American J ournal of Scientific Research

ISSN 2301-2005 Issue 82 December, 2012, pp.33-52

EuroJ ournals Publishing, Inc. 2012
http://www.eurojournals.com/ajsr.htm

Marketing Mix: An Exploratory Research in
Syria from an Islamic Perspective


Hussin Hejase
Faculty of Business and Economics
American University of Science and Technology, Beirut, Lebanon
E-mail: hhejase@aust.edu.lb
Tel: +961-1-218716; Fax: +961-1-339302

Bassam Hamdar
Faculty of Business and Economics
American University of Science and Technology, Beirut, Lebanon

Mohammed Orfali
Faculty of Business and Economics
American University of Science and Technology, Beirut, Lebanon

Ale Hejase
School of Business, Lebanese American University, Beirut, Lebanon


Abstract

Marketing strategy is considered as one of the most effective tools to reach the
target market. Marketing strategy is affected by several elements, the most prominent is the
culture element. Culture has eight major categories, one of which is religion. In the
Middle East, religion is considered an influential factor in all endeavors carried out by both
marketers and consumers. That is, religion, as an element of culture, has a great effect on
shaping the society and it contributes to individuals various decisions, including the
buying decisions.
This study is exploratory in nature and assesses the relation between the customers
level of religious commitment and the corresponding buying behavior in the Syrian market.
The study also defines the strength of the aforementioned relation and shows whether the
marketers need to alter their strategy as a result.


Keywords: Culture, Islamic Marketing, Marketing Mix, Religion, Syria

1. Introduction
Marketing is one of the most important tools available for an organization to contact its target market.
Armstrong and Kotler (2011) contend that todays marketing is understood as a tool to satisfy
customers needs (p. 33). Accordingly, organizations utilize the functions and the available marketing
tools in order to solidify their position and improve their brand name and brand image in the markets
they operate in. Consequently, the success of the organization depends much on the success of the
implementation of the set marketing strategy (ibid, p. 89).
Marketing Mix: An Exploratory Research in Syria from an Islamic Perspective 34
The marketing strategy of any organization has to cover each and every aspect related to the
market. There are many elements that have to be taken into consideration while setting the marketing
strategy; those include the marketing mix or the 4 P's, in addition to many other external elements such
as the competitors, political situation, and economic situation in addition to the cultural elements of the
market.
The cultural elements have a direct effect on the marketing strategy, and the organization that
fails to consider them carefully will face failure in the market. Organizations have to study carefully
the culture of the markets they are operating in and define the elements that might affect their
performance in these markets. According to Terpstra and Sarathy (2000), there are eight categories
within the cultural framework, namely, Language, Religion, Values and Attitudes, Education, Social
Organizations, Technology and Material Culture, Law and Politics and Aesthetics.
Organizations are consumer-oriented; as such, they give high consideration to the needs and
wants of their target consumers before introducing any new product. Although these products are
standardized and are sold throughout the world, yet the markets they are served in are not. Each market
has a predefined culture which binds the actions of the selling firms and forces them to tailor their
marketing mix according to the limits that these cultures have predefined.
One of the important cultural elements that have to be taken into consideration is religion.
Religion has a great effect on shaping the society; religion contributes strongly to the individuals
various decisions, among which is the buying decision. That is why marketers should clearly take into
consideration such an element when deciding on the marketing strategy for any product. Moreover,
nowadays religion is observed to be highly related to the political conflicts in the world, and that
organizational performances amid these conflicts have been affected, reaching in the worst scenario to
boycotts.
For the marketers job to be successful, they should be able to satisfy the consumers needs, and
to find out the elements that affect these needs. According to Daun (as cited in Roth, 1995, p. 163)
cultural, social and economic dimensions of the international markets shape consumers needs; thus,
any misjudgment of one of these elements would be a killer for the product, and would affect the total
image of the brand.
Marketing strategies are important and their corresponding elements are vital for the success of
products in the market; they include the planning and the tactics that will be used for different products
in the market. The strategy begins at generating ideas and ends after the implementation of the tactics.
Therefore, it is important for every marketer to define the effect of the said strategys elements that
might affect the organizations strategy, and the extent of this effect. This will allow the marketer to
alter the set strategy in order to abide by the requirements of the required elements.


2. Literature Review
According to the American Marketing Association (AMA) in its new definition of marketing released
on J anuary 14, 2008, Marketing is the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating,
communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners,
and society at large (Marketingpower.com, 2012).
A marketing oriented organization takes its marching orders from its customers; it produces
products and services based on its customers needs, wants and levels of satisfaction. This kind of
thinking allows an organization to adapt and respond to an ever-changing environment.
Making and using a marketing strategy has a strong positive impact on profitability. This is
because firms that employ a marketing strategy tend to focus on their customers and markets, integrate
their marketing responses and work out in advance where their profits will come from. Marketing
strategy defines objectives and describes the way one is going to satisfy customers in his/her chosen
markets (Is4profit.com, 2012).
Strategic marketing is a market-driven process of strategy development that takes into account
a constantly changing business environment and the need to deliver superior customer value. The focus
35 Hussin Hejase, Bassam Hamdar, Mohammed Orfali, and Ale Hejase
of strategic marketing is on organizational performance rather than on a primary concern of increasing
sales. Marketing strategy seeks to deliver superior customer value by combining the customer-
influencing strategies of the business with a coordinated set of market-driven actions. Strategic
marketing links the organization with the environment and views marketing as a responsibility of the
entire business rather than a specialized function (Mbaknol.com, 2012).

2.1. Marketing Mix
The marketing mix, from a marketing perspective, refers to variables that a marketer can control to
influence a brands sales or market share. There are four variables summarized as the four Ps of
marketing: product, price, promotion, and place. Exhibit 1 provides a summary.

Exhibit 1: The Traditional 4 Ps

Product refers to aspects such as the firms portfolio of products, the newness of these products, their
differentiation from competitors, or their superiority to rivals products in terms of quality.
Promotion refers to advertising, detailing, or informative sales promotions such as features and
displays.
Price refers to the products list price or any incentive sales promotion such as quantity discounts,
temporary price cuts, or deals.
Place refers to delivery of the product measured by variables such as distribution, availability, and
shelf space.
Source: Tellis, 2011.

The term marketing mix or the classical four Ps have been used to describe these various
elements. Marketing strategy development may therefore be viewed as developing a marketing mix
aimed at satisfying the needs of selected markets and accomplishing specific marketing objectives. The
four Ps product, price, place, and promotion, should work together in the marketing mix. Often,
decisions on one element will influence the choices available in the others.
Selecting an effective mix for the market will take time and effort, but these will pay off as one
satisfies customers and creates a profitable business. Moreover, once the marketer has a good
marketing mix, the right product at the right price, offered in the right place and promoted in the right
way, he/she will need to continue to stay on top of market changes and adopt the marketing mix as
seen necessary. Marketing is a part of a companys venture that will never end.

2.2. Expansion of the Marketing Mix
Marketers, today, talk about additional four Ps, namely,
People: This answers questions like how ones staff are different from those in a competitors
organization, and how ones clients are different from that of the competitors clients.
Physical presence: It is how ones shop or website looks like.
Process: It is how ones product is manufactured and delivered, or how ones service is sold,
delivered and accessed.
Physical evidence: It is how ones service becomes tangible (Kar, 2011).

