Geng166 0031

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Geotechnical Engineering 166 February 2013 Issue GE1

Pages 3148 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/geng.9.00080
Paper 900080
Received 30/09/2009 Accepted 10/01/2011
Published online 09/02/2012
Keywords: embankments/eld testing & monitoring/geotechnical
engineering
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 166 Issue GE1
Stability for a high embankment founded
on sulde clay
Mu ller, Larsson and Westerberg
Stability for a high
embankment founded on
sulde clay
j
1
Rasmus Mu ller MSc, CEng
Senior Geotechnical Engineer, Tyre ns AB, Borla nge, Sweden
j
2
Stefan Larsson PhD, CEng
Professor, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
j
3
Bo Westerberg PhD, CEng
Assistant Professor, Lulea University of Technology, Lulea , Sweden
j
1
j
2
j
3
During staged construction of embankments on clay foundations, the undrained shear strength s
u
increases due to
consolidation during the construction process. The increase is usually related to the pre-consolidation pressure 9
p
by
way of the ratio s
u
=9
p
and is important when assessing the stability of an embankment. Properties controlling the
increase are usually associated with various unknowns that can be difcult to predict before construction. A case
involving a large embankment built on vertically drained sulde clay is presented. Empirical knowledge and
experience of similar constructions on sulde clay were limited, therefore there were uncertainties of the soildrain
interaction and how the soil would behave under the embankment load. A trial embankment was built to gather
knowledge and experience of this particular soil and the observational method was adopted. The study presents
how embankment stability was predicted at design stage and controlled during construction. It highlights the
importance and usefulness of obtaining measurement data from different types of measurements. Laboratory tests
and a large number of in situ tests at different stages during construction were performed to assess s
u
=9
p
ratios in
the sulde clay. The mean s
u
=9
p
ratio was estimated by means of statistical analysis to 0
.
25 for a large stress interval.
Notation
a constant dependent on soil type and failure mode
b constant dependent on soil type
C
c
compression index
c
v
coefcient of consolidation in the vertical direction
C
creep index
CPTu cone penetration test with pore pressure
measurement
CRS constant rate of strain oedometer test
CUK0DSS K
0
consolidated undrained direct simple shear test
FC fall cone test
FCOED fall cone test on oedometer consolidated samples
FS total factor of safety
FVS eld vane shear test
g unit weight
k
v
vertical hydraulic conductivity
OCR overconsolidation ratio
PVD prefabricated vertical drain
q
t
cone resistance measured by way of CPTu
SHANSEP stress history and normalised soil engineering
properties
s
u
corrected undrained shear strength
s
u,FC=FVS
undrained shear strength measured via fall cone or
eld vane test
USA undrained strength analysis
u pore water pressure
w
L
liquid limit
w
m
natural water content
9
p
pre-consolidation pressure
v
total vertical stress
9
v
effective vertical stress
j9 angle of shearing resistance
1. Introduction
During construction of a staged embankment founded on clay the
drainage conditions can be classied as partly drained (Ladd,
1991). The weight of the embankment induces positive excess
pore pressures, and consolidation (increase in effective stresses)
is ongoing. If a stability analysis is performed under these
conditions, an analysis in terms of total stresses is usually
preferable (more simple) over an effective stress analysis (Lacasse
et al., 1977; Lambe and Whitman, 1979; Leroueil et al., 2001;
31
Wood, 1990). An effective stress analysis requires accurate
predictions of the pore pressure development in the design phase
and very careful control of the development during construction.
Furthermore, an effective stress analysis may overpredict the total
factor of safety (FS). Several recently published studies have
adopted total stress analyses to evaluate stability during staged
construction (e.g. Shibuya et al., 2008; Watabe et al., 2002). A
total stress analysis based on the initial undrained shear strength
s
u0
in the clay would in most cases be conservative (i.e. lead to
more expensive measures to achieve the required degree of
stability). It is therefore preferable to utilise the increase in s
u
that occurs owing to consolidation and effective stress increase
during construction, which can be done by way of an undrained
strength analysis (USA) (Ladd, 1991). The basic components of a
USA involve the following principal steps
(a) evaluation of the stress history of the soil in terms of initial
in situ effective stress 9
v0
and pre-consolidation stress 9
p0
(b) estimation of the changes in stresses imposed by the proposed
loadings by way of consolidation analyses
(c) laboratory tests to evaluate s
u
at different consolidation
stresses s
u
=9
p
(d) stability analyses using s
u
proles calculated in step (c).
In order to full step (c) above, the use of K
0
consolidated
undrained active and passive triaxial tests and direct simple shear
tests is suggested (Ladd, 1991). These tests should be conducted
by way of either the recompression technique (Bjerrum, 1973) or
the stress history and normalised soil engineering properties
(SHANSEP) technique (Jamiolkowski et al., 1985; Ladd and
Foott, 1974). The recompression technique means consolidating
the samples to 9
v0
before shearing. The SHANSEP technique
essentially requires consolidating the soil samples to stresses well
beyond 9
p0
and then unloading them to various overconsolidation
ratios (OCR 9
p
=9
v
) before shearing. The limited applicability
of the SHANSEP technique, owing to alteration of the soil
structure, has been the subject of discussion in several studies
(Ladd, 1991; Mesri, 1975; Tavenas and Leroueil, 1980). In
Sweden the recompression technique is normally adopted in order
to avoid destructuring of the clay (Lofroth, 2008; Westerberg,
1999).
It is common to relate s
u
to 9
v
and OCR by using the following
constitutive relationship (Ladd and Foott, 1974; Roscoe and
Burland, 1968; Schoeld and Wroth, 1968)
s
u
=9
v
a OCR
b
1:
where a is dependent on the type of soil and the failure mode
(triaxial compression, direct shear or triaxial extension) and b is
dependent on the type of soil. Typical values of b range from 0
.
7
to 0
.
9 with 0
.
8 being a reasonable estimate for most soils
(Larsson et al., 2007a). Any loading and subsequent consolidation
leading to a stress state where 9
v
> 9
p0
results in a normally
consolidated stress state in the clay where 9
v
9
p
: Equation 1
can then be rewritten as
s
u
=9
p
a 2:
For classic limit equilibrium analysis of short-term stability of
embankments, direct simple shear (DSS) tests are suggested as the
most relevant test; these simulate the behaviour around a postulated
failure surface most closely (Wroth, 1984). Several researchers
state that peak strengths from DSS tests provide reasonable
estimates of the average undrained strength ratio (s
u
=9
p
) along
potential failure surfaces (Ladd, 1991; Larsson, 1980). This
assumption implies a constant value of a for a certain soil. Values of
a ranging from 0
.
15 to 0
.
50 have been suggested for different types
of soils in numerous studies (e.g. Chung et al., 2007; Jardine and
Hight, 1987; Karlsson and Viberg, 1967; Kim et al., 2009; Ladd,
1991; Larsson, 1980; Mayne, 1980; Mayne and Mitchell, 1988;
Nicholson and Jardine, 1981; Shibuya et al., 2008; Suzuki and
Yasuhara, 2007; Tanaka, 1994; Watabe et al., 2002). From these
studies it can be concluded that the s
u
=9
p
ratio varies with soil type.
There is usually scatter in obtained values from either in situ tests or
laboratory tests and different test methods in eld or laboratory
might render different values. An average value of a 0
:
22 is
suggested for inorganic clays (Jardine and Hight, 1987; Ladd, 1991;
Larsson, 1980, Mayne, 1980) and a 0
:
25 for organic clays and
silts (Jardine and Hight, 1987; Ladd, 1991; Larsson, 1980).
Stability analyses, according to the USA methodology used for
designing embankments built using staged construction methods,
require reliable predictions of s
u
at the various stages. The
predictions involve estimations of s
u
=9
p
, 9
v
and 9
p
based on
consolidation analyses. These predictions and consolidation ana-
lyses are, however, associated with uncertainties, thus results
from investigations (i.e. eld measurements and laboratory tests)
at a specic site should preferably be supported by experience
from similar projects involving similar ground conditions and
empirical knowledge about the behaviour of the soil in question.
This paper presents how stability during construction was pre-
dicted and controlled in a project involving a large embankment
built on vertically drained sulde clay in Sweden. USAs based on
predicted s
u
proles were used to calculate FS at critical stages of
construction of the embankment. Previous experience of construc-
tion of large embankments on sulde clay and empirical know-
ledge related to the interaction between vertical drains and this
type of soil was limited. These shortcomings were compensated
for within the design and construction phases by using information
gathered from a trial embankment and the use of the observational
method. Predictions of s
u
used in stability calculations in the
design phase were compared with measurements during construc-
tion. Furthermore, the paper aims at increasing understanding of
the behaviour of sulde clay with the help of the relationship
s
u
=9
p
obtained from laboratory tests and evaluated from in situ
measurements of s
u
and pore water pressure u during construction.
32
on sulde clay
2. Description of the project
The Veda embankment was built to navigate over an approximately
300 m wide valley situated near the river A
ngermanalven, 55 km
north of the city of Sundsvall in Sweden (Figure 1(a)). This section
is a part of the A
dalsbanan railway line which connects the East

