SUBSEA PIPELINES AND RISERS

YONG BAI
and
QIANG BAI
2005
ELSEVIER
Amsterdam - Boston - Heidelberg - London - New York - Oxford
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword v
Foreword to "Pipelines and Risers" Book vii
Preface ix
PART I: Mechanical Design
Chapter 1 Introduction 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Design Stages and Process 3
1.2.1 Design Stages 3
1.2.2 Design Process 6
1.3 Design Through Analysis (DTA) 9
1.4 Pipeline Design Analysis 11
1.4.1 General 11
1.4.2 Pipeline Stress Checks 11
1.4.3 Span Analysis 13
1.4.4 On-bottom Stability Analysis 14
1.4.5 Expansion Analysis 17
1.4.6 Buckling Analysis 17
1.4.7 Pipeline Installation 19
1.5 Pipeline Simulator 21
1.6 References 24
Chapter 2 Wall-thickness and Material Grade Selection 25
2.1 Introduction 25
2.1.1 General 25
2.1.2 Pipeline Design Codes 25
2.2 Material Grade Selection 26
2.2.1 General Principle 26
2.2.2 Fabrication, Installation and Operating Cost Considerations 27
2.2.3 Material Grade Optimization '. 28
2.3 Pressure Containment (hoop stress) Design 28
2.3.1 General '..". 28
2.3.2 Hoop Stress Criterion of DNV (2000) 29
2.3.3 Hoop Stress Criterion of ABS (2000) 30
2.3.4 APIRP1111 (1998) 31
2.4 Equivalent Stress Criterion 33
2.5 Hydrostatic Collapse .-_.. 34
2.6 Wall Thickness and Length Design for Buckle Arresters 36
2.7 Buckle Arrestor Spacing Design 37
2.8 References 39
Chapter 3 Buckling/Collapse of Deepwater Metallic Pipes 41
3.1 Introduction 41
3.2 Pipe Capacity under Single Load 42
3.2.1 General 42
3.2.2 External Pressure 43
3.2.3 Bending Moment Capacity 46
3.2.4 Pure Bending 48
3.2.5 Pure Internal Pressure 48
3.2.6 Pure Tension 48
3.2.7 Pure Compression 48
3.3 Pipe Capacity under Couple Load 49
3.3.1 Combined Pressure and Axial Force 49
3.3.2 Combined External Pressure and Bending 50
xii Contents
3.4 Pipes under Pressure Axial Force and Bending 51
3.4.1 Case 1 - Corroded Area in Compression 52
3.4.2 The Location of the Fully Plastic Neutral Axis 53
3.4.3 The Bending Moment 54
3.5 Finite Element Model 58
3.5.1 General 58
3.5.2 Analytical Solution versus Finite Element Results 59
3.5.3 Capacity of Pipes Subjected to Single Loads 59
3.5.4 Capacity of Pipes Subjected to Combined Loads 61
3.6 References 65
Chapter 4 Limit-state based Strength Design 67
4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Out of Roundness Serviceability Limit 68
