer, Acids and alkalis etc.

Non-Conductive liquids:- Edible oil, Turbine oil, Synthetic oil, Kerosene,
Diesel etc.




G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 33

FLOW
Flow measurement is the measurement of fluid passing between two points
during a unit interval of time.
MAGNETIC FLOW METER

The third most common flow meter behind differential pressure and positive
displacement flow meters, is the magnetic flow meter, also technically
an electromagnetic flow meter or more commonly just called a mug meter. A
magnetic field is applied to the metering tube, which results in a potential
difference proportional to the flow velocity perpendicular to the flux lines. The
physical principle at work is electromagnetic induction. The magnetic flow meter
requires a conducting fluid, for example, water that contains ions, and an
electrical insulating pipe surface, for example, a rubber-lined steel tube.
Usually electrochemical and other effects at the electrodes make the potential
difference drift up and down; making it hard to determine the fluid flow induced
potential difference. To mitigate this, the magnetic field is constantly reversed,
cancelling out the static potential difference. This however impedes the use
of permanent magnets for magnetic flow meters.
ORIFICE PLATE
An orifice plate is a thin plate with a hole in the middle. It is usually placed in a
pipe in which fluid flows. When the fluid reaches the orifice plate, the fluid is
forced to converge to go through the small hole; the point of maximum
convergence actually occurs shortly downstream of the physical orifice, at the so-
called vena contract point (see drawing to the right). As it does so, the velocity
and the pressure change. Beyond the vena contract, the fluid expands and the
velocity and pressure change once again. By measuring the difference in fluid
G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 34

pressure across tappings upstream and downstream of the plate, the volumetric
and mass flow rates can be obtained from Bernoulli's equation.
Application
Orifice plates are most commonly used to measure flow rates in pipes, when the
fluid is single-phase (rather than being a mixture of gases and liquids, or of liquids
and solids) and well-mixed, the flow is continuous rather than pulsating, the fluid
occupies the entire pipe (precluding silt or trapped gas), the flow profile is even
and well-developed and the fluid and flow rate meet certain other conditions.
Under these circumstances and when the orifice plate is constructed and installed
according to appropriate standards, the flow rate can easily be determined using
published formulae based on substantial research and published in industry,
national and international standards.
Plates are commonly made with sharp-edged circular orifices and installed
concentric with the pipe and with pressure tappings at one of three standard
pairs of distances upstream and downstream of the plate; these types are
covered by ISO 5167 and other major standards. There are many other
possibilities. The edges may be rounded or conical, the plate may have an orifice
the same size as the pipe except for a segment at top or bottom which is
obstructed, the orifice may be installed eccentric to the pipe, and the pressure
tappings may be at other positions. Variations on these possibilities are covered
in various standards and handbooks. Each combination gives rise to different
coefficients of discharge which can be predicted so long as various conditions are
met, conditions which differ from one type to another.
Once the orifice plate is designed and installed, the flow rate can often be
indicated with an acceptably low uncertainty simply by taking the square root of
the differential pressure across the orifice's pressure tappings and applying an
appropriate constant. Even compressible flows of gases that vary in pressure and
temperature may be measured with acceptable uncertainty by merely taking the
G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 35

square roots of the absolute pressure and/or temperature, depending on the
purpose of the measurement and the costs of ancillary instrumentation.
MASS FLOW METER


A mass flow meter, also known as an inertial flow meter is a device that
measures mass flow rate of a fluid traveling through a tube. The mass flow rate is
the mass of the fluid traveling past a fixed point per unit time.
The mass flow meter does not measure the volume per unit time (e.g., cubic
meters per second) passing through the device; it measures the mass per unit
time (e.g., kilograms per second) flowing through the device. Volumetric flow
rate is the mass flow rate divided by the fluid density. If the density is constant,
then the relationship is simple. If the fluid has varying density, then the
relationship is not simple. The density of the fluid may change with
temperature, pressure, or composition, for example. The fluid may also be a
combination of phases such as a fluid with entrained bubbles The mass flow of a
u-shaped coriolis flow meter is given as:
Where K
u
is the temperature dependent stiffness of the tube, K a shape-
dependent factor, d the width, the time lag, the vibration frequency and I
u
the
inertia of the tube. As the inertia of the tube depends on its contents, knowledge
of the fluid density is needed for the calculation of an accurate mass flow rate.
If the density changes too often for manual calibration to be sufficient, the coriolis
flow meter can be adapted to measure the density as well. The natural vibration
frequency of the flow tubes depend on the combined mass of the tube and the
fluid contained in it. By setting the tube in motion and measuring the natural
G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 36

frequency, the mass of the fluid contained in the tube can be deduced. Dividing
the mass on the known volume of the tube gives us the density of the fluid.
An instantaneous density measurement allows the calculation of flow in volume
per time by dividing mass flow with density.
SOLENOID VALVE

A solenoid valve is an electromechanically operated valve. The valve is controlled
by an electric current through a solenoid: in the case of a two-port valve the flow
is switched on or off; in the case of a three-port valve, the outflow is switched
between the two outlet ports. Multiple solenoid valves can be placed together on
a manifold.
Solenoid valves are the most frequently used control elements in fluidics. Their
tasks are to shut off, release, dose, distribute or mix fluids. They are found in
many application areas. Solenoids offer fast and safe switching, high reliability,
long service life, good medium compatibility of the materials used, low control
power and compact design. There are many valve design variations. Ordinary
valves can have many ports and fluid paths. A 2-way valve, for example, has 2
ports; if the valve is open, then the two ports are connected and fluid may flow
between the ports; if the valve is closed, then ports are isolated. If the valve is
open when the solenoid is not energized, then the valve is termed normally
open (N.O.). Similarly, if the valve is closed when the solenoid is not energized,
then the valve is termed normally closed. There is also 3-way and more
complicated designs. A 3-way valve has 3 ports; it connects one port to either of
G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 37

the two other ports (typically a supply port and an exhaust port).