2.3. Kotler's Two Ps
According to Afridi (2009), quoting Kotler (1984), when organizations attempt to enter new markets
abroad, they need to master the art of satisfying parties other than only the target clients. The
aforementioned parties include governments, trade unions and other interested groups who act as gate
keepers to their own market. Upon recognizing the political nature of this new marketing environment,
Kotler introduced two further Ps, Public Relations and Political Power, which in marketing terms are
known as "mega marketing".
Marketing Mix: An Exploratory Research in Syria from an Islamic Perspective 36
Kotler (1984; cited in Afridi, 2009, p. 142) also advocated the importance of power to win the
influential support of industrial officials, legislators, and governments so as to enter and operate in the
targeted market. To attain these objectives, Kotler added that marketers should possess good
negotiating skills to negotiate with the relevant authorities. This means that some of the factors in the
external environment which were previously classified under "uncontrollable environment",
particularly the political environment, has to be managed as well as the traditional marketing mix.

2.4. Magrath's Three Ps
Hger and Waller (2008) contended that Magrath (1986) believed that the traditional four Ps for the
marketing of products as suggested by McCarthy are not enough for marketing in a service-based
industry. Instead three more Ps, which he considered to be "vital marketing elements" that would
occupy management's attention, must be added to the marketing mix; these are Personnel, Physical
Facilities and Process Management (p. 15). Moreover, Hger & Waller (2008) quoted Magrath
(1986) as arguing that when service businesses try to develop marketing and tactical programs
around the four Ps, one fundamental difficulty they encounter is making the four Ps fit the nature of
their operations. The four Ps ignore important service marketing realities: namely personnel, physical
facilities, and process management which are interconnected and represented vital marketing elements
in the management of service business (p.15).

2.5. Culture
It has been noticed that one of the major causes of many businesses failure has been attributed to the
failure to take into account the cultural differences between countries. In addition, many of the marketing
theories are limited in the sense that they have been developed and confirmed only in western countries,
specifically in the United States. According to Yaprak (2003), the further development of marketing as
an academic discipline necessitates that there must be a thorough examination of the soundness of the
theories as well as the models in other cultural settings whose level of generalization is to be identified,
and to discover some boundary limitations and conditions (p. 175).
Hger & Waller (2008) report that an increasing number of international marketers make use of
cultural models to understand the cultural values of the target market that influence the negotiation
behavior in order to adapt selling styles and create a better personal selling level. However, it isnt
appropriate to adapt to all cultural norms of the target market; for example, being Christian isnt
appropriate to adapt to the religion of a Muslim target market participating in a Muslim prayer. The
marketer must find out which norms to follow and which not to follow; this could be achieved when
the marketer acquire good knowledge of the target market (p. 19). To understand the aforementioned
argument, one needs to know what culture encompasses.
Guisepi (n.d.) states that the word culture was derived from the Latin word colere, meaning
to build on, to foster, and to cultivate. There have been numerous reflections on the meaning of culture
in all sorts of versions of its use, practices, and communication styles. Awosola (2010) agrees with
Guisepis definition of culture, and adds that culture is a set of accepted behavior patterns, values,
assumptions, shared common experiences, social structure, decision making (p. 17).
Culture is definitely not an easy phenomenon to measure. It has over a hundred definitions,
including shared system of perceptions and values or a group sharing a certain system of perceptions
and values. According to LeVine (2007), culture is an organized body of rules concerning the ways in
which individuals in a population should communicate with one another, think about themselves and
their environments, and behave toward one another and toward objects in their environments. The
rules are not universally or constantly obeyed, but they are recognized by all and they ordinarily
operate to limit the range of variation in patterns of communication, belief, value, and social behavior
in that population (p. 4).
On the cultural setting of the market behavior, Douglas and Dubois (1977), as cited by Englis
(1994), claimed that culture is a common set of values, forms of social organization that influence
37 Hussin Hejase, Bassam Hamdar, Mohammed Orfali, and Ale Hejase
roles and status positions as well as the conventions, rituals, and practices that guide behavior, and a
communication system that includes not only language but nonverbal components as well (p.
119).Therefore, one may conclude that almost all definitions of the term culture points to one main
thing: a shared communication system and common way of thinking and behaving. As noted, culture is
shared by a group of people and thereby defines the boundaries of that group.

2.5.1. Elements of Culture
According to FAO (1997), the major elements of culture are material culture, language, aesthetics,
education, religion, attitudes and values and social organization. A summary is presented in Exhibit 2.

Exhibit 2: Major Elements of Culture

1: Material culture
Material culture refers to tools, artifacts and technology. Before marketing in a foreign culture, it is
important to assess the material culture like transportation, power, and communications and so on.
All aspects of marketing are affected by material culture like sources of power for products, media
availability and distribution. Material cultures introductions into a country may bring about cultural
changes which may or may not be desirable.
2: Language
Language reflects the nature and values of society. There may be many sub-cultural languages like
dialects which may have to be accounted for. Some countries have two or three languages. Language
can cause communication problems - especially in the use of media or written material. It is best to
learn the language of the target market or engage someone who understands it well.
3: Aesthetics
Aesthetics refer to the ideas in a culture concerning beauty and good taste as expressed in the arts:
music, art, drama and dancing, and the particular appreciation of color and form. Aesthetic
differences affect design, colors, packaging, brand names and media messages.
4: Education
Education refers to the transmission of skills, ideas and attitudes as well as training in particular
disciplines. Education can transmit cultural ideas or be used for change; for example, the local
university can build up an economy's performance.
5: Religion
Religion provides the best insight into a society's behavior and helps answer the question of why
people behave rather than how they behave. Religion can affect marketing in a number of ways:
Religious holidays During the working hours within the month of Ramadan marketers cannot get
full access to consumers as shops are closed,
consumption patterns - fish for Catholics on Friday, economic role of women Islam, caste systems -
difficulty in getting to different costs for segmentation/niche marketing, and
joint and extended families
6: Attitudes and values
Values often have a religious foundation, and attitudes that relate to economic activities. It is
essential to ascertain attitudes towards marketing activities which lead to wealth or material gain.
Attitudes are always precursors of human behavior and so it is essential that research is done
carefully on the attitudes in question.
7: Social organization
This refers to the way people relate to each other, for example, extended families, units, kinship. In
some countries kinship may be a tribe and so segmentation may have to be based on this. Other
forms of groups may be religious or political, age, caste and so on. All these groups may affect the
marketer in his planning.
There are other aspects of culture, but the above cover the main ingredients; they are the ones to be
taken account of when marketing internationally.
Source: Fao, 1997.
Marketing Mix: An Exploratory Research in Syria from an Islamic Perspective 38
2.6. Islam and Marketing
Muslims need to live in a style that is prescribed by God and his messenger. In one of the Quran
verses, God said the following: O you who believe! Enter perfectly in Islam (by obeying all the rules
and regulations of the Islamic religion) and follow not the footsteps of Shaitan (Satan). Verily, He is to
you a plain enemy (Al-Quran 2:208).
The above verse suggests that all styles should be according to the Islamic jurisprudence.
Therefore, all styles could be made Islamic. The only challenge is the How element. Realizing that,
the authors of the current project argued that marketing could be made Islamic as well.