4.3 Bursting 69
4.3.1 Hoop Stress vs. Equivalent Stress Criteria 69
4.3.2 Bursting Strength Criteria for Pipeline 69
4.4 Local Buckling/Collapse 70
4.5 Fracture 74
4.5.1 PD6493 Assessment 74
4.5.2 Plastic Collapse Assessment 75
4.6 Fatigue 77
4.6.1 General 77
4.6.2 Fatigue Assessment Based on S-N Curves 77
4.6.3 Fatigue Assessment Based on Ae-N Curves 78
4.7 Ratcheting 78
4.8 Dynamic Strength Criteria 79
4.9 Accumulated Plastic Strain 79
4.10 Strain Concentration at Field Joints Due to Coatings 80
4.11 References 80
PART II: Pipeline Design
Chapter 5 Soil and Pipe Interaction 83
5.1 Introduction 83
5.2 Pipe Penetration in Soil 83
5.2.1 Verley and Lund Method 83
5.2.2 Classical Method 84
5.2.3 Buoyancy Method 85
5.3 Modeling Friction and Breakout Forces 86
5.3.1 Anisotropic Friction 86
5.3.2 Breakout Force 87
5.4 References ~ .-88
Chapter 6 Hydrodynamics around Pipes 89
6.1 Wave Simulators 89
6.2 Choice of Wave Theory 89
6.3 Mathematical Formulations Used in the Wave Simulators 89
6.3.1 General 89
6.3.2 2D Regular Long-crested Waves 90
6.3.3 2D Random Long-crested Waves 91
6.4 Steady Currents , 95
6.5 Hydrodynamic Forces 95
6.5.1 Hydrodynamic Drag and Inertia Forces 95
6.5.2 Hydrodynamic Lift Forces 99
6.6 References 100
Chapter 7 Finite Element Analysis of In-situ Behavior 101
7.1 Introduction 101
7.2 Description of the Finite Element Model 102
7.2.1 Static Analysis Problems 102
Contents xiii
7.2.2 Dynamic Analysis Problems 104
7.3 Steps in an Analysis and Choice of Analysis Procedure 105
7.3.1 The Static Analysis Procedure 105
7.3.2 The Dynamic Analysis Procedure 106
7.4 Element Types Used in the Model 106
7.5 Non-linearity and Seabed Model 108
7.5.1 Material Model 108
7.5.2 Geometrical Non-linearity 109
7.5.3 Boundary Conditions 109
7.5.4 Seabed Model 109
7.6 Validation of the Finite Element Model 109
7.7 Dynamic Buckling Analysis 111
7.8 Cyclic In-place Behaviour during Shutdown Operations 113
7.9 References 114
Chapter 8 Expansion, Axial Creeping, Upheaval/Lateral Buckling 115
8.1 Introduction 115
8.2 Expansion 115
8.2.1 General Principle 115
8.2.2 Single Flowlines 116
8.3 Axial Creeping of Flowlines Caused by Soil Ratcheting 117
8.3.1 General 117
8.3.2 Cyclic Soil/Pipe Interaction Model 117
8.3.3 Expansion of a "Long" Flowline with Free ends 118
8.3.4 In-situ Expansion Behavior of the Creeping Flowlines 119
8.4 Upheaval Buckling 120
8.4.1 General 120
8.4.2 Analysis of Up-lifts : 120
8.4.3 Upheaval Movements 124
8.5 Lateral Buckling 125
8.5.1 General 125
8.5.2 Lateral Buckling of Straight Line on Flat Seabed 125
8.6 Interaction between Lateral and Upheaval Buckling 126
8.7 References 128
Chapter 9 On-bottom Stability 129
9.1 Introduction 129
9.2 Force Balance: the Simplified Method 129
9.3 Acceptance Criteria '. 130
9.3.1 Allowable Lateral Displacement 130
9.3.2 Limit-state Strength Criteria 130
9.4 Special Purpose Program for Stability Analysis 130
9.4.1 General 130
9.4.2 PONDUS 131
9.4.3 PIPE 1 133
9.5 Use of FE Analysis for Intervention Design 133
9.5.1 Design Procedure 133
9.5.2 Seabed Intervention 133
9.5.3 Effect of Seabed Intervention 135
9.6 References 136
Chapter 10 Vortex-induced Vibrations (VIV) and Fatigue 137
10.1 Introduction 137
10.2 Free-span VIV Analysis Procedure 139
10.2.1 Structural Analysis '. 139
10.2.2 Hydrodynamic Description 139
10.2.3 Soil Stiffness Analysis 141
10.2.4 Vibration Amplitude and Stress Range Analysis 143
10.2.5 Fatigue Model 143
10.3 Fatigue Design Criteria '. 144
10.3.1 Accumulated Fatigue Damage 144
10.3.2 S-N Curves 144
xiv Contents
10.4 Response Amplitude 144
10.4.1 In-line VIV in Current Dominated Conditions 144
10.4.2 Cross-flow VIV in Combined Wave and Current 147
10.5 Modal Analysis 148
10.5.1 General 148
10.5.2 Single Span Modal Analysis 149
10.5.3 Multiple Span Modal Analysis 149
10.6 Example Cases 150
10.6.1 General 150
10.6.2 Fatigue Assessment 152
10.7 References 154
Chapter 11 Force Model and Wave Fatigue 155
11.1 Introduction 155
11.2 Fatigue Analysis 155
11.2.1 Fatigue of Free-spanning Pipelines 155
11.2.2 Fatigue Damage Assessment Procedure 158
11.2.3 Fatigue Damage Acceptance Criteria 159
11.2.4 Fatigue Damage Calculated Using Time Domain Solution 159
11.2.5 Fatigue Damage Calculated Using Frequency Domain Solution 160
11.3 Force Model 161
11.3.2 Modal Analysis 163
11.3.3 Time Domain Solution 164
11.3.4 Frequency Domain Solution 168
11.4 Comparisons of Frequency Domain and Time Domain Approaches 170
. 11.5 Conclusions and Recommendations 171
11.6 References 172
Chapter 12 Trawl Impact, Pullover and Hooking Loads 173
12.1 Introduction 173
12.2 Trawl Gears 173
12.2.1 Basic Types of Trawl Gear 173
12.2.2 Largest Trawl Gear in Present Use 174
