2011 05 19PhDdefense

High-resolution soil moisture mapping
by a proximal ground penetrating radar

A numerical, laboratory and field evaluation
| Minet Julien |
PhD public dissertation
19 May 2011
Thse prsente en vue de
lobtention du grade de
Docteur en Sciences
Agronomiques et Ingnierie
Biologique
Facult des Bioingnieurs
Earth and Life Institute
Environmental Sciences
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Earth and Life Institute Environmental Sciences
Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction
Soil moisture is a key variable of the water cycle.
http://www.southtippcoco.ie/water/watercycle.htm
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Soil moisture controls the land water and energy budgets.
NASA
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Soil moisture controls the partitioning of rainfall into
runoff and infiltration.
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Soil moisture controls plant growth and germination.
http://www.lookfordiagnosis.com
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How to measure soil moisture?
Reference method: soil sampling
V
W W
w
DRY WET
v
.
) (

=
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Invasive sensors: TDR, capacitance probes, ERT, neutron probes,
Tarrawarra experiments, 1995-1998, Australia
10.5 ha, 10 x 20 m, ~500 point measurements
Western & Grayson, WRR, 1998
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Remote sensing
SMOS: 50 km resolution,
2-3 days revisiting time
Soil moisture estimated
by SMOS, ESA, in April
2010 and April 2011 over
France
The driest conditions of
this spring 2011 are
revealed.
www.cesbio.ups-tlse.fr/SMOS_blog
APRIL 2010
APRIL 2011
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Intermediate support scale between remote and invasive sensors: proximal
sensing
GPR: many uses in civil engineering, archeology, soil surveys,
Ground penetrating radar
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What are the needs?
Spatial scale gap between remote sensing and invasive
sensors
Limitations of other existing GPR methods
(Vereecken et al., WRR, 2008)
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Objectives Objectives Objectives Objectives
1. Develop a new GPR technique for soil moisture
mapping
2. Study the spatiotemporal variability of soil moisture at
the field scale and its implications in hydrology
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Plan Plan Plan Plan
Presentation of the GPR method
GPR developments
1. Validation of the GPR method for soil moisture mapping
2. Soil moisture sensing by GPR in case of shallow layering
3. Soil moisture profiles determination by GPR
4. A frequency domain reflectometry (FDR) application
Soil moisture studies
5. Temporal stability of soil moisture patterns
6. Effect of soil moisture variability on runoff response
Conclusions & Perspectives
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Plan Plan Plan Plan
GPR developments
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GPR transmits a radar wave into the soil and records the backscattered signal
The electromagnetic response is function of the soil electrical properties: , &

water
>>
soil
&
air
GPR waves are mainly sensitive to soil moisture
GPR GPR GPR GPR method method method method: basic : basic : basic : basic principle principle principle principle
air air air air
soil soil soil soil , &
antenna antenna antenna antenna
, &
0
20
40
60
80
100
Water Soil particle Air
P
e
r
m
i
t
t
i
v
i
t
y
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GPR setup:
Vector Network Analyzer
Horn antenna
Frequency domain
200-2000 MHz
Off-ground monostatic GPR
GPR GPR GPR GPR method method method method: setup : setup : setup : setup
Field acquisition:
Motorized platform
DGPS + GPR + laptop
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GPR GPR GPR GPR method method method method: how : how : how : how it it it it works works works works? ?? ?
Soil dielectric
permittivity
Soil moisture point data
Antenna filtering
Measured signal
Filtered GPR signal
Petrophysical relationship (e.g., Topp)
GPR inversion
- 3D model of wave
propagation in a multi-
layered medium
- Optimization algorithm
Laboratory antenna
calibration
Soil moisture map
Interpolation (e.g., kriging)
measured
modeled
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Surface soil moisture: one-layered soil model inversion
GPR GPR GPR GPR method method method method: GPR data inversion : GPR data inversion : GPR data inversion : GPR data inversion
air air air air
layer 1 layer 1 layer 1 layer 1
h
a
Time-domain inversion focused on soil surface reflection peak
GPR antenna height h
a
and soil dielectric permittivity are retrieved.
Time- or frequency-domain inversions
Full-waveform inversions: Maximize the information retrieval capabilities
GPR MODEL
ITERATION
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GPR characteristics:
Support scale of ~1 m
Extent up to 10 ha
Spacing from 1 to several meters
> 1000 points/hour
Characterization depth of ~ 5 cm,
or more with multi-layered models
low frequency: avoid surface
roughness and vegetation < 5-10
cm
GPR GPR GPR GPR method method method method: : : : field field field field conditions conditions conditions conditions
Spacing
= 1m
Support=1m
Extent = 10 ha
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Plan Plan Plan Plan
GPR developments
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Is that GPR working in the field?
Inversion uncertainties (What is the precision?)
Repeatability (Can the measurements be repeated?)
Ground-truthing (What is the accuracy?)
1. Validation of the GPR method for soil moisture mapping 1. Validation of the GPR method for soil moisture mapping 1. Validation of the GPR method for soil moisture mapping 1. Validation of the GPR method for soil moisture mapping
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a aa a
i ii i
r rr r
The same field was
mapped 3 times within 3
hours.
Maps produced by
kriging of ~ 1400 points
Similar soil moisture
maps were obtained.
Minet et al., JH, submitted
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a aa a
i ii i
r rr r
Maps of inversion uncertainty