2.6.1. Fundamental Philosophy of Islamic Marketing
The highest and most important concept in Islam is the Tawhid or Oneness (Alhabshi, 1987; Haneef,
1997). This is the most important concept that a Muslim must know in order to live and survive in this
world and the hereafter. Rice (2001), cited in Arham (2010) stated that the concept of Tawhid is the
most crucial ingredient in commerce. Furthermore, according to Abusulayman (1998), the concept of
Tawhid is both vertical and horizontal. The vertical relationship pictures the connection between a
human and his Creator, while the horizontal relationship portrays the inter-human relationship based on
Gods law.
The Tawhid principle shows that Muslims believe that God (Allah) is the only architect of the
universe and therefore the human being is Allahs representative to manage this world and its resources
in a just way (Abusulayman, 1998; Badawi, 2002). In terms of marketing, Allah Pitchay (2012) argues
that justice could be implemented to smooth the flow of goods, among others; accordingly, companies
can facilitate the process of meeting customers needs. Furthermore, smoothing the flow of goods
could prevent the practice of hoarding which is condemned by the Islamic teaching. Consequently, one
would successfully show ones act of brotherhood through good inter-human relationship with other
people, and would establish justice to society. Since everybody is essentially equal, all customers have
equal rights to get the products that they want in order to satisfy their needs. Hoarding will inflate the
price and create injustice to those who cannot afford to buy the particular product that they need (p. 3).

2.6.2. Characteristics of Islamic Marketing
Sula and Kartajaya (2006) contend that, in general, there are four characteristics to the Islamic
marketing concept. These are spiritualistic, ethical, realistic, and humanistic. If one gives these four
characteristics some thought, one will find a good relationship between the five pillars of Islam and its
implementation. These concepts will be explored as follows:
Spiritualistic: This characteristic encompasses all teachings in Islamic marketing. It means that
all business conducts must be in accordance with the teaching of Al-Quran and Sunnah (Islamic
Hadith). Moreover, Islamic marketers must fully believe that Islamic law is the ultimate law that must
be used as a guide; that it is just, perfect, and the source for all goodness (Arham, 2010). The first pillar
of Islam, the Shahadah (the belief in uniqueness of Allah and the message of His prophet Mohammad),
becomes the heart of this concept. Shahadah is the ultimate confession of a human to his/her creator.
So, a Muslim is to abide by any Terms and Conditions set by the Almighty to live in this world, and
any forbidden action will be accounted for in the divine court. In terms of Islamic marketing, the total
submission to the Creator means that all aspects of marketing must fit with the teachings of Islam. Of
course, in some ways, its implementation varies. Islamic marketers must be able to include the spirit of
Islam in all aspects of marketing activities, from the planning to after sales service. In other words, any
marketing activities must be done within the ethical boundaries set by Islamic teaching.
Ethical: The spiritual enhancement within Islamic marketing forms the Islamic ethics within
the business transaction. Sula and Kartajaya (2006) stated that one of the characteristics of Islamic
marketers is ethical consideration which follows Islamic teachings. Therefore, it is necessary to refer to
this kind of ethics as Islamic Ethics. Islamic ethics is the practice of Islamic daily prayers, the second
pillar of Islam. Before Muslims pray, they must perform ablution (cleansing with water) before
meeting with their creator. In marketing sense, Islamic marketers must make themselves ready. They
39 Hussin Hejase, Bassam Hamdar, Mohammed Orfali, and Ale Hejase
must be purified before commencing their marketing activities. The term purified refers to any
attempt of self-cleansing before serving the markets. For instance, companies must train their
marketers so that all marketing activities could be done in ethical standards set by Islamic teaching.
Last but not least, companies must clearly inform their staff that they must accept any results that
appear in front of them as long as they have worked hard and done everything they could. Sula and
Kartajaya (2006) referred to this concept as being Realistic.
Realistic: Shariah marketers should not be so rigid in practicing Islamic marketing, as long as
it does not violate Islamic law. The content is more important than the appearance. However, it must be
noted that being realistic does not mean that in the case of emergency, Muslim marketers can
compromise and violate the principles of the Islamic law. Sula and Kartajaya (2006) stated that Muslim
marketers must be brave to differentiate themselves from any other marketers who partially use or do
not use Islamic principles in conducting business. Moreover, the realistic mentality could be seen in
people who perform fasting in the month of Ramadan. Fasting, the third pillar of Islam, teaches people
to become realistic. When Muslims perform fasting, they abstain from eating whenever there is sun
light and continue to perform their work duties even if they are in the state of hunger and thirst. The
feeling of hunger and thirst is a symbol of struggle which will end when the sun sets. This shows that
nothing lasts forever. For every challenge, there lies hope and prosperity. Being realistic is not just
sitting down and losing hope. In marketing point of view, being realistic means an opportunity for
creativity and the ability to create breakthroughs. For instance, companies know that their
responsibility is to boost customers willingness to buy. Offering customers special business
opportunities reflects the concept that being realistic creates hope, which in turn creates an inner power
to make a breakthrough. It is important for Islamic marketers to understand this concept since it will
boost the spirit of marketing their products. Finally, companies should view the market humanely. That
is, companies should realize that they are dealing with human beings, not just a set of sales figures.
Therefore, Islamic marketing tries to be humanistic.
Humanistic: Humanistic in Islam, like in any other religion, teaches people the values that
differentiate people from any other creatures inhabiting this world (Sula and Kartajaya, 2006).
Consequently, one should be able to distant oneself from inhumane desires such as greed. Moreover,
being humanistic fits the fourth and the fifth pillars of Islam, namely, Zakah (paying charity) and Hajj
(pilgrimage). The two pillars are closely related to being humane. Paying Zakah will increase social
sensitivity towards the poor, while going to Hajj increases social acceptance of people from different
races and most importantly skin colors. As for the effect of being humanistic on the discipline of
marketing, modern marketing refers to the notion of being sensitive to ones surrounding as
Sustainable Marketing (Armstrong and Kotler, 2011). Basically, it is a concept of marketing which
tries to balance between market demand and environmental preservation (p. 39). All in all, it is the
trend of todays companies to pay more attention to their society and more importantly to their
environment.