12.3 Acceptance Criteria 174
12.3.1 Acceptance Criteria for Impact Response Analyses 174
12.3.2 Acceptance Criteria for Pullover Response Analyses 175
12.4 Impact Response Analysis 175
12.4.1 General '. 175
12.4.2 Methodology for Impact Response Analysis 175
12.4.3 Steel Pipe and Coating Stiffness 178
12.4.4 Trawl Board Stiffness, Mass and Hydrodynamic Added Mass 181
12.4.5 Impact Response :. 183
12.5 Pullover Loads 184
12.6 Finite Element Model for Pullover Response Analyses 186
12.6.1 General Z 186
12.6.2 Finite Element Models 186
12.6.3 Analysis Methodology 187
12.7 Case Study 188
12.7.1 General 188
12.7.2 Trawl Pull-over for Pipelines on an Uneven Seabed 188
12.8 References 194
Chapter 13 Pipe-in-pipe and Bundle Systems 195
13.1 Introduction 195
13.2 Pipe-in-pipe System 195
13.2.1 General 195
13.2.2 Why Pipe-in-pipe Systems 196
13.2.3 Configuration 197
13.2.4 Structural Design and Analysis 198
13.2.5 Wall-thickness Design and Material Selection 200
13.2.6 Failure Modes 201
13.2.7 Design Criteria 201
Contents , xv
13.2.8 Insulation Considerations 203
13.2.9 Fabrication and Field Joints 203
13.2.10 Installation 204
13.3 Bundle System 205
13.3.1 General 205
13.3.2 Bundle Configurations 206
13.3.3 Design Requirements for Bundle System 206
13.3.4 Bundle Safety Class Definition 207
13.3.5 Functional Requirement 207
13.3.6 Insulation and Heat-up System 208
13.3.7 Umbilicals in Bundle 209
13.3.8 Design Loads 209
13.3.9 Installation by CDTM 216
13.4 References 218
Chapter 14 Seismic Design 219
14.1 Introduction 219
14.2 Pipeline Seismic Design Guidelines 220
14.2.1 Seismic Design Methodology 220
14.2.2 Seismic Level of Design 223
14.2.3 Analysis Examples 223
14.3 Conclusions 228
14.4 References 228
Chapter 15 Corrosion Prevention 229
15.1 Introduction 229
15.2 Fundamentals of Cathodic Protection 229
15.3 Pipeline Coatings 231
15.3.1 Internal Coatings 231
15.3.2 External Coatings 231
15.4 CP Design Parameters 232
15.4.1 Design Life 232
15.4.2 Current Density 232
15.4.3 Coating Breakdown Factor 234
15.4.4 Anode Material Performance 235
15.4.5 Resistivity 235
15.4.6 Anode Utilization Factor...; 235
15.5 Galvanic Anodes System Design 236
15.5.1 Selection of Anodes Type .' 236
15.5.2 CP Design Practice..... 237
15.5.3 Anode Spacing Determination 238
15.5.4 Commonly Used Galvanic Anodes 238
15.5.5 Pipeline CP System Retrofit 239
15.5.6 Internal Corrosion Inhibitors ._. 239
15.6 References 240
Chapter 16 Asgard Flowlines Design Examples 241
16.1 Introduction 241
16.2 Wall-thickness and Linepipe Material Selection 242
16.2.1 General 242
16.2.2 Linepipe Material Selection 242
16.2.3 Wall-thickness Design 242
16.3 Limit State Strength Criteria 243
16.3.1 General 243
16.3.2 Bursting Under Combined Loading 243
16.3.3 Local Buckling/Collapse 243
16.3.4 Fracture 244
16.3.5 Low-cycle Fatigue 244
16.3.6 Ratcheting 245
16.4 Installation and On-bottom Stability 247
16.4.1 Installation Design 247
16.4.2 On-bottom Stability 248
xvi Contents
16.5 Design for Global Buckling, Fishing Gear Loads and VIV 249
16.5.1 General 249
16.5.2 Global Buckling 250
16.5.3 Trawlboard 252
16.5.4 Vortex Induced Vibrations (VIV) 255
16.6 Asgard Transport Project 258
16.7 References 258
PART III: Flow Assurance
Chapter 17 Subsea System Engineering 263
17.1 Introduction 263
17.1.1 Flow Assurance Challenges 263
17.1.2 Flow Assurance Concerns 264
17.2 Typical Flow Assurance Process 265
17.2.1 General 265
17.2.2 Fluid Characterization and Property Assessments 265
17.2.3 Steady State Hydraulic and Thermal Performance Analyses 268
17.2.4 Transient Hydraulic and Thermal Performances Analyses 268
17.3 System Design and Operability 272
17.3.1 Well Start-up & Shut-in 273
17.3.2 Flowline Blowdown 275
17.4 References 276
Chapter 18 Hydraulics 277
18.1 Introduction 277
18.2 Composition and Properties of Hydrocarbons 277
18.2.1 Hydrocarbons Composition 277
18.2.2 Equation of State 279
18.2.3 Hydrocarbons Properties 280
18.3 Emulsion 282
18.3.1 General 282
18.3.2 Effect of Emulsion on Viscosity 283
18.3.3 Prevention of Emulsion 285
18.4 Phase Behavior 285
18.4.1 Black Oils '. 286
18.4.2 Volatile Oils .....'. 286
18.4.3 Condensate '. 286
18.4.4 Wet Gases 287
18.4.5 Dry Gases 287
18.4.6 Computer Models 288
18.5 Hydrocarbon Flow 289
18.5.1 General 77. i 289
18.5.2 Single-phase Flow 290
18.5.3 Multi-phase Flow 295
18.5.4 Comparison of Two-phase Flow Correlations 298
18.6 Slugging and Liquid Handling 302
18.6.1 General 302
18.6.2 Hydrodynamic Slugging 304
18.6.3 Terrain Slugging 305
18.6.4 Start-up Slugging 306
18.6.5 Pigging 306
18.6.6 Slugging Prediction 307
18.6.7 Slug Detection and Control Systems 308
18.6.8 Slug Catcher Sizing 308