are low: 0.0039 m/m

are spatially and

temporally correlated.
It is precise
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a aa a
i ii i
r rr r
Maps of the difference in
interpolated values (z)
Average repetition error
of 0.0169 m/m
Measurements can be repeated
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a aa a
i ii i
r rr r
Fit: Ledieu et al. , JH, 1986
relationship:
RMSE of the fit is 0.0231
m/m in
V
20 volumetric measurements of soil moisture VS GPR-derived dielectric
permittivities
It can measure the real soil moisture
b a =
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Vertical soil moisture variations are occurring in natural environments,
due to:
evaporation
wetting front infiltration
pedogenetic processes

2. Soil moisture sensing by GPR in case of shallow layering 2. Soil moisture sensing by GPR in case of shallow layering 2. Soil moisture sensing by GPR in case of shallow layering 2. Soil moisture sensing by GPR in case of shallow layering
This causes two problems for soil moisture sensing by radar waves:
Interferences due to shallow layering in backscattered radar data
Shallow soil moisture (e.g., 0-5 cm) is not the soil moisture of interest
(e.g., 0-30 cm)
dry dry dry dry wet wet wet wet
How to deal with vertical soil moisture variations?
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2. Soil moisture sensing by GPR in case of shallow layering 2. Soil moisture sensing by GPR in case of shallow layering 2. Soil moisture sensing by GPR in case of shallow layering 2. Soil moisture sensing by GPR in case of shallow layering
air air air air
1
2
h
a
h
1
air air air air
h
a
Laboratory experiment: GPR measurements over two-layered media
GPR data inversion with one- and two-layered models
Minet et al., IEEE TGRS, 2010
Soil moisture
D
i
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c

p
e
r
m
i
t
t
i
v
i
t
y
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3. Soil moisture profiles determination by GPR 3. Soil moisture profiles determination by GPR 3. Soil moisture profiles determination by GPR 3. Soil moisture profiles determination by GPR
Two models used to invert field data:
2-layered model
continuous profile model (100 thin layers actually)
(z)
air air air air
1
2
air air air air
soil soil soil soil
4 parameters: h
a
,
1
, h
1
,
2 6 parameters: h
a
, h
1
,
1
,
2
, , n
0.5 1 1.5 2
x 10
-8
-2
0
2
t (s)
G
x
x

(
t
)

(
-
)

measured
2L modeled
vG modeled
h
a h
a
h
1
h
1
2
Can vertical soil moisture profiles be retrieved?
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3. Soil moisture profiles determination by GPR 3. Soil moisture profiles determination by GPR 3. Soil moisture profiles determination by GPR 3. Soil moisture profiles determination by GPR
Maps of surface and
subsurface soil moisture
are obtained.
3D-image of soil
moisture
2 3 4 5 6
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
D
e
p
t
h

[
m
]
r

van Genuchten
2-layered
1-layered
SURFACE SUBSURFACE
2
-
L
a
y
e
r
e
d
P
r
o
f
i
l
e
Minet et al., Geoderma, 2011
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4. A frequency domain 4. A frequency domain 4. A frequency domain 4. A frequency domain reflectometry reflectometry reflectometry reflectometry (FDR) application (FDR) application (FDR) application (FDR) application
A simple FDR probe calibration was developed.
FDR system could be modeled.
Can the electromagnetic modeling approach be applied to FDR?
Minet et al., VZJ, 2010
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Plan Plan Plan Plan
GPR developments
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5. Temporal stability of soil moisture patterns 5. Temporal stability of soil moisture patterns 5. Temporal stability of soil moisture patterns 5. Temporal stability of soil moisture patterns
Knowing temporal stability of soil
moisture can help for:
installing permanent sensors;
disaggregating coarse-scale soil
moisture data;
understanding hydrological
processes (infiltration, water uprising
and redistribution).
Soil moisture patterns are
determined by:
topography;
soil type;
solar exposition;