2.6.3. Islam and the Marketing Mix
Islam is generally conceived as a comprehensive way of life; a worldview that unifies the metaphysical
and material and gives structure and coherence to personal existence (Izetbegovic, 1993, p. 7). The
compartmentalization of life into a public sphere, which is secular, and a private sphere, which is
religious, is alien to Islam; Islam provides Muslims with a comprehensive life plan.
According to J ohnstone (1975; cited in Kum-Lung and Teck-Chai, 2010, May), religion is a
system of beliefs and practices by which a group of people interprets and responds to what they feel is
supernatural and sacred (p. 226). Most religions prescribe or prohibit certain behavior, including
consumption behavior. Marketing textbooks and international marketing address the phenomenon that
purchasing decisions are influenced by the buyers religion identity. For example, Essoo and Dibb
(2004) found in their research on how Religious Influence on Shopping Behaviors, the following:
The practical value of this research is that marketing strategists may find it
useful to view religious affiliation and religiosity as predictors of consumer behavior.
Marketing Mix: An Exploratory Research in Syria from an Islamic Perspective 40
An enhanced understanding of religious differences in consumption could be usefully
applied in the development of marketing strategies and tactics. At the strategic level,
there may be value in using religion as a segmentation basis. Marketing tactics may
then be designed which reflect and are better suited to the characteristics of consumer
behavior in different religious groups. (p. 706).
As the Muslim consumers become more knowledgeable of their religion, it is inevitable that
they will be more particular in the type of products and services they consume or use. Shafie and
Othman (2006) assert that as consumers become increasingly more sophisticated in dietary and
health-related issues, the relevance of informative labeling and the belief in the right to be adequately
informed will strengthen (p. 3).
Abul Hassan and Abdul Latiff (2008) found in their research about Islamic Marketing Ethics
and Its Impact on Customer Satisfaction in the Islamic Banking Industry that Islamic marketing ethics
based on the principles of justice and equity in Islam differs from secular ethics in many ways. They
discussed the three characteristics of market ethics from the Islamic perspective. Exhibit 3 shows a
summary of the three perspectives.

Exhibit 3: Islamic Market Ethics

First, Islamic ethics are based on the Quran commandments and leave no room for ambiguous
interpretation by marketing executives to suit their individual whims and desires.
Second, the main difference is their transcendental aspect of absoluteness and non-malleable nature.
Third, the Islamic approach emphasizes value-maximization in view of the greater good of the
society rather than the selfish pursuit of profit maximization.
Such properties grant Islamic ethics a tremendous capacity to penetrate human conscience and are
capable of influencing the behavior of marketing executives from within.

Abul Hassan, AbdelkaderChachi and Abdul Latiff, Salma (2008).Islamic Economics Research
Centre, King Abdulaziz University, p. 30
In short, the concept of worship in Islam is comprehensive; it extends beyond the five
compulsory prayers. All activities and transactionsproduction consumption, and exchangeare
considered worship as long as they are performed in the way God decreed. Human beings were created
to implement Gods vision on this earth through their behavior and transactions supported by the
economic, social, and political institutions or organizations. Therefore, a socio-economic institution or
organization, such as the market that ensures or increases the welfare of mankind is not an alien
concept in Islam (Samad, n.d., p. 56).

2.7. The Market from an Islamic Perspective
The market from an Islamic perspective is an institution or a channel of delivering objectives that are
maximizing financial goals (maximization of the profits and utilities of the parties concerned) as well
as ensuring a reward in the world hereafter (by providing greater well-being for mankind in this
world). The objectives are not simply an exchange of goods between the two parties as implied in
conventional wisdom; market is considered a sacred institution that combines worldly transactions with
a reward hereafter (Samad, n.d., pp. 57-58). The market shows several characteristics as shown in
Exhibit 4.







41 Hussin Hejase, Bassam Hamdar, Mohammed Orfali, and Ale Hejase
Exhibit 4: Characteristics of a Market According to Islam

Production and consumption in an Islamic market are not unrestricted sets of goods and
services. A participant buyer or selleris a submissive slave of God. The participants are duty
bound to implement Gods order on the earth as Gods representatives. Participants in the market
are not free to choose transactions of any goods and services. The pursuit of productions and
exchange of goods are guided by the Islamic code of conduct. Market participants will not
demand, buy and exchange goods and services that are forbidden to consume, such as alcohol,
gambling, magic, etc Transaction of these types of activities is undesirable from a moral stand
of social welfare.
In the Islamic market, each participant should and must observe due measure in the
delivering of goods. The violation of due measure is punishable by legal, as well as divine law. It
is a sin in Islam if the participants do not observe due measure and/or weight You shall establish
justice; do not violate the law. (Al Quran: 55:9).
A seller in the Islamic market is not entitled to cheat his counterpart by showing one kind of
goods and then delivering another kind (inferior) of goods. Market participants are prohibited
from telling a lie while selling and buying goods and services.
A seller is not entitled to engage in the adulteration of food. Adulteration of food is an act of
abomination and is a sin.
A market participant in Islam is prohibited from engaging in an act of bribery in any mode
of production and transaction You shall not take each others' money illicitly, nor shall you
bribe the officials to deprive others of some of their rights illicitly, while you know (Quran:
2:188).
Each participant in a market is guided by his/her self-interest. Islam recognizes the spirit of
self-interest in its own domain. When the self-interest of a person or persons becomes
impediment to his/her well-being in society or in the world hereafter, then the notion of self-
interest is replaced by a notion of greater self-interest.
Each participant in the market is guided by two motivational forcesone material and the
other spiritual and or moral. Islam provides a balance between material and spiritual wellbeing.
This balance is because Islam recognizes the welfare of individuals in this world and the world
hereafter. The real attainment of happiness lies in the success of achieving eternal happiness in
the world hereafter.
Source: Samad (n.d., pp. 58-59)

2.7.1. The Five Ps of the Marketing-Mix from the Islamic Perspective
Abul Hassan and Abdul Latiff (2008), made an attempt to analyze the five Ps of marketing ethics
within the context of marketing as determined by Islamic ethics. The five Ps are: product, price,
promotion, place and people (p. 30).

Product/ Production Process
The Islamic perspective incorporates moral and transcendental elements within the production
decision-making process in product development and is guided by the principles of Islamic business
ethics.
These principles dictate that
The product should be lawful and not cause dullness of mind in any form.
The product should be asset backed.
The product must be deliverable since the sale of a product is not valid if it cannot be
delivered.
There is a need to identify extra cost-added features that might materially change the
product or impact the buyers purchase decisions.
Marketing Mix: An Exploratory Research in Syria from an Islamic Perspective 42
Buyers and sellers are to discharge their obligations, financial and otherwise, in good
faith, and should be based on principle of the justice, fairness and equity (Abul Hassan
and Abdul Latiff, 2008, pp. 30-31).
Under the Islamic approach, the production process has to be guided by the criteria of the value
and the impact of the product upon the whole society. Miller (1996), as cited by Abul Hassan and
Abdul Latiff (2008) suggests that the main thrust behind unethical decision-making on the part of
business persons to produce sub-optimal products is usually some form of cost conscious strategy. The
Islamic perspective, on the other hand, encourages a societal and welfare approach decisions rather
than decisions based on the profit maximization.

Product Pricing
Pricing policies are formulated to exploit and manipulate human psychology as witnessed by observed
common practice in the market place, whereby the recommended retail price printed on a product is
often substantially higher than what retailers actually charge. The aim of such pricing policies is to
give customers a false impression that they are in fact getting a bargain (Shaw, 1996 as cited by Abul
Hassan and Abdul Latiff, 2008, p. 31). This type of practice is banned under Islamic law. Islam
prohibits getting something too easily without hard labor, or receiving a profit without working for it.
Furthermore, the following acts mentioned in Exhibit 5 are not allowed.

Exhibit 5: Illicit Activities in Product Pricing

1. It is prohibited to change a price without altering the quality or quantity of the product
because this is cheating the easy-going customer for illicit gain.
2. Islam also prohibits false propaganda or publicity on the part of marketers regarding the
position of demand and supply.
Source: Abul Hassan and Abdul Latiff, 2008, p. 31.