18.7 Pressure Surge 308
18.7.1 Fundamentals of Pressure Surge 308
18.7.2 When Is Pressure Surge Analysis Required? 309
18.8 Line Sizing 310
Contents xvii
18.8.1 Hydraulic Calculation '.310
18.8.2 Criteria 311
18.8.3 Maximum Operating Velocities 312
18.8.4 Minimum Operation Velocities 313
18.8.5 Wells 313
18.8.6 Gas Lift 314
18.9 References 315
Chapter 19 Heat Transfer and Thermal Insulation 317
19.1 Introduction 317
19.2 Heat Transfer Fundamentals 318
19.2.1 Heat Conduction 318
19.2.2 Convection 320
19.2.3 Buried Pipeline Heat Transfer 323
19.2.4 Soil Thermal Conductivity 325
19.3 U-value 326
19.3.1 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 326
19.3.2 Achievable U-values 329
19.3.3 U-value for Buried Pipe 330
19.4 Steady State Heat Transfer 331
19.4.1 Temperature Prediction along Pipeline 331
19.4.2 Steady State Insulation Performance 332
19.5 Transient Heat Transfer 333
19.5.1 Cool Down 334
19.5.2 Transient Insulation Performance 337
19.6 Thermal Management Strategy and Insulation 338
19.6.1 External Insulation Coating System 340
19.6.2 Pipe-in-pipe System 344
19.6.3 Bundling 346
19.6.4 Burial 346
19.6.5 Direct Heating 347
19.6.6 Hot Fluid Heating (Indirect Heating) 349
19.7 References 349
19.8 Appendix: U-value and Cooldown Time Calculation Sheet 351
Chapter 20 Hydrates 357
20.1 Introduction .' 357
20.2 Physics and Phase Behavior 359
20.2.1 General '.'.. 359
20.2.2 Hydrate Formation and Dissociation 360
20.2.3 Effects of Salt, MeOH, Gas Composition 363
20.2.4 Mechanism of Hydrate Inhibition..: 365
20.3 Hydrate Prevention 367
20.3.1 Thermodynamic Inhibitors 368
20.3.2 Low-dosage Hydrate Inhibitors .7... 369
20.3.3 Low Pressure 369
20.3.4 Water Removal 370
20.3.5 Thermal Insulation 370
20.3.6 Active Heating 370
20.4 Hydrate Remediation 371
20.4.1 Depressurization 372
20.4.2 Thermodynamic Inhibitors 373
20.4.3 Active Heating 373
20.4.4 Mechanical Methods 374
20.4.5 Safety Considerations 374
20.5 Hydrate Control Design Philosophies 374
20.5.1 Selection of Hydrate Control 374
20.5.2 Cold Flow Technology 378
20.5.3 Hydrates Control Design Process 379
20.5.4 Hydrates Control Design and Operation Guideline 379
20.6 Recover of Thermodynamic Hydrate Inhibitors 380
xviii Contents
20.7 References 382
Chapter 21 Wax and Asphaltenes 383
21.1 Introduction 383
21.2 Wax 383
21.2.1 General 383
21.2.2 Wax Formation 384
21.2.3 Viscosity of Waxy Oil 387
21.2.4 Gel Strength 387
21.2.5 Wax Deposition 387
21.2.6 Wax Deposition Prediction 388
21.3 Wax Management 389
21.3.1 General 389
21.3.2 Thermal Insulation 389
21.3.3 Pigging 390
21.3.4 Inhibitor Injection 390
21.4 Wax Remediation 390
21.4.1 Wax Remediation Methods 391
21.4.2 Assessment of Wax problem 392
21.4.3 Wax Control Design Philosophies 392
21.5 Asphaltenes 392
21.5.1 General 392
21.5.2 Assessment of Asphaltene Problem 393
21.5.3 Asphaltene Formation 395
21.5.4 Asphaltene Deposition 396
- 21.6 Asphaltenes Control Design Philosophies 396
21.7 References 398
PART IV: Riser Engineering
Chapter 22 Design of Deepwater Risers 401
22.1 Description of a Riser System 401
22.1.1 General 401
22.1.2 System Descriptions 401
22.1.3 Flexible Riser Global Configuration 402
22.1.4 Component Descriptions 404
22.1.5 Catenary and Top Tensioned Risers 406
22.2 Riser Analysis Tools 407
22.3 Steel Catenary Riser for Deepwater Environments 408
22.3.1 Design Codes., 408
22.3.2 Analysis Parameters 409
22.3.3 Soil-Riser Interaction 409
22.3.4 Pipe Buckling Collapse under Extreme Conditions 410
22.3.5 Vortex Induced Vibration Analysis ..410
22.4 Stresses and Service Life of Flexible Pipes 410
22.5 Drilling and Workover Risers 411
22.6 References 411
Chapter 23 Design Codes for Risers and Subsea Systems 413
23.1 Introduction 413
23.2 Design Criteria for Deepwater Metallic Risers 414
23.2.1 Design Philosophy and Considerations 414
23.2.2 Currently Used Design Criteria 415
23.2.3 Ultimate Limit State Design Checks 415
23.3 Limit State Design Criteria 415
23.3.1 Failure Modes and Limit States .". 415
23.3.2 Acceptance Criteria 416
23.4 Loads, Load Effects and Load Cases 416
23.4.1 Loads and Load Effects 416
23.4.2 Definition of Load Cases 417
Contents xix
23.4.3 Load Factors 417
23.5 Improving Design Codes and Guidelines 418
23.5.1 General 418
23.5.2 Flexible Pipes 418
23.5.3 Metallic Risers 421
23.6 Regulations and Standards for Subsea Production Systems 421
23.7 References 422
Chapter 24 VIV and Wave Fatigue of Risers 423
24.1 Introduction 423
24.2 Fatigue Causes 423
24.2.1 Wave Fatigue 423
24.2.2 VIV Induced Fatigue 425
24.3 Riser VIV Analysis and Suppression 426
24.3.1 VIV Predictions 426
24.3.2 Theoretical Background 427
24.3.3 Riser VIV Analysis Software 428