Solenoid valves are also characterized by how they operate. A small solenoid can
generate a limited force. If that force is sufficient to open and close the valve,
then a direct acting solenoid valve is possible. An approximate relationship
between the required solenoid force F
s
, the fluid pressure P, and the orifice
area A for a direct acting solenoid value is:

Where d is the orifice diameter. A typical solenoid force might be 15 N
(3.4 lb
f
). An application might be a low pressure (e.g., 10 pounds per square
inch (69 kPa)) gas with a small orifice diameter (e.g.,
3

8
in (9.5 mm) for an
orifice area of 0.11 sq in (7.110
5
m
2
) and approximate force of 1.1 lbf
(4.9 N)).
When high pressures and large orifices are encountered, then high forces are
required. To generate those forces, an internally piloted solenoid valve design
may be possible. In such a design, the line pressure is used to generate the
high valve forces; a small solenoid controls how the line pressure is used.
Internally piloted valves are used in dishwashers and irrigation systems where
G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 38

the fluid is water, the pressure might be 80 pounds per square inch (550 kPa)
and the orifice diameter might be
3

4
in (19 mm).
In some solenoid valves the solenoid acts directly on the main valve. Others
use a small, complete solenoid valve, known as a pilot, to actuate a larger
valve. While the second type is actually a solenoid valve combined with a
pneumatically actuated valve, they are sold and packaged as a single unit
referred to as a solenoid valve. Piloted valves require much less power to
control, but they are noticeably slower. Piloted solenoids usually need full
power at all times to open and stay open, where a direct acting solenoid may
only need full power for a short period of time to open it, and only low power
to hold it.
A direct acting solenoid valve typically operates in 5 to 10 milliseconds. The
operation time of a piloted valve depends on its size; typical values are 15 to
150 milliseconds










G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 39

VIBRATION
Vibration is a mechanical phenomenon whereby oscillators occur about an
equilibrium point. The oscillations may be periodic such as the motion of a
pendulum or random such as the movement of a tire on a gravel road.
Vibration is occasionally "desirable". For example the motion of a tuning fork, the
reed in a woodwind instrument or harmonica, or mobile phones or the cone of a
loudspeaker is desirable vibration, necessary for the correct functioning of the
various devices.
More often, vibration is undesirable, wasting energy and creating unwanted
sound-noise. For example, the vibration motions of engines, electric motors, or
any mechanical device in operation are typically unwanted. Such vibrations can be
caused by imbalances in the rotating parts, uneven friction, the meshing of gear
teeth, etc. Careful designs usually minimize unwanted vibrations.
The study of sound and vibration are closely related. Sound, or pressure waves,
is generated by vibrating structures (e.g. vocal cords); these pressure waves can
also induce the vibration of structures (e.g. ear drum). Hence, when trying to
reduce noise it is often a problem in trying to reduce vibration.

VIBRATION PROBE

Piezoelectric sensors have proven to be versatile tools for the measurement of
various processes. They are used for quality assurance, process control and for
research and development in many industries. Although the piezoelectric effect
was discovered by Pierre Curie in 1880, it was only in the 1950s that the
piezoelectric effect started to be used for industrial sensing applications. Since
then, this measuring principle has been increasingly used and can be regarded as
a mature technology with an outstanding inherent reliability. It has been
successfully used in various applications, such as
in medical, aerospace, nuclear instrumentation, and as a tilt sensor in consumer
electronics
[1]
or a pressure sensor in the touch pads of mobile phones. In
the automotive industry, piezoelectric elements are used to monitor combustion
when developing internal combustion engines. The sensors are either directly
mounted into additional holes into the cylinder head or the spark/glow plug is
equipped with a built in miniature piezoelectric sensor
G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 40

The rise of piezoelectric technology is directly related to a set of inherent
advantages. The high modulus of elasticity of many piezoelectric materials is
comparable to that of many metals and goes up to 10
6
N/m . Even though
piezoelectric sensors are electromechanical systems that react to compression,
the sensing elements show almost zero deflection. This is the reason why
piezoelectric sensors are so rugged, have an extremely high natural frequency and
an excellent linearity over a wide amplitude range. Additionally, piezoelectric
technology is insensitive to electromagnetic fields and radiation, enabling
measurements under harsh conditions. Some materials used (especially gallium
phosphate or tourmaline) have an extreme stability even at high temperature,
enabling sensors to have a working range of up to 1000 C. Tourmaline shows
pyroelectricity in addition to the piezoelectric effect; this is the ability to generate
an electrical signal when the temperature of the crystal changes.




G.P.T.C KORATTY Page 41

CONCLUTION
The In-plant training of FACT Petro chemical Division (PD) & Udyogamandal
Division (UD) was of great use and helpful to us understanding more about the
instruments which are used to measure and control various process parameters
like level, temperature, flow, pressure, pH conversation, etc. We also learn the
calibration of devices and acquired knowledge of various processes undergoing
training in the industry and the overall management of the firm. On top of all it
was privilege of undergoing at the great industry in India.

FACT-The fertilizer and chemicals Travancore Limited