It should be pointed out that Islam does not prohibit price controls and manipulations to meet
the needs of the market. It means that the Islamic ethics allows some time in which to charge higher
prices as a result of natural scarcity of supply of a given commodity or setting price ceilings to curb
opportunistic tendencies among merchants (Niazi, 1996 cited in Abul Hassan and Abdul Latiff, 2008,
p. 32).
Islamic, self-operating mechanism of price adjustments and healthy competition are to be
encouraged. However, the essential conditions for the successful operation of such a mechanism dictate
that there should be no corner market, no hoarding, no unjustified price manipulation, and no
restriction on trade.

Price in Islam
Mortazavi (2004, August 8-13), in his paper Islamic Economics: A Solution for Environmental
Protection, manifests that Islamic social justice demands regulation of the market to guarantee that
prices remain fair in the marketplace. Therefore, the invisible hand of the capitalist market is
supplanted by the visible hand of market regulators in Islamic economics. Capitalism strives for
competitive outcomes: competitive markets and competitive market prices. Such outcomes are
considered desirable and hence are not subject to government control. In contrast, Islamic economics
does not rely on market prices, but strives for fairness in the marketplace. Consequently, to guarantee
the fairness in prices, Islam prohibits hoarding, black markets, and the concentration of market power
in any form and fashion. That is, there is no room for monopolies, oligopolies, and cartels in Islamic
economics. Islam encourages individual exchanges and trade, in general, and that this exchange must
be legal, fair, and based on honesty and mutual consent. Therefore, the exertion of force and economic
power in business transactions are totally banned (Para: Islam and Markets).

43 Hussin Hejase, Bassam Hamdar, Mohammed Orfali, and Ale Hejase
Product Promotion Rules
Abul Hassan and Abdul Latiff (2008, p. 33) stress, in their research, that there is no room in Islam that
justifies any cover up of deceptive promotional behavior. The holy Quran condemns all forms and
shapes of false assertion, unfounded accusation, concoction and false testimony. In terms of Islamic
marketing ethics, it is unethical for the sales person or customer relation advisor (CRA) to over-praise
his/her products and attribute to said products qualities which they do not possess. Furthermore, giving
a false impression of any kind to promote or sell a product is strictly prohibited within the Islamic
ethical framework of international marketing practices. Samad (n.d.) asserts that the advertisement that
provides the information of genuine product differentiation and helps increase moral values is welcome
(p. 63). Therefore, in the area of product promotions, Islamic marketing ethics follows the three rules
shown in Exhibit 6.

Exhibit 6: Three Rules for Product Promotion in Islamic Market Ethics

(i) Avoidance of false and misleading advertising;
(ii) Rejection of high pressure manipulations, or misleading sales tactics; and,
(iii) Avoidance of sales promotions that use deception or manipulation.
Source: Abul Hassan and Abdul Latiff (2008, p. 33).

Abul Hassan and Abdul Latiff (2008) contend that according to Islamic principles, marketers
are required to disclose all faults in their goods, whether obvious or hidden; to do otherwise is to
act fraudulently. It is obligatory for the seller to reveal all known defects which cannot be seen on
the surface and cannot be found out by the cursory glance to the purchaser (p. 33).
Adding to the aforementioned conditions, in Islamic ethics, promotional techniques must not
use sexual appeal, emotional appeal, fear appeal, false testimonies and pseudo research appeal, or
contribute to the dullness of the mind or encourage extravagance. Within the Islamic framework, these
methods are unethical since they are utilized purely to exploit the basic instinct of consumers
worldwide with a view to gain profits and greater market share. Furthermore, Islamic ethics strictly
prohibits stereotyping of women in advertising, and excessive use of fantasy. The use of suggestive
language and behavior, and the use of women as objects to lure and attract customers are also not
allowed (ibid, p. 34).

Place: Distribution Channels
The ethical dimensions of decision-making pertaining to distribution are of great significance in the
area of marketing. Physical distribution can be viewed as an integrated collection of information,
people, equipment, and organization. With respect to distribution of product, Islamic institutions adopt
the following principles:
(i) Not to manipulate the availability of a product for purpose of exploitation;
(ii) Not to use coercion in the marketing channel;
(iii) Not to exert undue influence over the re-sellers choice to handle a product;
(iv) Use of packaging designs with adequate security and protection for the product;
(v) Appropriate packaging;
(vi) Not to transport dangerous and toxic products on public highways; and,
(vii) Not to create a burden for the final customer in terms of higher prices and delays.
Within the Islamic ethical framework, the main aim of distribution channels should be to create
value and uplift the standard of living by providing ethically satisfactory services (Abul Hassan and
Abdul Latiff, 2008, pp. 34-35).

People
Islam emphasizes the importance of free and independent judgment on the part of the customer.
Abul Hassan and Abdul Latiff (2008) affirm that the society at large should not be deprived of honest,
Marketing Mix: An Exploratory Research in Syria from an Islamic Perspective 44
free from coercion marketing information. A customers right to acquire such information is his/her
right and is indicative of the status given to him/her by Islam, as well as of the ingrained rights of
his/her wealth which he/she spends in purchasing products and services. It is the responsibility of the
marketers not to resort to any form of coercion and they must, under all circumstances, have a regard
for the intellectual integrity and a higher degree of consciousness of the consumers to ensure that the
hard earned money of customers is not wasted (p. 35). Coercion or Ikrah is to compel a person to do
a thing without his/her consent. It follows therefore that whenever some coercive force is applied for
the purposes of concluding a global marketing deal, the fundamental and vital condition of mutual
consent remains unfulfilled and the resultant transaction is unethical and unlawful.


3. Research Methodology
Islam is the dominant religion in Syria, and people are committed to the religion on different levels.
Some perform all of their religious rites while others choose to perform some. It is important to
understand that Islam is more than a religion; it is a way of living; that is why it might have a huge
effect on the individuals daily life activities.
The buying decision is simply one of the daily activities practiced by Muslims; consequently,
marketers tend to define the level of effect religious beliefs have on the target market. Moreover, they
tend to uncover the relation between religious commitment and how it would influence or even change
the decision to buy certain products.
This research is exploratory in nature and uses a questionnaire as a tool to collect primary data
from a conveniently selected sample of Syrian consumers. The questionnaire, designed for this project,
has the main objective of studying the effect of religion on consumers behavior and to see to what
extent should the marketers consider this cultural item while deciding on the marketing strategy for any
product.

3.1. Questionnaire Design
The survey tool used in the current research project is a systematic and structured questionnaire that is
divided into three sections
1. Section one is designed to assess respondents demographics. In this research survey,
questions one to six are demographic dimensions.
2. Section two is designed to assess the respondents attitudes and behavior covering parameters
like the degree of likeness, hate, acceptanceetc. In this survey, questions seven to eighteen
are attitude and behavior questions.
3. Section three is designed to assess implementation issues and aims to collect suggestions or
actions that should be taken into consideration in a certain situation. In this survey, questions
nineteen to twenty four are implementation questions.
4. Question twenty five has the purpose of allowing respondents to comment, if they desire so,
about the subject matter of the research.