24.3.4 Vortex-induced Vibration Suppression Devices 429
24.3.5 VIV Analysis Example 430
24.4 Riser Fatigue due to Vortex-induced Hull Motions (VIM) 431
24.4.1 General 431
24.4.2 VIM Amplitudes 432
24.4.3 Riser Fatigue due to VIM 433
24.4.4 VIM Stress Histograms 434
24.4.5 Sensitivity Analysis 435
24.5 Challenges and Solutions for Fatigue Analysis 435
24.6 Conclusions 435
24.7 References 436
Chapter 25 Steel Catenary Risers 437
25.1 Introduction 437
25.2 SCR Technology Development History 438
25.3 Material Selection, Wall-thickness Sizing, Source Services and Clap Pipe 439
25.3.1 Wall Thickness Sizing ...439
25.3.2 Sour Services and Clad Pipe 440
25.4 SCR Design Analysis 440
25.4.1 Initial Design 440
25.4.2 Strength and Fatigue Analysis 441
25.5 Welding Technology, S-N Curves and SCF for Welded Connections 441
25.5.1 Welding Technology 441
25.5.2 S-N Curves and SCF for Welded Connections 442
25.6 UT Inspections and ECA Criteria 442
25.7 Flexjoints, Stressjoints and Pulltubes 444
25.7.1 Flexjoints 444
25.7.2 Stressjoints 445
25.7.3 Pulltubes 445
25.8 Strength Design Challenges and Solutions 445
25.8.1 Strength Design Issues 445
25.8.2 SCR Hang-off Tensions 445
25.8.3 SCR Touchdown Zone Effective Compression 446
25.8.4 SCR Touchdown Zone Stress 446
25.8.5 Strength Design Solutions 446
25.9 Fatigue Design Challenges and Solutions 446
25.9.1 Fatigue Issues 446
25.9.2 VIV Design Challenges 446
25.9.3 Fatigue Due to Hull Heave Motions and VIM 447
25.9.4 Effect of Wall-thickness Tolerance on Submerged Weight and Fatigue 447
25.9.5 Effect of Vessel Selection, Hang-off Angle, Riser Orientation 447
25.9.6 Combined Frequency and Time Domain Analysis. 448
25.9.7 Touchdown Soil Effect 448
25.9.8 Fatigue Design Solutions 448
xx Contents
25.10 Installation and Sensitivity Considerations 449
25.10.1 Installation Considerations 449
25.10.2 Sensitivity Analysis Considerations 449
25.11 Integrity Monitoring and Management Systems 450
25.11.1 Monitoring Systems 450
25.11.2 Integrity Management Using Monitored Data 450
25.12 References 450
Chapter 26 Top Tensioned Risers 453
26.1 Introduction 453
26.2 Top Tension Risers Systems 454
26.2.1 Configuration 454
26.2.2 General Design Considerations 457
26.2.3 Drilling Risers 458
26.3 TTR Riser Components 458
26.3.1 General 458
26.3.2 Dry Tree Riser Tensioner System 458
26.3.3 Tie-back Connector 459
26.3.4 Keel Joint 459
26.3.5 Tapered Stress Joint 461
26.3.6 Riser Joint Connectors 461
26.3.7 Tension Joint & Ring 463
26.3.8 Riser Joint in Splash Zone 464
26.3.9 Flexible Jumper between Surface Tree and Deck-based Manifold 464
26.3.10 Tubing/Casing Hanger 464
- 26.3.11 Air Cans : ..465
26.3.12 Distributed Buoyancy Foam 466
26.4 Modelling and Analysis of Top Tensioned Risers 467
26.4.1 , General 467
26.4.2 Stack-up Model and Tension Requirement 468
26.4.3 Composite Riser Section 469
26.4.4 Vessel Boundary Conditions 470
26.4.5 Soil Conditions 470
26.4.6 Modelling of Riser Components 471
26.4.7 Installation Analysis 474
26.5 Integrated Marine Monitoring System 475
26.5.1 General 475
26.5.2 IMMS System '. 475
26.5.3 Use of the Monitored Data 476
26.6 References 476
Chapter 27 Steel Tube Umbilical & Control Systems 477
27.1 Introduction 477
27.1.1 General . 477
27.1.2 Feasibility Study 478
27.1.3 Detailed Design and Installation 479
27.1.4 Qualification Tests 480
27.2 Control Systems 480
27.2.1 General 480
27.2.2 Control Systems 480
27.2.3 Elements of Control System 481
27.2.4 Umbilical Technological Challenges and Solutions 482
27.3 Cross-sectional Design of the Umbilical 485
27.4 Steel Tube Design Capacity Verification 486
27.4.1 Pressure Containment 486
27.4.2 Allowable Bending Radius 486
27.5 Extreme Wave Analysis 487
27.6 Manufacturing Fatigue Analysis : 488
27.6.1 Accumulated Plastic Strain 488
27.6.2 Low Cycle Fatigue 489
27.7 In-place Fatigue Analysis 489
Contents xxi
27.7.1 Selection of Seastate Data from Wave Scatter Diagram 490
27.7.2 Analysis of Finite Element Static Model 490
27.7.3 Umbilical Fatigue Analysis Calculations 490
27.7.4 Simplified or Enhanced Approach 491
27.7.5 Generation of Combined Stress History 492
27.7.6 Rainflow Cycle Counting Procedure or Spectral Fatigue Analysis 493
27.7.7 Incorporation of Mean Stress Effects in Histogram 493
27.8 Installation Analysis 494
27.9 Required On-seabed Length for Stability 495
27.10 References 495
Chapter 28 Flexible Risers and Flowlines 497
28.1 Introduction 497
28.2 Flexible Pipe Cross Section 497
28.2.1 Carcass 499
28.2.2 Internal Polymer Sheath 500
28.2.3 Pressure Armor 500
28.2.4 Tensile Armor 500
28.2.5 External Polymer Sheath 501
28.2.6 Other Layers and Configurations 501