coast railway line with the recently built Botnia line along the north-
eastern coast of Sweden. The subsoil strata in the valley generally
consist of soft sediments of silt, clay (partly sulde clay) and sand.
The embankment was made of crushed rock ll (mainly granite and
gneiss) derived from a nearby tunnelling project, and rises to a
height 16 mabove the original ground surface (Figure 1(b)).
Sulde soils mostly occur in tropical areas around the world.
The occurrence of sulde soils in Europe is limited, apart from
the coastal areas around the Gulf of Bothnia, where the
embankment is situated (Figure 1(a)). Common to all sulde
soils is the presence of sulde in the form of pyrite (FeS
2
) and
iron monosulde (FeS). The sulde soils that are found in
Sweden around the Gulf of Bothnia usually have a relatively
high organic content as they were formed as organic matter
degraded in ne-grained sediments under anaerobic conditions
(Larsson et al., 2007b). Typical ranges for properties of these
sulde soils are total sulfur content of 0
.
12%, total iron
content of 25%, and organic content of 27% of dry weight
(Westerberg and Andersson, 2009). If the sulde soil is sub-
jected to oxygen (e.g. excavated), there can be negative environ-
mental impacts such as lowering of pH in ground- or surface
water and leaching of metal ions (Macsik, 1999). In Sweden
there are restrictions regarding the handling of sulde soils, and
excavation should be avoided.
The embankment load imposes a considerable stress increase in
the soil, which in turn leads to deformation and stability
problems. In order to address the stability issues, support berms
consisting of moraine ll were constructed and the embankment
was built using staged construction, making it possible to account
for the increase in s
u
in the clay due to consolidation effects.
Prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) were installed in order to
accelerate consolidation. Recently published studies present re-
sults from in situ measurements of the s
u
increase in vertically
drained clay during staged construction of embankments and lls
during land reclamation (Bergado et al., 2002; Bo et al., 2007;
Lo et al., 2008; Long and ORiordan, 2001; Suzuki and Yasuhara,
2007). However, as experience of embankments of this particular
magnitude on sulde clay is limited, uncertainty about strength,
deformation and consolidation characteristics of the subsoil
prevailed. Generally, pilot tests are recommended owing to the
complexity and difculty in predicting the parameters required to
make an accurate design of ground improvement works involving
PVDs (Hansbo, 1997). In the present case a trial embankment
was built and instrumented 1 year before the beginning of the
main embankment works. The design and construction processes
were performed according to the observational method (Peck,
1969). Various parameters were monitored during construction of
the embankment, such as s
u
from eld vane shear (FVS) tests
and from cone penetration tests (CPTu), and compared with
design assumptions and predictions.
The geotechnical design requirements issued by the client
concerning stability stated that the FS was to exceed 1
.
5 in both
the short term (during construction) and the long term. In the
present case the critical phase was the short-term situation or, in
other words, the partially drained situation (i.e. partially consoli-
dated), when the consolidation process was ongoing.
N
o
r
w
a
y
S
w
e
d
e
n
Kalix
Location of
sulfide soils
F
i
n
l
a
n
d
Ume
B
o
t
h
n
i
a
n
B
a
y
Veda
Embankment
Sundsvall
Stockholm
Gteborg
0 250 km 500 km
(a)
25
20
15
10
5
0
5
10
15
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
:

m
0 100 200 300 400
Length: m
(b)
Crest of embankment
Original ground surface
S
e
c
t
i
o
n