3.2. Sample Selection
The questionnaire was distributed to 150 Syrian individuals selected conveniently based on their
willingness to fill in the survey. The respondents work in the services as well as in the manufacturing
sectors. However, only 112 questionnaires were useful for the purpose of the current research. 38
questionnaires were either incomplete, or erroneously filled, or simply ignored due to the sensitivity of
the topic in the Syrian market. The response rate was around 74.67%. Filled questionnaire were sorted
and coded. Data entry was performed using SPSS Statistical Package for Social Science tool.
45 Hussin Hejase, Bassam Hamdar, Mohammed Orfali, and Ale Hejase
4. Results and Findings
4.1. Demographics
Findings showed that respondents are 68.80% males and 31.20% females. Two age categories are
salient, namely, the respondents age in the brackets 26 & 30 years and 31 & 35 years. These two
categories consist of 93.8% of the overall sample. Respondents who are between 26 and 30 years old
form 62.5% of the sample, while respondents who are 31 to 35 years old form 31.2% of the sample.
The average age is 28 years, indicating that the representative sample of respondents for this research is
mature enough to give personal opinions and feelings about their religion and its role in their decision
making.
Results also show that 62.5% of the respondents are single, 31.2% of them are married, and
6.2% of them are either divorced, widowed or separated. Moreover, 31.2% of the respondents have 1
or more years of college, and 62.5 % hold a bachelor degree, while 6.2% of them have a masters
degree. This distribution indicates that the respondents sample has an adequate level of education to
provide their opinions. Furthermore, 75 % of the respondents are employed, while 6.2% are self-
employed and the same percentage are either out of work, or looking for a job, or are house wives or
other. While 25% of the respondents have a monthly income level below $1,000, 56.2% of them earn
between $1,001 and $2,000, and only 18.8% of the respondents earn above $3,000.

4.2. Attitude and Behavior
Table 1 shows that when respondents were asked if they are fulfilling their religious duties, 87.5%
answered in the affirmative. Only a small minority of 12.5% of the respondents responded as being
undecided. Also all respondents (100%) agreed that religion is an important part of their lives. This
result is very encouraging due to its importance to the current research. While, when respondents were
asked if religion affects their personal actions, 87.5% of them agreed. An equal percentage of the
remaining respondents, 6.2%, were either undecided, or disagreed. Moreover, 93.8% of the
respondents take the purchase decision themselves and only 6.2% of them were undecided.
Findings in Table1 also show that 81.20% of the respondents agreed that they would like to
know about the product's country of origin, 12.5% of them were undecided, and only a small minority
of the respondents, or 6.2%, was not interested to know. 50% of the respondents agreed that they prefer
to purchase products originating in the Islamic countries, 18.8% of them were undecided, and 31.2% of
them disagreed.

Table 1: Respondents Attitude and Behavior towards Religion (1)

Statement Frequency Percentage, %
I Fulfill my Religious Duties
Agree 35 31.2
Uncertain 63 56.2
Disagree 14 12.5
I believe that religion is an important part of my daily life
Agree 112 100.0
Uncertain 0 0.0
Disagree 0 0.0
Religion governs personal actions
Agree 98 87.6
Uncertain 7 6.2
Disagree 7 6.2
I take the purchasing decisions
Agree 105 93.8
Uncertain 7 6.2
Disagree 0 0


Marketing Mix: An Exploratory Research in Syria from an Islamic Perspective 46
Table 1: Respondents Attitude and Behavior towards Religion (1) - continued

I prefer to know the origin of the product bought
Agree 91 81.3
Uncertain 14 12.5
Disagree 7 6.2
I prefer to buy products that originate from Islamic countries
Agree
Uncertain 56 50.0
Disagree 21 18.8
35 31.2

Table 2: Respondents Attitude and Behavior towards Religion (2)

Statement Frequency Percentage, %
Religion can affect my purchasing decision
Agree 70 62.5
Uncertain 42 37.5
Disagree 0 0
I seek "Halal" sign when buying food items made in western
countries
Agree 105 93.8
Uncertain 7 6.2
Disagree 0 0
Prefer to purchase food items from Islamic countries
Agree 91 81.3
Uncertain 14 12.5
Disagree 7 6.2
I will not buy a western brand
Agree 0 0
Uncertain 42 37.5
Disagree 70 62.5
I will participate in boycotting campaigns for products made in
countries that offend Islam
Agree 77 68.8
Uncertain 21 18.7
Disagree 14 12.5
Religion can affect some of my buying decisions
Agree 98 87.5
Uncertain 14 12.5
Disagree 0 0

Table 2 shows that 62.5% of the respondents agreed that their religion affects their purchase
decision; however, 37.5% were undecided. The undecided respondents seem not to offer their opinion
due to the governing situation in Syria. Also, 93.8% or the grand majority of the respondents seek the
Halal sign or symbol marked on the products they buy. Only 6.2% of the respondents were undecided.
Moreover, 81.2% of the respondents agreed that they prefer food items originated from Islamic
countries, 12.5% of the respondents were undecided, and 6.2% of them disagreed. The majority of the
respondents, or 62.4% of the sample, stated that they would t buy western brands. The remaining
37.5% were undecided about the issue in question. The results of this question show that even if the
respondents are strongly attached to their religious values, it has nothing to do with their buying
western brands. The finding makes sense since the majority of the citizens in the Arab region seek
western brands as part of their daily life habits. Furthermore, when the respondents were asked if they
would participate in boycotting the products made in countries that offended Islam, 68.7% agreed,
while 18.8% of them were undecided and 12.5% of them disagreed. Finally, when the respondents
were asked if religion might affect their purchase decision, 87.5% of the respondents agreed, while
12.5% of them were undecided.
47 Hussin Hejase, Bassam Hamdar, Mohammed Orfali, and Ale Hejase
4.3. Implementation
4.3.1. Religious Duties
93.8% of the respondents practice their religious duties by visiting the house of God periodically or
celebrating religious events. Only 6.2% do not visit the house of God; however, they may be practicing
their religion at home.

4.3.2. Contradictions between Purchase Decisions and Religion
81.2% of the respondents believe that sometimes there exists a contradiction between their religious
views and the purchase decision, while 18.8% consider that these contradictions never existed.

4.3.3. Consideration of Religious Views

Table 3: Consideration of Religious Views

Frequency Percent
Food items 21 18.8
Services 14 12.5
In every product 70 62.5
Never 7 6.2
Total 112 100.0

Table 3 shows that when the respondents were asked which product purchase is affected by
religion, 18.8% considered food items, 12.5% considered services, 82.5% considered that it is in every
product they purchase, and 6.2% of them considered that religion never affects their purchase decision.

4.3.4. Priorities in the Buying Decision
12.5% of the respondents thought about their own benefits as first priority while 87.5% of the
respondents considered that their religious values come in the first place.

4.3.5. Priorities During Purchasing

Table 4: During the Purchase Decision

Frequency Percent
Religion comes first 35 31.2
Personal values come first 7 6.2
I try to balance between them 70 62.5
Total 112 100.0

Table 4 shows that 31.2% of the respondents considered that religion comes first during a
purchase decision, 6.2% of them considered that their personal values comes first, while 62.5%
considered that they would try to balance between both values.