28.3 End Fitting and Annulus Venting Design 501
28.3.1 End Fitting Design and Top Stiffener (or Bellmouth) 501
28.3.2 Annulus Venting System 502
28.4 Flexible Riser Design 503
28.4.1 Design Analysis 503
28.4.2 Riser System Interface Design 504
28.4.3 Current Design Limitations 506
28.5 References 507
Chapter 29 Hybrid Risers 509
29.1 Introduction 509
29.2 General Description of Hybrid Risers 511
29.2.1 Riser Foundation 511
29.2.2 Riser Base Spools 512
29.2.3 Top and Bottom Transition Forging 513
29.2.4 Riser Cross-section 513
29.2.5 Buoyancy Tank , .....513
29.2.6 Flexible Jumpers 514
29.3 Sizing of Hybrid Risers , 514
29.3.1 Riser Cross-section '. 514
29.3.2 Buoyancy Tanks 515
29.3.3 Riser Foundation .'. 516
29.3.4 Flexible Jumpers 517
29.4 Preliminary Analysis 518
29.5 Strength Analysis .' 519
29.6 Fatigue Analysis 520
29.7 Structural and Environmental Monitoring System 520
29.7.1 Riser Fatigue Monitoring Approach 521
29.7.2 Structural Monitoring System 521
29.7.3 Environmental Monitoring System 522
29.7.4 Vessel Mooring and Position 523
29.8 References 523
Chapter 30 Drilling Risers 525
30.1 Introduction 525
30.2 Floating Drilling Equipments 526
30.2.1 Completion and Workover (C/WO) Risers 526
30.2.2 Diverter and Motion Compensating Equipment 530
30.2.3 Choke and Kill Lines and Drill String 531
30.3 Key Components of Subsea Production Systems 532
30.3.1 Subsea Wellhead Systems 532
30.3.2 BOP 532
xxii Contents
30.3.3 Tree and Tubing Hanger System 533
30.4 Riser Design Criteria 533
30.4.1 Operability Limits 533
30.4.2 Component Capacities 534
30.5 Drilling Riser Analysis Model 534
30.5.1 Drilling Riser Stack-up Model 534
30.5.2 Vessel Motion Data 535
30.5.3 Environmental Conditions 535
30.5.4 Cyclic P-y Curves for Soil 536
30.6 Drilling Riser Analysis Methodology 536
30.6.1 Running and Retrieve Analysis 536
30.6.2 Operability Analysis 539
30.6.3 Weak Point Analysis 540
30.6.4 Drift-off Analysis 541
30.6.5 VIV Analysis 542
30.6.6 Wave Fatigue Analysis 543
30.6.7 Hang-off Analysis 543
30.6.8 Dual Operation Interference Analysis 544
30.6.9 Contact Wear Analysis 545
30.6.10 Recoil Analysis 546
30.7 References 547
Chapter 31 Integrity Management of Flexibles and Umbilicals 549
31.1 Introduction 549
31.2 Failure Statistics 550
31.3 Risk Management Methodology 552
31.4 Failure Drivers 552
31.4.1 Temperature 552
31.4.2 Pressure 553
31.4.3 Product Fluid Composition 554
31.4.4 Service Loads 554
31.4.5 Ancillary Components 555
31.5 , Failure Modes 555
31.5.1 Fatigue 555
31.5.2 Corrosion 555
31.5.3 Erosion : 556
31.5.4 Pipe Blockage or Flow Restriction 556
31.5.5 Accidental Damage 556
31.6 Integrity Management Strategy 556
31.6.1 Flexible Pipe Integrity Management System 556
31.6.2 Installation Procedures .'. 558
31.6.3 Gas Diffusion Calculations 558
31.6.4 Dropped Object Reporting/Deck Lifting & Handling Procedures 558
31.6.5 Vessel Exclusion Zone .' 558
31.6.6 Fatigue Life Re-analysis of Pipes ....558
31.6.7 High Integrity Pressure Protection System (HIPPS) 558
31.7 Inspection Measures 558
31.7.1 General Visual Inspection (GVI) / Close Visual Inspection (CVI) 558
31.7.2 Cathodic Protection Survey 559
31.8 Monitoring 559
31.8.1 Inspection and Monitoring Systems 559
31.8.2 Bore Fluid Parameter Monitoring 559
31.9 Testing and Analysis Measures 560
31.9.1 Coupon Sampling and Analysis 560
31.9.2 Vacuum Testing of Riser Annulus 560
31.9.3 Radiography 560
31.10 Steel Tube Umbilical Risk Analysis and Integrity Management 561
31.10.1 Risk Assessment 561
31.10.2 Integrity Management Strategy 561
31.11 References 562
Contents xxiii
PART V: Welding and Installation
Chapter 32 Use of High Strength Steel 565
32.1 Introduction 565
32.2 Review of Usage of High Strength Steel Linepipes 565
32.2.1 Usage of X70 Linepipe 565
32.2.2 Usage of X80 Linepipe Onshore 568
32.2.3 Grades Above X80 572
32.3 Potential Benefits and Disadvantages of High Strength Steel 572
32.3.1 Potential Benefits of High Strength Steels 572
32.3.2 Potential Disadvantages of High Strength Steels 575
32.4 Welding of High Strength Linepipe 576
32.4.1 Applicability of Standard Welding Techniques 576
32.4.2 Field Welding Project Experience ; 578
32.5 Cathodic Protection 579
32.6 Fatigue and Fracture of High Strength Steel 580
32.7 Material Property Requirements 581
32.7.1 Material Property Requirement in Circumferential Direction 581
32.7.2 Material Property Requirement in Longitudinal Direction 581
32.7.3 Comparisons of Material Property Requirements 582
32.8 References 583
Chapter 33 Welding and Defect Acceptance 585
33.1 Introduction 585
33.2 Weld Repair Analysis 585
33.2.1 Allowable Excavation Lengths for Plastic Collapse 586