A
S
e
c
t
i
o
n

B
S
e
c
t
i
o
n

C
Silty clay
Sulfide clay
Glacial clay
Sand
Moraine
Figure 1. Veda area: (a) location plan (partly from Schwab, 1976);
(b) elevation through centre of embankment
33
on sulde clay
3. Initial ground conditions
The ground surface in the valley was situated about 44
.
5 m
above sea level (A
ngermanalven river) near the centre of the

embankment. A deposit of clay, silt and sand up to 16 m thick
was present in the bottom of the valley. The sediments overlaid a
rm moraine (Figure 1(b)). The upper 12 m consisted of silty
clay, followed by an approximately 3
.
5 m thick layer of post-
glacial sulde clay, which in turn overlaid 35 m of glacial clay
with silt and sand layers. Near hydrostatic pore-water pressures
prevailed corresponding to a water table situated near the ground
surface.
Site investigations in the area consisted of probing, mainly by
way of CPTu, sampling and pore pressure measurements. Labora-
tory tests on undisturbed samples of clay taken from various
depths were also carried out at six locations. Extractions were
made using the Swedish standard piston sampler (SIS, 2007),
pushing the clay sample into 170 mm long plastic tubes with an
inner diameter of 50 mm. Index properties such as liquid limit
w
L
, natural water content w
n
and total unit weight were
determined and s
u
was evaluated by fall cone (FC) tests.
Sedimentation analyses were also performed on samples of the
sulde soil, indicating clay contents (by total weight) of 2732%
and silt contents of 6065%. Total sulfur, iron and organic
contents (by total dry weight) were determined as 0
.
30
.
4%,
3
.
13
.
7% and 2
.
82
.
9% respectively. These ranges fall well into
those presented as typical ranges for sulde soils, and the soil
was dened as sulde clay. Furthermore, from samples taken at
two locations, compression index C
c
, creep index C
, vertical
hydraulic conductivity k
v
, coefcient of consolidation in the
vertical direction c
v
and 9
p
of the clay were determined by way
of constant rate of strain (CRS) consolidation tests and standard
incremental load oedometer tests. Evaluations of s
u
at different
9
p
were made by FC tests, performed on samples which had
undergone incremental load oedometer tests (FCOED). The
undrained shear strength in the clay was also determined in situ
by way of FVS and evaluated from CPTu.
According to Swedish practice, values of undrained shear strength
in clays evaluated from FC and FVS tests s
u,FC=FVS
or CPTu
should be corrected by empirical relations when used for stability
calculations.
The corrected value of s
u
in overconsolidated clay classied as
normal inorganic Swedish clay is calculated from FC or FVS
tests as (Larsson and A
hnberg, 2005; Larsson et al., 2007a)

s
u
s
u,FC=FVS
43
w
L

0
:
45
OCR
1
:
3

0
:
15
3:
From CPTu, s
u
is calculated as (Larsson and A
hnberg, 2005;
Larsson et al., 2007a)
s
u

q
t
v0
13
:
4 0
:
0665w
L
OCR
1
:
3

0
:
2
4:
When the clay is classied as sulde clay, the corrected value s
u
is calculated from FC or FVS tests independent of consolidation
status as (Larsson et al., 2007b)
s
u
s
u,FC=FVS
30
:
65
5:
From CPTu, s
u
is calculated as (Larsson et al., 2007b)
s
u

q
t
v0
20
OCR
1
:
3

0
:
2
6:
For clays with OCR ,1
.
3, the last expression in parentheses in
Equations 3, 4 and 6 should be set equal to 1
.
0. In this study
clays above elevation +4 m and below 1
.
5 m related to the sea
level, are classied as normal inorganic Swedish clay and
between +2 m and 1
.
5 m as sulde clay (Figure 1(b)).
A selection of soil properties along with a typical result from a
CPTu in the area is presented in Figure 2. Proles showing the
measured initial pore water pressure u
0
, evaluated 9
v0
and 9
p0
are also shown. The initial overconsolidation ratio OCR
0
was
around 5 at the top of the clay deposit and around 1
.
3 at the
bottom. In the sulde clay, C
c
, C
, w
L
and w
n
were signicantly
higher while and k
v
were lower compared to the upper silty
clay and the bottom glacial clay. As seen in Figure 2, the ratio
C
=C
c
was in the order of 0
.
060
.
08 in the sulde clay. Previous
studies (Mesri and Godlewski, 1977; Mesri et al., 1994) have
presented ratios in the order of 0
.
050
.
06. Hence, the evaluated
ratios were a little higher in the sulde clay at Veda than the
ndings for other organic clays presented in the aforementioned
studies.
Typical values of c
v
were in the range 0
.
951
.
4 m
2
/year over the
relevant stress range (50250 kPa).
There was a relatively large scatter in s
u
obtained from laboratory
FC tests and in situ FVS and CPTu tests. The coefcient of
variation was 2030% in the sulde clay, in line with the ndings
of Larsson et al. (2007b), and 2070% in the upper silty clay and
the bottom glacial clay. The large scatter in the upper silty clay
and the bottom glacial clay presumably arose from the inhomo-
geneities due to silt and sand layers. Unfortunately, more
sophisticated studies of s
u
, for example by way of triaxial tests or
DSS tests, were not carried out at this stage of the project.
34
on sulde clay
4. The trial embankment
4.1 Purpose of the trial embankment
Construction of the trial embankment served the purpose of
increasing understanding of strength and deformation properties
in the soil concerning different aspects, such as the ratio s
u
=9
p
and the consolidation rate in the different clay layers. Further-
more, the trial embankment enabled testing of the equipment and
techniques proposed for measurements of the planned Veda
embankment.
4.2 Description of the trial embankment
In November 2005, PVDs in a triangular pattern with 1
.
07 m
spacing and instrumentation for the trial embankment were
installed. Drains of the brand Membradrain MD 7007, with a
cross-section of 100 mm 3 3 mm, lter permittivity of 0
.
3 s
1
and a discharge capacity larger than 3 m
3
/day, were used. The
crest of the trial embankment was situated about 30 m beside the
crest of the Veda embankment, made of crushed rock material
and constructed in two stages. The length and height were 50 m
and 6
.
7 m respectively (Figure 3).
1
0
4
E l e v a t i o n : m
4
8
1
2
C
o
r
e

r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
,
:

M
P
a
q
c
S
i
l
t
y
c
l
a
y
S
u
l
f
i
d
e
c
l
a
y
G
l
a
c
i
a
l
c
l
a
y
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
s
u
0
:

k
P
a
F
V
S
F
C
C
P
T
M
e
a
n
D
e
s
i
g
n
2
0
4
0
6
0
8
0
w
w
n
L
a
n
d
:

%
w
n
w
L
M
e
a
n
w
n
M
e
a
n
w
L
1
5
1
7
1
9
2
1
:

k
N
/
m
3
M
e
a
n
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
k
v
1
0
:

m
/
s

(
1
)
k
v
M
e
a
n
k
v
0
2
0
4
0
6
0
8
0
1
0
0
u
0
v
0
a
n
d
a
n
d
p
0
:

k
P
a
p
u
0
v
0
p
0
0
0
2
0
4
0
6
0
8
1
0
C
c
C
c
M
e
a
n
C
c
0
0
0
2
0
0
4
0
0
6
0
0
8
0
1
0
C
M
e
a
n
C
F
i
g
u
r
e
2
.
S
o
i
l
p
r
o
l
e
a
n
d
s
e
l
e
c
t
e
d
s
o
i
l
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
i
e
s
a
t
t
h
e
s
i
t
e
b
e
f
o
r
e
c
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n
s
t
a
r
t
e
d
Piezometers
Concrete well
Settlement plate
Inclinometers
T1 T2
0 10 20
Length: m
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
1
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
2
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
3
(a)
Piezo-
meters
Berm
Trial
embankment
Concrete
well
Settlement plates
Inclinometers
Berm
PVDs c/c 107 m
15
10
5
0
5
10
15
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
:

m
20 0 20
Length from centreline: m
(b)
Moraine
Sand
Glacial clay
Sulfide clay
Silty clay
Figure 3. Trial embankment: (a) layout plan; (b) cross-section
35
on sulde clay
4.3 Measurements and results from the trial
embankment
Measurements of settlements, horizontal deformation and pore
pressure development were performed in three sections and
continued for 1 year, until the works with the Veda embankment
started in December 2006. Figure 4 illustrates the staged construc-
tion sequence and corresponding measured excess pore pressures
u-excess at different elevations in the soil. Corresponding meas-
urements from different control sections showed good agreement,
therefore mean values are presented. Pore pressure measurements
were conducted with the use of BAT IS piezometers.
Two concrete wells (1
.
0 m in diameter), T1 and T2, were installed
through the embankment to enable measurements of s
u
during
construction. In situ tests (FVS and CPTu) were made on two
occasions, after 50 days and 140 days. After 220 days, undis-
turbed sampling of the clay using the Swedish standard piston
sampler (SIS, 2007) and subsequent K
0
consolidated undrained
direct simple shear tests (CUK0DSS) were performed. The load
from the Veda embankment was expected to induce normally
consolidated stress states at the stages when stability was to be
analysed, that is 9
v
. 9
p0
. Hence, evaluation of s
u
at stresses
above 9
p0
and with OCR 1 was of interest. Table 1 presents
the evaluated in situ vertical effective stress at the time of
sampling 9
v,220
, the consolidation stresses used in the tests
9
p,DSS
, the evaluated s
u
values and the obtained s
u
=9
p
ratios. The
s
u
proles shown in Figure 5(a) are based on measurements made
50 and 140 days after the beginning of the lling operations,
together with the evaluated mean values from initial tests at the
location of the trial embankment. The proles were evaluated
based on mean values from tests in wells T1 and T2. Figures 5(b)
and 5(c) show measured u, evaluated 9
v
and 9
p
proles
representing the conditions after 50, 140 and 220 days respec-
tively. The 9
v
proles were calculated based on initial stress
conditions, measured u proles and the total stresses
v
induced
by the embankment ll ( 18 kN/m
3
). It can be seen that parts
of the curves representing 9
v
after 50 and 140 days indicate areas
where the clay was still somewhat overconsolidated. When s
u
=9
p
ratios were evaluated this was taken into account, assigning
b 0
:
8 in Equation 1 according to the recommendations given
by Larsson et al. (2007a). Evaluated s
u
=9
p
ratios obtained at
different times and from different test methods ranged from about
0
.
2 to 0
.
45 (Figure 6). Mean values in the sulde clay were
approximately 0
.
29 and in the rest of the clay approximately
0
.
33. The coefcient of variation ranged from 0
.
09 to 0
.
25 in the
sulde clay and 0
.
14 to 0
.
20 in the other clay layers. Values
chosen for design of the Veda embankment are also presented.
Measurements of ground surface settlements near the crest of the
trial embankment are presented in Figure 7(a). The settlement
plates used were placed on a sand blanket and made of square
steel plates (0
.
5 m 30
.
5 m) with a steel rod welded to the centre
of the plates. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tubes were used to protect
the steel rods from the rock ll. The tips of the rods were
monitored over time by surveying with geodetic total station. In
Figure 7(b), horizontal displacements at different elevations for a
selection of time steps are shown. After 1 year, when measure-
ments were interrupted, the crest settlements were in the order of
1
.
01
.
2 m. Measurement of horizontal displacements was inter-
rupted after about 200 days. At that time, the maximum
horizontal displacement was about 0
.
17 m and located in the
sulde clay layer.
4.4 Discussion and conclusions from the trial
embankment
The dissipation of u-excess, that is the consolidation rate, was
much slower in the sulde clay than in the rest of the clay deposit
(Figures 4 and 5(b)). This had an inuence on the design of the
PVDs for the Veda embankment, as discussed by Muller and
Larsson (2008). The difference in consolidation rate highly inu-
enced the increase in 9
v
(and consequently 9
p
). Hence, the rate
of increase of s
u
in the sulde clay was expected to be lower than
in the silty clay and glacial clay (c.f. Figure 5(a)). As shown in
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
F
i
l
l

h
e
i
g
h
t
:

m
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
u
-
e
x
c
e
s
s
:

k
P
a
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time: days
Load sequence
u-excess at 1 m
u-excess at 0 m
u-excess at 1 m
u-excess at 3 m
Figure 4. Trial embankment: load sequence and measured
u-excess with respect to time
Elevation:
m
9
v,220
:
kPa
9
p,DSS
:
kPa
s
u
:
kPa
s
u
=9
p,DSS
+1 99 120 51
.
7 0
.
43
+1 99 180 64
.
2 0
.
36
0 63 80 25
.
7 0
.
32
0 63 120 37
.
0 0
.
31
0 63 180 41
.
4 0
.
23
1 113 130 33
.
3 0
.
26
1 113 180 37
.
7 0
.
21
3 169 160 61
.
2 0
.
38
3 169 220 73
.
2 0
.
33
Table 1. K
0
consolidated undrained direct simple shear test
(CUK0DSS) results
36
on sulde clay
Figure 5(a), in tests performed after 50 days in the part of the
clay which was still overconsolidated (i.e. 9
p
9
p0
), the s
u
increase was negligible. According to the pore pressure measure-
ments after 140 days, the clay between elevations +0
.
5 and
0
.
5 m should still be somewhat overconsolidated, in other words
a negligible s
u
increase. However, the measurements of s
u
at this
point in time indicated an increase of around 5 kPa (about 30%).
This raised questions regarding the following.
(a) The accuracy of the pore pressure measurements since there
was uncertainty related to the exact positions of the
instruments relative to the drains. Did the measured u
represent the average value between adjacent drains?
(b) The accuracy of the in situ measurements of s
u
: Were the
techniques suitable and were measurements adequately
corrected? Were these instruments suitably positioned for
measurements of average values?
It was concluded that measurements of representative values from
neither piezometers nor CPTu or FVS tests could be expected
from single measurements. Parallel measurements of the same
quantity (u or s
u
), at the same depth but at different locations,
should provide the basis for evaluations of average values.
Furthermore, evaluations of s
u
from measurements by CPTu and
FVS tests should be conducted in parallel. This would enable
estimations of s
u
proles during construction of the Veda
embankment from three independent sources, CPTu tests, FVS
tests and from pore pressure measurements together with estima-
0 50 100 150 200
v
and
p
: kPa
v0
p0
v
50 days
p
50 days
v
140 days
p
140 days
v
220 days
(c)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
s
u
: kPa
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
:

m
Initial mean
CPT 50 days
FVS 50 days
CPT 140 days
FVS 140 days
(a)
0 40 80 120 160
u: kPa
u
0
u 50 days
u 140 days
u 220 days
(b)
Figure 5. Trial embankment, evaluated proles: (a) s
u
; (b) u;
(c) 9
v
and 9
p
0 01 02 03 04 05
s
u p
/
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
:

m
FVS
CPTu
CUK0DSS
FCOED
Mean
Design
Figure 6. Trial embankment: evaluated s
u
=9
p
ratio plotted against
depth
37
on sulde clay
tions of the induced stresses from the embankment and prognoses
of the s
u
=9
p
ratios.
The choice of design values of s
u
for the stability analyses of the
Veda embankment was uncertain as the scatter in the evaluated
s
u
=9
p
ratios was quite large. There were no clear trends between
different testing methods, thus no method was regarded as more
reliable than any other. It should be noted that Larsson et al.
(2007b) suggest CPTu as being more reliable than FVS tests. Due
to the uncertainties and considering the suggestions by Larsson
(1980), Jardine and Hight (1987) and Ladd (1991), design values
were not strictly evaluated from the mean values (Figure 6).
Values of s
u
=9
p
ratios corresponding to a cautious estimate were
employed as design values in the stability analyses performed
during the design phase.
5. Preconstruction design of the Veda
embankment
The Veda embankment was designed to be built in seven stages
according to Figure 8. The seventh stage represented unloading
of the surcharge. PVDs installed in a triangular pattern with a
spacing of 0
.
8 m and large moraine support berms were planned.
The drains were of the same brand as those used at the trial
embankment. Figure 9 presents a layout plan and a typical section
of the embankment.
5.1 Preconstruction stability analysis
Construction works were intended to proceed continuously until
completion of stage 5 (Figure 8). Thereafter a 6-month-long
pause was scheduled before applying the surcharge (stage 6). The
most critical phases regarding stability in this project were
identied when constructing stage 5 and when applying the
surcharge in stage 6.
The geometrical conditions concerning the berm length in com-
parison with the thickness of the clay deposit (Figure 9), and the
occurrence of the signicantly weaker sulde clay layer compared
to the rest of the soil, rendered non-circular slip surfaces with a
signicant horizontal translation being least stable. As a result, a
major part of the critical slip surfaces was located beneath the
berms, that is corresponding to a direct simple shear state. In
areas close to the centre of the embankment, s
u
corresponding to
triaxial compression would have been more appropriate due to
the stress rotation. However, s
u
corresponding to triaxial com-
pression is generally signicantly larger than s
u
corresponding to
direct simple shearing (e.g. Ladd, 1991). Use of predicted vertical
effective stresses and values of s
u
=9
p
corresponding to direct
simple shearing were considered as reasonable and conservative
simplications in this case. In the stability analyses, s
u
proles
representing the initial conditions (s
u0
) were used in the unim-
proved part of the soil and s
u
proles corresponding to predicted
design conditions were used where PVDs were installed. Analys-
ing stage 6, two different s
u
proles were used in the PVD
improved area as the effective stresses were predicted to be
higher below the embankment compared to the support berms,
given the differences in ll heights. The appearance and location
of the critical slip surface representing analyses for stages 5 and
6 is presented in Figure 10. The rock ll embankment and the
moraine support berms were dened as granular materials with
an angle of shearing resistance, j9 348, corresponding to the
0 100 200 300 400
Time: days
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
C
r
e
s
t

s
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t
:

m
m
Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
(a)
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
:

m
Section 1, 11 days
Section 1, 56 days
Section 1, 73 days
Section 1, 197 days
Section 3, 11 days
Section 3, 56 days
Section 3, 73 days
Section 3, 197 days
0 40 80 120 160
Horizontal displacement: mm
(b)
Figure 7. Trial embankment: (a) measured settlements and
(b) measured horizontal displacements
38
on sulde clay
estimated constant voids values. The unit weights of the rock ll
and berm were 18 kN/m
3
, according to the design code
(Swedish Rail Administration, 2009).
Stability analyses were carried out as analytical calculations by
way of the MorgernsternPrice limit equilibrium method, in the
computer program Beast (Frimann-Clausen, 2003). USAs were
employed to account for the increase in s
u
owing to consolidation
(Ladd, 1991). The vertical effective stress increases in the soil at
different stages of the construction process were evaluated by
consolidation analyses according to the Swedish design guide for
vertical drains (Swedish Road Administration, 1989), based on
the approach presented by Hansbo (1981). Experiences gained
from measurements at the trial embankment were also consid-
ered. The stability analysis for stage 5 was based on the
predictions of s
u
after stage 3 (as stages 4 and 5 were intended to
take place continuously). Similarly, stage 6 was based on the
predictions of s
u
after stage 5 and 6 months consolidation time.
The stresses induced by the loading and consolidation process
were expected to render 9
v
. 9
p0
at both stage 5 and 6 through-
out the whole clay deposit. Based on these analyses and the
design s
u
=9
p
values (Figure 6), predicted s
u
proles were
obtained (Figure 11). Calculations resulted in FS 1
.
54 and
FS 1
.
53 for stages 5 and 6 respectively, the size and shape of
the critical slip surface presented in Figure 10 was valid for both
stages. Corresponding calculations, without accounting for the s
u
increase, resulted in FS 1
.
33 and FS 1
.
02.
A simple parametric study was also performed to check the
sensitivity of the stability to variations in the s
u
=9
p
values, tan j9
in the rock ll, in the rock ll and the initial s
u0
: The
parametric study was based on normalised values, meaning the
use of the evaluated mean s
u
=9
p
values (Figure 6),
tan j9 0
:
675 (348), 18 kN/m
3
and the mean s
u0
prole
(Figure 2). The parameters were varied one at a time by
multipliers of 0
.
8, 0
.
9, 1
.
0, 1
.
1 and 1
.
2. Results from the
parametric study are presented in Figure 12, where calculated FS
with different multipliers divided by FS
norm
calculated with
values corresponding to the norm analysis (FS=FS
norm
) are
shown. The calculated FS was most sensitive to variations in in
the rock ll (10:8) meaning that an increase (or decrease) in of
10% would render approximately 8% lower (or higher) calculated
FS. The second most inuential parameter was the s
u
=9
p
ratio
(10:6). The stability was least sensitive to variations in tan j9
(10:2) and s
u0
(10:2).
6. Construction of the Veda embankment
6.1 Changes in staged construction sequence
Works began in December 2006 when a 0
.
5 m thick drainage
layer of sand was applied and PVDs installed. Day 0 corresponds
to the start of the actual lling works (stage 1) on 13 March
2007. The load sequence was altered somewhat from the design
(Figure 8). This inuenced the stability in mainly two ways: the
higher surcharge (approximately 1 m) introduced a slightly larger
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
F
i
l
l

h
e
i
g
h
t
:

m
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Time: days
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
d
-
e
x
c
e
s
s
:

k
P
a
u
Stage 6
Stage 5
Stage 4
Stage 3
Stage 2
Stage 1
Load sequence design
Load sequence embankment
Load sequence berm
u-excess at 25
u-excess at 10
u-excess at 00
u-excess at 05
u-excess at 20
Figure 8. Veda embankment: loading sequence and measured
u-excess with respect to time
39
on sulde clay
load, and a rest period (approximately 2 months) initiated
between stages 4 and 5 led to slightly different stress conditions
compared with the intended design. Allowance of a rest period
between stages 4 and 5 enabled some consolidation to take place,
which was accounted for when the stability for stage 5 was
checked during construction.
6.2 Measurements
Regarding the stability of the embankment, the key quantities
were in the rock ll and the s
u
=9
p
ratio in the clay. An
investigation of existing methods to measure the density or unit
weight in coarse rock ll material was undertaken. However,
owing to time constraints, no suitable method for use in the
present case was found. This quantity was therefore not measured
during the construction works.
Pore pressures were measured continuously throughout the con-
struction process at different levels in the soil (Figure 8). Figures
13(a)13(d) show the evaluated u proles and 9
v
proles under
the embankment and under the berm. The consolidation process
had produced normally consolidated conditions, that is 9
v
9
p
,
for the time steps presented (except after 70 days under the
Trial embankment
100
200
300
A1 B1
C1
A2
B2
C2
Piezometers
Concrete well
Settlement plate
Settlement tube
Inclinometers
0 50 100
Length: m
(a)
25
20
15
10
5
0
5
10
15
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
:

m
20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
S.P.: Settlement plate
C.W.: Concrete well
INC.: Inclinometers
S.T.: Settlement tube
Drainage (sand)
Berm (moraine)
S.T.
S.P.
C.W. S.P.
Stage 3
Stage 2
Stage 1
Embankment (rock fill)
Preloading (rock fill)
INC.
C.W.
S.P.
S.P.
Moraine
Sand Piezometers
Piezometers
Sulfide clay
Glacial clay
Silty clay
(b)
Stage 6
Stage 5
Stage 4
Stage 3
Stage 2
Stage 1
PVD S c/c 08 m
Figure 9. Veda embankment: (a) layout plan; (b) cross-section
40
on sulde clay
embankment). The predicted (design) u proles and 9
v
proles at
stages 5 and 6 are also presented for comparison. For stage 5, it
should be noted that the staged construction sequence was altered
(as described above). The total stresses in the soil were different
when measurements were made (after stage 4) when compared
with the predictions (after stage 3). From the measured u and
calculated
v
(based on the initial conditions and the prevailing
ll height), proles of 9
v
were evaluated. The effect of load
spreading with respect to the limited embankment width and the
limited clay depth was analysed by numerical modelling using a
simple linear-elastic material model, and considered in the
determination of
v
.
The undrained shear strength s
u
in the clay was measured by
CPTu and FVS tests in six wells (Figure 9) at the critical
phases during the staged construction process that is, after
130 days (stage 5) and 265 days (stage 6). In addition, FVS
tests were performed after 70 days in the six wells and CPTu
tests were performed after 590 days in the three wells under the
berm (A2, B2 and C2). Evaluated s
u
from tests under the
25
20
15
10
5
0
5
10
15
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
:

m
20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Initial profile s
u
Critical slip surface for analysis of
stage 5 and of stage 6
and GW surface
34
18 kN/m