4.3.6. Religion and Personal Preference
Results show that an equal percentage of 12.5% of the respondents considered that religion does and
does not affect their preference. However, 75% of the respondents considered that religious beliefs do
sometimes affect their preferences.

4.4. Survey Cross Tabs
Cross tab Products of Islamic Countries versus Importance of Religion


Marketing Mix: An Exploratory Research in Syria from an Islamic Perspective 48
Table 5: Products of Islamic Countries versus Importance of Religion

Products of Islamic countries versus Importance of religion Cross tabulation
Importance of religion Total
Strongly Agree Agree
Products of
Islamic countries
Agree
Count 42 14 56
% within Importance.Of.religion 60.0% 33.3% 50.0%
Undecided
Count 14 7 21
% within Importance.Of.religion 20.0% 16.7% 18.8%
Disagree
Count 14 21 35
% within Importance.Of.religion 20.0% 50.0% 31.2%
Total
Count 70 42 112
%within Importance.Of.religion 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Table 5 shows that 50% of the respondents who consider religion to be important in their life
agree to the fact that they search for products manufactured in Islamic countries, while 31.2% of the
respondents who consider religion as important in their life disagreed that they would only seek
products made up in Islamic countries. Such a finding shows that religion is moderately controlling the
respondents decision of purchasing products.

4.4.1. Other Cross-Tab Results
Religion affects Purchase versus Importance of Religion
Results show that 62.5% of the respondents who consider religion to be important in their life
agree to the fact that religion affects their purchases, while 37.5% of the respondents who consider
religion as important in their life were undecided about religion affecting their purchases decisions.
Seeking Halal Sign/Symbol on Products versus Importance of Religion
Results show that 93.8% of the respondents who consider religion to be important in their life
agree to the fact that they seek the Halal trademark on the products they purchase, while 6.2% of the
respondents who consider religion as important in their life were undecided about the fact that they
seek Halal trademarks on their products.
Readiness to participate in a Boycott versus Importance of Religion
Results show that 68.7% of the respondents who consider religion to be important in their life
agree to the fact that they will participate in boycotting campaigns on products made in countries that
offend Islam, while 18.8% of the respondents who consider religion as important in their life were
undecided, and 12.5% disagreed about the aforementioned issue.


5. Conclusion
Many important findings of the current research deserve to be reviewed. The outcomes are directly
related to the purpose of the project which is first to study the effect of religion on consumers
behavior, and second, to assess to what extent marketers should consider the observed cultural traits
while deciding about the marketing strategy for any product.
Results show that all the respondents considered that religion to be important in their life. Such
a fact also shows that religious views can play an important role in affecting the respondents
purchasing decision or choice of products. For example, 93.8% of the respondents seek in their choice
of food products with the Halal trademark sign or symbol. Seeking the Halal symbol leads Syrian
consumers to be selective in their buying behavior. The lack of the aforementioned symbol will
influence many consumers into not buying food products at all.
As for other products, not related to food, consumers will base their choices on personal tastes
and preferences, although 75% of the respondents believe that their religious views would sometimes
affect their taste and preference.
49 Hussin Hejase, Bassam Hamdar, Mohammed Orfali, and Ale Hejase
In addition to the above results, 68.7% of the respondents, and no matter what their religious
views are, are going to participate in boycotting the products emanating from countries that offend
Islam. However, some respondents showed different attitude because they consider that some products
are indispensable.
The aforementioned results are but a sample of facts that show the importance of religion as
one of the cultural elements that have to be taken carefully into consideration while setting the strategy
for any product to be introduced into an Islamic market. Islamic markets are characterized by the
important role religion plays in the life of the individuals as a whole, and in how that religion would
affect their buying behavior and their purchase decisions. If the marketer doesnt set a plan to match
the religious views of the customer, his/her products will fail and the companys image and financial
position will be harmed.
The researchers would like to emphasize, at this point, that Muslims view religion as a way of
living, and that marketers have to consider the overall wellbeing of the society as opposed their self-
interests in order to succeed in the markets of the Arab region.
The current study helped define the relation between the customers level of religious
commitment and the corresponding buying behavior in the Syrian market. It also helped define the
strength of the aforementioned relation and whether the marketers need to alter their strategy
accordingly.
The interrelationship between the four Ps of the marketing mix, the extended Ps, and Islam has
been extensively researched. It has been shown, in the current research, that the marketing mix and
Islam has strong relationship in countries that have the same ethical and religious background, for
example, Syria (Mainly in the Arab world). Although marketing mix principles emphasize creating
new ways to get the most of the market and to achieve the best interests of companies, Islamic
marketing, in its turn, emphasizes creating ways of life that benefit the society as a whole.
As the Muslim consumers become more knowledgeable of their religion, it is inevitable that
they will be more particular in the type of products and services that they consume or use. In addition,
as consumers become increasingly more sophisticated in dietary and health-related issues, the
relevance of informative labeling and the belief in the right to be adequately informed will strengthen.
The current research has found that by implementing the major principles of Islamic Shariah,
whether to encourage good business intentions and good deeds or to avoid interest, black market, or
monopoly from being introduced into the marketing science, marketers can better understand the
culture and the driving force of the markets. Moreover, marketers are able to better design suitable
strategies that affect the target markets, in addition to play a major part in the wellbeing of the society.
Although this research is considered the first step, within the Middle East region, toward further
research in the field of marketing and religion, it provides a solid corner stone for more in-depth
research in the field of Marketing and Religion. Furthermore, one important research implication is that
results of the current study are available for comparison with other research outcomes emanating from
either Pakistan or Malaysia where similar researches have been conducted.


6. Recommendations
This research has shown that people who base their decisions on religious beliefs tend to allow these
beliefs influence their buying behaviors; such a behavior is convenient to marketers and businesses
using marketing campaigns governed by religious principles. However, it is important to note that
organizations have their own set of values emanating from their corporate social responsibility, and
that most of the time, take into consideration the values of the surrounding community. Therefore,
employees are trained and educated to follow organizational regulations which are aligned with their
own moral principles and professional training. Based on the aforementioned reasoning the following
is recommended:
Marketing Mix: An Exploratory Research in Syria from an Islamic Perspective 50
1. Design induction sessions for all employees during which the organization introduces its
marketing campaign so as to build a value system that is sensitive to the surrounding
community.
2. Provide modified Islamic marketing training to all employees on a continuous basis. It is a
must to use case studies and vignettes to align employees beliefs with organizational values.
Such an alignment ensures harmony, loyalty and better judgment when dealing with customers
who are influenced by religious values.
3. Encourage universities to prepare their students on the topics of general marketing, Islamic
marketing, and organizational corporate responsibility. Graduates of such universities are more
easily aligned with organizational cultures seeking to deal with the community based on good
intentions and sound selling campaigns.
4. Encourage organizations to design a clear and fair organizational policy to safeguard itself
from unethical behavior and its consequences.
5. Encourage organizations to design an adequate and rewarding Islamic marketing campaign
that is aligned with human resources policies to enrich employees performance based on good
conduct and ethical behavior.
It is worth mentioning that the researchers have encountered several limitations, including
1. Difficulty in distributing more survey questionnaires due to the current conditions of the
country and the sensitive nature of the topic.
2. Results can not be generalized because of its exploratory nature.
3. Limitations in time because of the assigned deadline to deliver the research.
It is advisable to conduct a similar research across selected Middle Eastern countries in order to
assess a cross country comparison on the topic. Moreover, it is recommended to relate Islamic
marketing principles to corporate governance and its impact on employees performance. The
implications of the current study toward academic research are noted in adding a new contribution to
the field of Islamic marketing and in serving as a seed towards more investigative and exploratory
research necessary in the Middle East since the existing rich body of knowledge is mostly applied to
either Pakistan, India, Malaysia or to Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and to Turkey.
The authors would like to acknowledge the constructive criticism and editing performed by
Mrs. Henriette Skaff, senior editor at AUSTs Publications Department.