Do soil moisture patterns show temporal stability?
Minet et al., to be submitted
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Zones showing the field-
average 2% were
highlighted and intersected
between the dates.
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Some zones are persistently drier, and other wetter.
Temporal stability index: Mean difference to the field-average
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6. Effect of soil moisture variability on runoff response 6. Effect of soil moisture variability on runoff response 6. Effect of soil moisture variability on runoff response 6. Effect of soil moisture variability on runoff response
Soil moisture determines the partitioning of rainfall into infiltration and runoff
and is a key variable in hydrological modeling.
In hydrological modeling, spatial variability of soil moisture is often unknown at
high resolution.
How to disaggregate coarse-scale soil moisture into fine-scale soil moisture
patterns?
How spatial variability of soil moisture impacts on the simulation of
runoff at the field scale?
Minet et al., HESS, 2011
REMOTE SENSING
HYDROLOGICAL
MODELING
DISAGGREGATION
DOWNSCALING
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7 scenarios of antecedent soil moisture
10 field campaigns
Hydrological simulations with a single rainfall event
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Large differences between soil moisture scenarios
The Constant scenario gives a smaller runoff than the average of Random.
The best scenario among 10 fields is the Structured.
Time
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Plan Plan Plan Plan
GPR developments
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Validation in field conditions:
Accurate and precise method for soil moisture sensing (1.5% -2.5% soil
moisture error)
Faster and more practicable than other existing GPR methods
Limitations:
Effect of large surface roughness not well known
Measurements in presence of vegetation
What is exactly the depth of characterization?
Conclusions & Perspectives Conclusions & Perspectives Conclusions & Perspectives Conclusions & Perspectives
1. GPR developments 1. GPR developments 1. GPR developments 1. GPR developments
Is that GPR working in the field?
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Vertical soil moisture measurements:
Multi-layered models can deal with vertical soil
moisture variations.
A better assessment of depth of
characterization
Limitations:
Difficulties to perform ground-truth
measurements along a soil profile
Uncertainties in subsurface soil moisture
Limitation of the depth of penetration of the
radar waves
1. GPR developments 1. GPR developments 1. GPR developments 1. GPR developments
How to deal with vertical soil moisture variations?
2 3 4 5 6
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
D
e
p
t
h

[
m
]
r

van Genuchten
2-layered
1-layered
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Spatio-temporal soil moisture patterns:
These patterns inform about hydrological processes at the field scale.
Time-stable soil moisture areas can be revealed.
Limitations:
Limited time frame in which soil moisture was measured
Lack of soil data to explain soil moisture patterns
Lack of topographic contrast in the field
2. Soil moisture studies 2. Soil moisture studies 2. Soil moisture studies 2. Soil moisture studies
Do soil moisture patterns show temporal stability?
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Effect of antecedent soil moisture on runoff:
Large effect of soil moisture spatial variability
on simulated runoff
Best modeling scenario is to arrange soil
moisture according to the topography, tested
on 10 different fields
Limitations:
Lack of measured runoff data
Other spatial attributes could explain soil
moisture (e.g., soil data)
2. Soil moisture studies 2. Soil moisture studies 2. Soil moisture studies 2. Soil moisture studies
How spatial variability of soil moisture impacts on the
simulation of runoff at the field scale?
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Perspectives in soil moisture sensing Perspectives in soil moisture sensing Perspectives in soil moisture sensing Perspectives in soil moisture sensing
Digital soil mapping and precision agriculture
Time-lapse soil moisture data e.g., soil hydraulic properties
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Validation of remote sensing data
e.g., Lievens et al., submitted
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Combination with wireless soil moisture sensor networks
e.g., Bogena et al., VZJ, 2010
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Thanks Thanks Thanks Thanks
Research project:
funded by:
with:
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Merci au GERU! Merci au GERU! Merci au GERU! Merci au GERU!
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Line effect Line effect Line effect Line effect
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Depth of characterization Depth of characterization Depth of characterization Depth of characterization
air
layer 1
layer 2
air
layer 1
layer 2
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Parameters uncertainties Parameters uncertainties Parameters uncertainties Parameters uncertainties
Optimized parameter uncertainties: a probabilistic distribution is obtained
instead of a unique value.
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Soil moisture maps Soil moisture maps Soil moisture maps Soil moisture maps
sites.uclouvain.be/MappingResearch
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Remote sensing
Passive sensors (radiometers): > 5 km resolution
Active sensors (scatterometers, SAR): >5 m resolution
ERS/MetOp Soil Moisture, July 1999, TUWien
50 km resolution
ENVISAT-2-VV, 20/03/2009, Luxembourg,
from Lievens et al., submitted
12.5 m resolution
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Validation of the GPR method for soil moisture mapping Validation of the GPR method for soil moisture mapping Validation of the GPR method for soil moisture mapping Validation of the GPR method for soil moisture mapping
Three independent uncertainties assessment were performed.
Average uncertainties agree.
0.0231 m/m 0.0142 m/m 0.0169 m/m 0.0039 m/m
Comparison with
soil sampling
Deviation of the
difference
Repetitions
uncertainties
Inversion
uncertainties
GPR measurement
error
Interpolation error
Unknown/residual
error

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2011 05 19PhDdefense

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High-resolution soil moisture mapping

by a proximal ground penetrating radar

are low: 0.0039 m/m

are spatially and

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