3
34
18 kN/m

3
Preloading
(rock fill)
Moraine
Sand PVDs c/c 08 m
Sulfide clay
Glacial clay
Silty clay
s
u
profiles with
regard to
consolidation
Figure 10. Veda embankment: example of a slip surface analysis,
showing the critical slip surface for stage 5 and stage 6
0 20 40 60 80 100
s
u
: kPa
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
:

m Initial
Stage 5
(embankment and berm)
Stage 6 ( ) embankment
Stage 6 (berm)
Figure 11. Veda embankment: predicted undrained shear
strength s
u
plotted against depth for different stages during
construction
08 09 10 11 12
Multiplier
12
11
10
09
08
F
S
/
F
S
n
o
r
m
s
u p
/
s
u0
tan
Figure 12. Veda embankment: Calculated FS/FS

norm
plotted
against values of the multiplier for different parameters
41
on sulde clay
embankment and berm are presented in Figures 14(a)14(d).
Calculations of s
u
(s
u
9
v
3 s
u
=9
p
) based on the evaluated 9
v
proles (Figures 13(b) and 13(d)) and the chosen design s
u
=9
p
ratios (Figure 6) are also presented. In Figures 14(a)14(d) the
predicted (design) s
u
proles at stages 5 and 6 are also
presented for comparison.
Settlements of the ground surface near the crest of the Veda
0 50 100 150 200 250
u: kPa
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
:

m
Silty clay
Sulfide
clay
Glacial clay
(a) (b)
u
0
u 70 days ,
u 130 days (stage 5) ,
Design (stage 5)
Design (stage 6)
0 50 100 150 200 250
v
: kPa
300
p0
v0
v
70 days
Design (stage 5)
Design (stage 6)
v
130 days (stage 5)
v
265 days (stage 6)
0 50 100 150
u: kPa
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
:

m
Silty clay
Sulfide
clay
Glacial clay
(c) (d)
u
0
u, 70 days
Design (stage 5)
Design (stage 6)
0 50 100 150 200 250
v
: kPa
p0
v0
v
70 days
Design (stage 5)
Design (stage 6)
v
130 days (stage 5)
v
265 days (stage 6)
u 590 days ,
v
590 days
Figure 13. Veda embankment: evaluated measurements of u
and 9
v
at different stages during construction: (a) u under
embankment; (b) 9
v
under embankment; (c) u under berm;
(d) 9
v
under berm
42
on sulde clay
embankment are presented in Figure 15(a), and approximately
1
.
01
.
3 m of settlement was measured after 560 days. In Figures
15(b) and 15(c), horizontal displacements at different elevations
for a selection of time steps are shown. Initially, horizontal
deformations towards the centre of the embankment developed
(negative values in Figures 15(b) and 15(c)). These displacements
occurred due to the construction sequence that is, building the
berms before the embankment in stages 1, 2 and 3 (Figure 8).
CPTu, 590 days
0 20 40 60 80 100
s
u
: kPa
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
:

m
Silty clay
Sulfide
clay
Glacial clay
(a) (b)
s
u0
FVS, 265 days (stage 6)
CPTu, 265 days (stage 6)

v u
s
Design (stage 6)
0 20 40 60 80 100
0 20 60 100
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
:

m
Silty clay
Sulfide
clay
Glacial clay
(c) (d)
0 20 40 60 80 100
s
u
: kPa
s
u0
FVS, 70 days

v u
s
Design (stage 5)
s
u
: kPa
s
u
: kPa
40 80
s
u0

v u
s
Design (stage 6)
s
u0
FVS, 70 days

v u
s
Design (stage 5)

p
(stage 5)

p
(stage 6)

p
(stage 5)

p
(stage 6)
Figure 14. Veda embankment: evaluated measurements of s
u
at
different stages during construction; (a) under embankment at
stage 5; (b) under embankment at stage 6; (c) under berm at
stage 5; (d) under berm at stage 6 and after 590 days
43
on sulde clay
The horizontal displacements changed direction as construction
proceeded, resulting in maximum displacements of approximately
0
.
05 m and 0
.
08 m after 560 days. As for the trial embankment,
the maximum displacements occurred in the sulde clay layer.
6.3 Stability calculations
By incorporating the evaluated s
u
proles, updated calculations
of the total stability were made. These resulted in FS 1
.
70 and
FS 1
.
47 for stages 5 and 6 respectively and the stability was
judged as satisfactory at both stages.
7. Discussion
Conventional limit equilibrium USAs accounting for strength
increase due to consolidation were performed to assess the
stability of the embankment during construction. As previous
experience and empirical knowledge of these characteristics for
sulde clay were limited, the observational method was em-
ployed. The stability analyses were most sensitive to variations in
in the rock ll followed by the s
u
=9
p
ratio in the sulde clay
(Figure 12). Owing to time constraints, no suitable method of
measuring in the rock ll for use in the present case was
found, and so unfortunately this quantity was not veried during
construction. The value of 18 kN/m
3
used was in accordance
with common Swedish practice and should be fairly representa-
tive of actual conditions. This is an issue that is seldom
addressed in embankment projects in Sweden; nevertheless, it
should be the subject of careful consideration in the design and
construction phases of embankment projects. One method for
doing this basically includes excavating a pit in the ll material,
weighing the material, lining the pit with an impermeable sheet
and lling the pit with a known volume of water or sand (e.g.
Bertram, 1973; Gordon and Miller, 1966; ICOLD, 1986; Zeller
and Zeindler, 1957). The increase in s
u
was evaluated from in
situ measurements. An important experience gained from this
project is the value of independent measurement of a certain
quantity. The increase in s
u
was estimated from three different
sources and from measurements at six different locations.
Evaluations were made from direct measurements of s
u
(FVS
and CPTu) and indirectly by way of measurements of u in the
clay. All three sources were associated with uncertainties, hence
assumptions and judgements had to be made in order to estimate
the average eld conditions. Some of the uncertainties are
presented below.
(a) The positions of the instruments in the drain pattern, as the
vicinity to the drains affected the measured values; this is
also discussed by Suzuki and Yasuhara (2007) and Lo et al.
(2008). For instance, measurements from a piezometer tip
positioned close to a drain would have indicated a faster
dissipation rate than a tip installed at a larger distance from a
drain. Hence, evaluations of u from measurements of a single
tip might not have been relevant for a large soil volume.
Furthermore, as a result of consolidation settlements in the
clay, the piezometer tips were to some extent pushed deeper
into the soil. Measurements of the depths of the tips were
made during the consolidation process.
(b) CPTu and FVS tests were considered as tests of relative
values of s
u
of the clay. In order to derive design values from
these tests, empirical correction factors were used and the
validity of the design values was therefore dependent on the
validity of these factors. The applicability of correction
factors of clay loaded beyond 9
p0
is discussed by Tavenas et
al. (1978) among others.
(c) Estimations of in the clay and ll material. As seen from
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time: days
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
C
r
e
s
t