References
[1] Abul Hassan, AbdelkaderChachi and Abdul Latiff, Salma (2008).Islamic Marketing Ethics and
Its Impact on Customer Satisfaction in the Islamic Banking Industry.JKAU: Islamic Economics,
21(1): 27-46. Retrieved October 24, 2012, from the Islamic Economics Research Centre, King
Abdulaziz University website http://www.kau.edu.sa/Files/320/Researches/46660_18233.pdf
[2] Abusulayman, A.A. (1998). The theory of the economics of Islam, Journal of Islamic
Economics, 6(1): 79-122.
[3] Afridi, Fahd Khan (2009).Extended Services Marketing Mix and Emergence of Additional
Marketing Ps. Journal of Managerial Sciences 3(1): 137-143. Retrieved October 8, 2012, from
http://www.qurtuba.edu.pk/jms/default_files/J MS/3_1/09_fahd.pdf
[4] Alhabshi, S.O. (1987). The role of ethics in economics and business, Journal of Islamic
Economics, 1(1): pp. 1-15.
[5] Allah Pitchay, Anwar (2012). Marketing Mix from Islamic Marketing Perspective (March 7,
2012). Retrieved October 16, 2012, from http://ssrn.com/abstract=2017488 or
http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2017488
[6] Al-Quran 2:188
[7] Al-Quran 2:208
[8] Al-Quran 55:9
51 Hussin Hejase, Bassam Hamdar, Mohammed Orfali, and Ale Hejase
[9] Al-Quran (n.d). Translated and interpreted by Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din Al-Hilali and
Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Mdinah: King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the Holy Quran.
[10] Arham, Muhammad (2010). Islamic perspectives on marketing, Journal of Islamic Marketing,
1(2): pp.149 164.
[11] Armstrong, Gary & Kotler, Philip (2011). Marketing, (10
th
edition), Boston: Pearson Education.
[12] Awosola, Morayo (2010, J uly). Working across cultures in OIML TCs and SCs. Organisation
Internationale de Mtrologie Lgale (OIML) Bulletin, LI(3):17-19. Retrieved October 12, 2012,
from http://www.bis.gov.uk/assets/bispartners/nmo/docs/international/03-evolutions-2-
morayo.pdf
[13] Badawi, J .A. (2002). Islamic worldview: prime motive for development, Humanomics, 18(3):
3-25.
[14] Englis, Basil G. (1994). Global and multinational advertising: Advertising and consumer
psychology. New J ersey: Routledge.
[15] Essoo, Nittin and Dibb, Sally (2004). Religious Influence on Shopping Behavious: An
Exploratory Study. Journal of Marketing Management 20:683-712.
[16] FAO (1997). Global agricultural marketing management. Retrieved October 12, 2011, from
FAO Corporate Document Repository http://www.fao.org/docrep/W5973E/w5973e07.htm
[17] Guisepi, Robert (n.d.). An Overview of Civilization. Retrieved October 18, 2012, from
http://history-world.org/civilization.htm
[18] Hger, Sarah & Waller, Karin (2008, Autumn). Cultural Impacts on Manufacturing Swedish
Companies Marketing Mix in Germany. (Bachelor thesis in MarketingICU2008:92). School of
Business, Economics, and Law. Goteborg University, Sweden.
[19] Haneef, M.A.M. (1997). Islam, the Islamic worldview, and Islamic economics, IIUM Journal
of Economics and Management, 5(1): pp. 39-65.
[20] (Is4profit.com, 2012). Marketing strategy. Retrieved September 23, 2012, from
http://www.is4profit.com/business-advice/sales-marketing/marketing-strategy.html
[21] Izetbegovic, A.A. (1993). Islam between east and west (3
rd
edition). Plainfield, IN: American
Trust Publications.
[22] Kar, Arpan (2011, March 20). The 8 Ps of services marketing. Message posted to
http://business-fundas.com/2011/the-8-ps-of-services-marketing/
[23] Kum-Lung, Choe and Teck-Chai, Lau (2010, May). Attitude towards Business Ethics:
Examining the Influence of Religiosity, Gender and Education Levels. International Journal of
Marketing Studies 2(1): 225-232.
[24] LeVine, Robert Alan (2007). Culture, behavior, and personality: an introduction to the
comparative study. 2
nd
edition, New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.
[25] (Marketingpower.com, 2012). New definition of marketing (J anuary 14, 2008). Retrieved
September 23, 2012, from
http://www.marketingpower.com/AboutAMA/Documents/American%20Marketing%20Associ
ation%20Releases%20New%20Definition%20for%20Marketing.pdf
[26] (Mbaknol.com, 2012). Marketing strategy definitions and process. Retrieved September 23,
2012, from http://www.mbaknol.com/marketing-management/marketing-strategy-definitions-
and-process/
[27] Mortazavi, Saeed (2004, August 8-13). Islamic Economics: A Solution for Environmental
Protection. Proceedings of the Conference on Trade, Growth and the Environment, Oxford
University. Retrieved February 9, 2012, from http://humboldt-
dspace.calstate.edu/handle/2148/220
[28] Roth, Martin S. (1995). The effects of culture and socioeconomics on the performance of global
brand image strategies. Journal of Marketing Research, 32(2): 163-175.
[29] Samad, Abdus (n.d.). Market Analysis from an Islamic Perspective and the Contribution of
Muslim Scholars. Journal of Islamic Economics, Banking and Finance, 4(3):55-68. Retrieved
Marketing Mix: An Exploratory Research in Syria from an Islamic Perspective 52
J anuary 24, 2012, from Islamic Bank Training and Research Academy (IBTRA) J ournal
website: http://www.ibtra.com/pdf/journal/v4_n3_article4.pdf
[30] Shafie, Shahidan and Othman, Mohammad Nor (2006). Halal certification: International
marketing issues and challenges. Paper presented at IFSAM VIII World Congress 2006,
September 2830, Berlin, Germany.
[31] Sula, M.S. and Kartajaya, H. (2006). Shariah Marketing, Bandung: Mizan.
[32] Tellis, Gerard J . (2011). Modeling Marketing Mix. Retrieved September 23, 2011, from
http://srmo.sagepub.com/view/the-handbook-of-marketing-research/n24.xml
[33] Terpstra, V. and Sarathy, R. (2000). International Marketing, (8
th
edition), Dryden Press.
[34] Yaprak, Atilla (2003). Measurement Problems in Cross-national Consumer Research: The
State-of-the-Art and Future Research Directions. In Subhash C. J ain (Ed.), Handbook of
Research in International Marketing. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing Inc.