33.2.2 Allowable Excavation Lengths Using Different Assessments 587
33.3 Allowable Excavation Length Assessment 589
33.3.1 Description of Pipeline Being Installed 589
33.3.2 Analysis Method 589
33.3.3 Analysis Results ..591
33.4 Conclusions '. 593
33.5 References 595
Chapter 34 Installation Design 597
34.1 Introduction 597
34.2 Pipeline Installation Vessels 597
34.2.1 Pipelay Semi-submersibles 598
34.2.2 Pipelay Ships and Barges 602
34.2.3 Pipelay Reel Ships .,..603
34.2.4 Tow or Pull Vessels 604
34.3 Software OFFPIPE and Code Requirements 605
34.3.1 OFFPIPE ._.
:
605
34.3.2 Code Requirements
;
.7.77 606
34.4 Physical Background for Installation 606
34.4.1 S-lay Method 606
34.4.2 Static Configuration 608
34.4.3 Curvature in Sagbend 608
34.4.4 Hydrostatic Pressure 610
34.4.5 Curvature in Overbend 612
34.4.6 Strain Concentration and Residual Strain 612
34.4.7 Rigid Section in the Pipeline 613
34.4.8 Dry Weight/Submerged Weight 614
34.4.9 Theoretical Aspects of Pipe Rotation 616
34.4.10 Installation Behaviour of Pipe with Residual Curvature 621
34.5 Finite Element Analysis Procedure for Installation of In-line Valves 624
34.5.1 Finding Static Configuration 624
34.5.2 Pipeline Sliding on Stinger 626
34.5.3 Installation of In-line Valve 628
34.6 Two Medium Pipeline Design Concept 628
xxiv Contents
34.6.1 Introduction 628
34.6.2 Wall-thickness Design for Three Medium and Two Medium Pipelines 629
34.6.3 Implication to Installation, Testing and Operation 630
34.6.4 Installing Free Flooding Pipelines 631
34.6.5 S-lay vs. J-lay 632
34.6.6 Economic Implication 634
34.7 References 636
Chapter 35 Route Optimization, Tie-in and Protection 637
35.1 Introduction 637
35.2 Pipeline Routing 637
35.2.1 General Principle 637
35.2.2 Fabrication, Installation and Operational Cost Considerations 638
35.2.3 Route Optimization 638
35.3 Pipeline Tie-ins 639
35.3.1 Spoolpieces 639
35.3.2 Lateral Pull 639
35.3.3 J-tube Pull-in 641
35.3.4 Connect and Lay Away 642
35.3.5 Stalk-on 642
35.4 Flowline Trenching/Burying 647
35.4.1 Jet Sled 647
35.4.2 Ploughing 649
35.4.3 Mechanical Cutters 649
.35.5 Flowline Rockdumping 653
v
35.5.1 Side Dumping 653
35.5.2 Fall Pipe 653
35.5.3 Bottom Dropping 653
35.6 Equipment Dayrates 654
35.7 References 654
Chapter 36 Pipeline Inspection, Maintenance and Repair 655
36.1 Operations 655
36.Ill Operating Philosophy 655
36.1.2 Pipeline Security 655
36.1.3 Operational Pigging 657
36.1.4 Pipeline Shutdown 660
36.1.5 Pipeline Depressurization 660
36.2 Inspection by Intelligent Pigging..: 661
36.2.1 General ; 661
36.2.2 Metal Loss Inspection Techniques 661
36.2.3 Intelligent Pigs for Purposes other than Metal Loss Detection 668
36.3 Maintenance 670
36.3.1 General .-. -...-, 670
36.3.2 Pipeline Valves : 671
36.3.3 Pig Traps 671
36.3.4 Pipeline Location Markers 671
36.4 Pipeline Repair Methods 672
36.4.1 Conventional Repair Methods 672
36.4.2 General Maintenance Repair 673
36.5 Deepwater Pipeline Repair 680
36.5.1 General 680
36.5.2 Diverless Repair Research and Development 680
36.5.3 Deepwater Pipeline Repair Philosophy 681
36.6 References 682
PART VI: Integrity Management
Chapter 37 Reliability-based Strength Design of Pipelines 685
37.1 Introduction 685
Contents xxv
37.1.1 General 685
37.1.2 Calculation of Failure Probability 685
37.2 Uncertainty Measures 685
37.2.1 Selection of Distribution Functions 686
37.2.2 Determination of Statistical Values 686
37.3 Calibration of Safety Factors 686
37.3.1 General 686
37.3.2 Target Reliability Levels 686
37.4 Reliability-based Determination of Corrosion Allowance 687
37.4.1 General 687
37.4.2 Reliability Model 688
37.4.3 Design Examples 689
37.4.4 Discussions 694
37.4.5 Recommendations 695
37.5 References 695
Chapter 38 Corroded Pipelines 697
38.1 Introduction 697
38.2 Corrosion Defect Predictions 697
38.2.1 Corrosion Defect Inspection 697
38.2.2 Corrosion Defect Growth 698
38.2.3 CO
2
Corrosion Defects 698
38.3 Remaining Strength of Corroded Pipe 706
38.3.1 NG-18 Criterion 707
38.3.2 B31G Criterion 707
38.3.3 Evaluation of Existing Criteria 709
38.3.4 Corrosion Mechanism 709
38.3.5 Material Parameters 712
38.3.6 Problems Excluded in the B31G Criteria 713
38.4 New Remaining Strength Criteria for Corroded Pipe..... 714
38.4.1 Development of New Criteria 714
38.4.2 Evaluation of New Criteria 717
38.5 Reliability-based Design 717
38.5.1 Target Failure Probability 717
38.5.2 Design Equation and Limit State Function 718
38.5.3 Uncertainty ., 720
38.5.4 Safety Level in the B31G Criteria 721
38.5.5 Reliability-based Calibration 722
38.6 Re-qualification Example Applications 723
38.6.1 Design Basis 723
38.6.2 Condition Assessment 726
38.6.3 Rehabilitation 731
38.7 References 731