s
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t
:

m
m
Settlement plate, section A
Settlement plate, section B
Settlement tube, section B
Settlement plate, section C
Settlement tube, section C
(a)
80 40 0 40 80
4
2
0
2
6
4
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
:

m
Section B,
41 days
(b)
Section B,
76 days
Section B,
254 days
Section B,
441 days
Section B,
562 days
Section B,
140 days
80 40 0 40 80
4
2
0
2
6
4
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
:

m
Section C,
41 days
(c)
Section ,
76 days
C
Section ,
254 days
C
Section ,
441 days
C
Section ,
562 days
C
Section ,
140 days
C
Figure 15. Veda embankment: (a) measured settlements;
(b) measured horizontal displacements at section B; (c) measured
horizontal displacements at section C
44
on sulde clay
the simple parametric study, analyses of the stability were
strongly inuenced by the assumed value of in the rock ll.
(d) The model used for estimations of load spreading strongly
inuenced the assessments of 9
v
, hence the evaluations of s
u
from measurements of u:
(e) Evaluations of 9
p0
from CRS tests. For instance, different test
methods or strain rates affect the evaluations (e.g. Olson,
1986).
( f ) Estimations of the ratio s
u
=9
p
. As seen from Figure 6 and
Figure 16, the scatter in observed values of the ratio were
quite large in this case. It was therefore preferable to compare
measurements with valid empirical relationships.
As seen from Figures 14(a)14(d), evaluations of s
u
from the
three sources agreed fairly well in the sulde clay. In the silty
clay and in the glacial clay the scatter was larger, presumably
arising from the less homogeneous structure (varves of sand and
silt) of these clays. However, these clay layers had less impact on
the stability. By compiling results from different types of tests
and at different locations, uncertainties in the measurements were
reduced, and a sufciently reliable assessment of the stability was
enabled.
In this project, s
u
=9
p
ratios were obtained in the laboratory by
CUK0DSS and FCOED tests. In the eld, the s
u
=9
p
ratios were
obtained by CPTu and FVS tests, and evaluations of 9
v
by
measurements of u: Figure 16 shows measured s
u
plotted against
evaluated 9
p
in the sulde clay obtained from the laboratory and
the in situ tests. According to the KolmogorovSmirnov normal-
ity test for the 5% level of signicance, the s
u
data for each value
of 9
p
did not differ signicantly from a normal distribution. The
coefcient of variation with respect to the measured s
u
was about
25%, the same order as the coefcient of variation related to the
initial conditions (Figure 2). The uncertainty related to the
positions of the instruments in the drain pattern was probably
reduced by simultaneously measuring at different locations.
In Figure 16, a best linear regression curve of s
u
on 9
p
by the
method of least squares is shown. Furthermore, the condence
limits of this regression are shown for the 10% level of signi-
cance. Since the number of data is large, the condence limits of
the tted mean value of s
u
are narrow. The condence limits of
prediction of the whole sample are considerably larger as
illustrated. The design values of s
u
were set by way of the ratio
s
u
=9
p
0
:
25 for the range 50 kPa ,9
p
, 250 kPa, which corre-
sponds to a straight line in Figure 16 passing through the origin.
As illustrated, the deviation from the best linear regression curve
is very small. Furthermore, according to a t-test, the null
hypothesis that s
u
=9
p
0
:
25 and that the curve passes through
the origin cannot be rejected for the 10% level of signicance.
Considering that the sulde clay has a relatively high organic
content, it is worth noting that the ratio s
u
=9
p
0
:
25 agrees well
with the suggestions in Larsson (1980), Jardine and Hight (1987)
and Ladd (1991), regarding organic clay.
In Figures 17(a) and 17(b), recordings of maximum horizontal
displacements (occurring in the sulde clay layer) are plotted
against crest settlements. Tavenas et al. (1979) suggested a linear
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
s
u
:

k
P
a
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
p
: kPa
Data from field measurements by FVS and CPTu
Data from laboratory CUK0DSS
Data from laboratory FCOED
Linear regression, best fit
Linear regression, through origo / 025 s
u p

Confidence interval for the best-fit regression
90% limit of prediction
Figure 16. Variation in undrained shear strength s
u
plotted
against evaluated preconsolidation stress 9
p
45
on sulde clay
increase in maximum horizontal displacement dh with the crest
settlement ds, with a mean of 0
.
16 based on 13 case history
embankments on soft clay sites. Ratios of dh=ds were suggested
as: 0
.
18 for overconsolidated clays; 1
.
0 during construction
for normally consolidated clays (undrained distortion); and 0
.
16
during initial consolidation for normally consolidated clays. At
the Veda embankment, after development of the initial negative
horizontal displacements, dh=ds was approximately 0
.
060
.
14
and gradually increased to 0
.
140
.
19. At the trial embankment
dh=ds was approximately 0
.
150
.
18 during the whole construc-
tion process. These ndings correspond rather well with the
suggestions by Tavenas et al. (1979) regarding deformation of a
normally consolidated clay under the stresses imposed by
embankments.
7. Conclusion
Measurements during construction aimed to compensate for
uncertainties in the design assumptions. Uncertainties were
compensated for by evaluating a given property by way of a
number of different measurement methods and at different
locations.
The utilisation of shear strength increase, according to the ratio
s
u
=9
p
, was possible because of the information gained from the
trial embankment and laboratory tests in combination with the
use of the observational method. A controllable design was
possible without too much in-built safety.
The large amount of measurements during construction showed
that the ratio s
u
=9
p
0
.
25 is valid for a large stress interval.
Since the scatter is considerable, use of a single test or only a
few tests can result in misleading conclusions.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to express their thanks to the Sven Tyrens
Foundation for making this study possible and to A
dalsbanan
Railroad Line for allowing the use of all measurements presented
in this paper. Mrs Tara Wood at the Chalmers University of
Technology is also acknowledged for proofreading and valuable
comments on the text.
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Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers

Geotechnical Engineering 166 February 2013 Issue GE1

dalsbanan railway line which connects the East

ngermanalven river) near the centre of the

hnberg, 2005; Larsson et al., 2007a)

Figure 12. Veda embankment: Calculated FS/FS

hnberg H (2005) On the evaluation of undrained

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