Chapter 39 Residual Strength of Dented Pipes with Cracks 733
39.1 Introduction ! 733
39.2 Limit-state based Criteria for Dented Pipe 733
39.2.1 General 733
39.2.2 Serviceability Limit-state (Out of Roundness) 734
39.2.3 Bursting Criterion for Dented Pipes 734
39.2.4 Fracture Criterion for Dented Pipes with Cracks 735
39.2.5 Fatigue Criterion for Dented Pipes 735
39.2.6 Moment Criterion for Buckling and Collapse of Dented Pipes 736
39.3 Fracture of Pipes with Longitudinal Cracks 737
39.3.1 Failure Pressure of Pipes with Longitudinal Cracks 737
39.3.2 Burst Pressure of Pipes Containing Combined Dent and Longitudinal Notch 738
39.3.3 Burst Strength Criteria 742
39.4 Fracture of Pipes with Circumferential Cracks 742
39.4.1 Fracture Condition and Critical Stress 742
39.4.2 Material Toughness, K
mat
743
39.4.3 Net Section Stress, a
n
743
xxvi Contents
39.4.4 Maximum Allowable Axial Stress 743
39.5 Reliability-based Assessment 743
39.5.1 Design Formats vs. LSF 743
39.5.2 Uncertainty Measure 744
39.6 Design Examples 745
39.6.1 Case Description 745
39.6.2 Parameter Measurements 745
39.6.3 Reliability Assessments 745
39.6.4 Sensitivity Study 748
39.7 References 749
Chapter 40 Integrity Management of Subsea Systems 751
40.1 Introduction 751
40.1.1 General 751
40.1.2 Risk Analysis Objectives 751
40.1.3 Risk Analysis Concepts 751
40.1.4 Risk Based Inspection and Integrity Management (RBIM) 752
40.2 Acceptance Criteria 753
40.2.1 General 753
40.2.2 Risk of Individuals 753
40.2.3 Societal Risk 754
40.2.4 Environmental Risk 754
40.2.5 Financial Risks 755
40.3 Identification of Initiating Events 756
40.4 Cause Analysis 756
40.4.1 General 756
40.4.2 Fault Tree Analysis 756
40.4.3 Event Tree Analysis 757
40.5 Probability of Initiating Events 757
40.5.1 General 757
40.5.2 HOE Frequency 757
40.6 Causes of Risks 759
40.6.1 General 759
40.6.2 1
st
Party Individual Risk 760
40.6.3 Societal, Environmental and Material Loss Risk 760
40.7 Failure Probability Estimation Based on Qualitative Review and Databases 761
40.8 Failure Probability Estimation Based on Structural Reliability Methods ;... 764
40.8.1 General .' 764
40.8.2 Simplified Calculations of Reliability Index and Failure Probability 764
40.8.3 Strength/Resistance Models 765
40.8.4 Evaluation of Strength Uncertainties 765
40.9 Consequence Analysis 766
40.9.1 Consequence Modeling 766
40.9.2 Estimation of Failure Consequence 769
40.10 Example 1: Risk Analysis for a Subsea Gas Pipeline 771
40.10.1 General 771
40.10.2 Gas Releases 771
40.10.3 Individual Risk 773
40.10.4 Societal Risk 774
40.10.5 Environmental Risk 775
40.10.6 Risk of Material Loss 775
40.10.7 Risk Estimation '. 776
40.11 Example 2: Dropped Object Risk Analysis 777
40.11.1 General 777
40.11.2 Acceptable Risk Levels 777
40.11.3 Quantitative Cause Analysis.. 777
40.11.4 Results 779
40.11.5 Consequence Analysis 781
40.12 Example 3: Example Use of RBIM to Reduce Operation Costs 781
40.12.1 General 781
Contents xxvii
40.12.2 Inspection Frequency for Corroded Pipelines 781
40.12.3 Examples of Prioritising Tasks 784
40.13 References 785
Chapter 41 LCC Modeling as a Decision Making Tool in Pipeline Design 787
41.1 Introduction 787
41.1.1 General 787
41.1.2 Probabilistic vs. Deterministic LCC Models 787
41.1.3 Economic Value Analysis 788
41.2 Initial Cost 789
41.2.1 General 789
41.2.2 Management 790
41.2.3 Design/Engineering Services 791
41.2.4 Materials and Fabrication 792
41.2.5 Marine Operations 792
41.2.6 Operation 792
41.3 Financial Risk 792
41.3.1 General 792
41.3.2 Probability of Failure 792
41.3.3 Consequence 793
41.4 Time Value of Money 795
41.5 Fabrication Tolerance Example Using the Life-cycle Cost Model 795
41.5.1 General 795
41.5.2 Background 796
41.5.3 Step 1- Definition of Structure 796
41.5.4 Step 2- Quality Aspect Considered 796
41.5.5 Step 3-Failure Modes Considered 796
41.5.6 Step 4-Limit State Equations 796
41.5.7 Step 5- Definition of Parameters and Variables 799
41.5.8 Step 6- Reliability Analysis 802
41.5.9 Step 7-Cost of Consequence 803
41.5.10 Step 8- Calculation of Expected Costs 803
41.5.11 Step 9-Initial Cost 804
41.5.12 Step 10-Comparison of Life-cycle Costs 804
41.6 On-Bottom Stability Example 805
41.6.1 Introduction 805
41.6.2 Step 1- Definition of System 805
41.6.3 Step 2-Quality Aspects Considered 805
41.6.4 Step 3- Failure Modes 805
41.6.5 Step 4- Limit State Equations 806
41.6.6 Step 5- Definition of Variables and Parameters 806
41.6.7 Step 6- Reliability Analysis 806
41.6.8 Step 7- Cost of Consequence 806
41.6.9 Step 8- Expected Cost 806
41.6.10 Step 9- Initial Cost .,.: 807
41.6.11 Step 10-Comparison of Life-cycle Cost 807
41.7 References 807
SUBJECT INDEX 809