Soa Exam P Prerequisite

Prerequisites for Exam P/1
PREREQUISITES FOR EXAM P/1

Much of probability and statistics is applied mathematics. The concepts that you need to
know for this exam are built on a strong foundation in a select area in mathematics. This
document will review many of the mathematical skills that you should be equipped with to
ensure unobstructed progress when studying the material.

CONTENTS
1 Algebra ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Quadratic Formula ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Laws of Exponents ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Laws of Logarithms ....................................................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Sum of Arithmetic Series ............................................................................................................................. 3
1.5 Sum of Geometric Series .............................................................................................................................. 3
1.6 Matrix Algebra ................................................................................................................................................. 5
2 Geometry .................................................................................................................... 6
2.1 Pythagorean Theorem .................................................................................................................................. 6
2.2 Areas .................................................................................................................................................................... 7
3 Differential Calculus ............................................................................................... 9
3.1 Basic Formulas and Rules ........................................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Chain Rule ........................................................................................................................................................ 10
3.3 Product Rule ................................................................................................................................................... 11
3.4 Quotient Rule ................................................................................................................................................. 11
3.5 Derivative of Absolute Value Functions............................................................................................... 12
3.6 Second Derivative ......................................................................................................................................... 13
3.7 Optimization ................................................................................................................................................... 14
4 Integral Calculus .................................................................................................... 16
4.1 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus ........................................................................................................ 16
4.2 Basic Formulas and Rules ......................................................................................................................... 17
4.3 Integration by Substitution ...................................................................................................................... 18
4.4 Integration by Parts ..................................................................................................................................... 20
4.5 Tabular Integration...................................................................................................................................... 22
5 Multivariate Calculus ........................................................................................... 25
5.1 Partial Derivatives ........................................................................................................................................ 25
5.2 Double Integration ....................................................................................................................................... 27


Page 1 of 33
1 Algebra

1.1 Quadratic Formula

If
2
+ + = 0, then

=

2
4
2

Example

2
1 = 0

= 1, = 1, = 1

=
1 (1)
2
4(1)(1)
2(1)

=
+

1.2 Laws of Exponents

=
+

0
= 1, 0
= ()
= (
= (


Page 2 of 33
1.3 Laws of Logarithms

=
= ln()

ln(
) =
ln()
=

ln(
) = ln()

ln() = ln() + ln()
ln( +) ln() + ln()

ln(
) = ln() ln()
ln( ) ln() ln()

Examples

ln(
1
1
)
=

ln()
=
+()

4
=
10.5
+
(
)
2
(
2
)
2
=
.
+ (
2
2 (
1
)
1
+
0
]
1
2
= [
(2)
2 + 1]
1
2

= (
2
2 + 1)
1
2

= [( 1)
2
]
1
2

=

ln(
(
2
+
2
)
) = (
)

ln(
2
+4 + 4) = ln( + 2)
2
= ( +)

ln (
3
6
) = ln(
2
3
) ln(6)
= [ln(
2
) +ln(
3
)] [ln(6) + ln()]
= () +() () ()


Page 3 of 33
1.4 Sum of Arithmetic Series

The general formula is
=

2
(
1
+
), where

is the number of terms
1
is the first term of the series
is the last term of the series

An expression for is

=

+ 1

where is the common difference, defined as the difference between a term and the term
prior to it. This is useful when we have the first and last terms but have to find the number
of terms.

Example

= 1 + 5 + 9 ++ 41

1
= 1,
= 41 , =
41 1
4
+ 1 = 11

=
11
2
(1 +41) =

1.5 Sum of Geometric Series

Finite

The standard formula is

=
(
1)
1
=
(1
)
1
, where

is the number of terms
is the first term of the series
is the common ratio, i.e., the ratio between a term and the term prior to it

Page 4 of 33
The next formula is derived from the previous formula but is easier to remember.

=
first term first omitted term
1 common ratio

The first omitted term is the term that would come after the last term if the series continued.

Example

= 1.02 + (1.02)
2
++ (1.02)
20

= 1.02, = 1.02, = 20

Using the standard formula,

=
1.02[(1.02)
20
1]
1.02 1
.

Using the alternative formula, the first omitted term is the term after (1.02)
20
, which is
(1.02)
21
. Thus,

=
1.02 (1.02)
21
1 1.02
.

Infinite

If the common ratio is between 1 and 1 (non-inclusive), then an infinite geometric series
converges to zero and its sum is finite, which equals

=

1

Example

= 0.9 + 0.9
2
+ 0.9
3
+

= 0.9, = 0.9

=
0.9
1 0.9
=

Page 5 of 33
1.6 Matrix Algebra

Suppose we have a two-by-two matrix, , defined as follows:

= [

]

The determinant of is

|| = |

| =

Example

The determinant of = [
2 0
5 2
] is

|| = 2(2) 0(5) =

Page 6 of 33
2 Geometry

2.1 Pythagorean Theorem

Figure 2.1

If , , and are the sides of a right triangle as shown in Figure 2.1, then

2
+
2
=
2

Example

Find in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2

2
=
2

2

= (1 +)
2
(1 )
2

= 1 + 2
2
1 + 2
2

= 4

= 4 = 2

c
a
b

Page 7 of 33
2.2 Areas

Diagram Formula for Area
Rectangle & square

Figure 2.3
=
Triangle

Figure 2.4
=
1
2

Parallelogram

Figure 2.5
=
Trapezoid

Figure 2.6
= (average of and )

=
1
2
( +)
b
h
b
h
b
h
b
h
a

Page 8 of 33
Circle

Figure 2.7
=
2

Examples

Figure 2.8

Area of rectangle = 2 5 =
Area of triangle
=
1
2
2 5 =
Area of parallelogram = 1 3 =
Area of trapezoid
=
1
2
(1 + 3) 2 =
Area of circle = 1
2
=
r
8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6

1
2
3
4
5

Page 9 of 33
3 Differential Calculus

3.1 Basic Formulas and Rules

= 0

=
1

ln() , > 0

ln() =
1
, > 0

() +
()] =
() +
()

() =

()

sin() = cos()

cos() = sin()

Note: is a constant.

Examples

(2 + 35) = 2 + 0 =

( + 2)(2 3) =

(2
2
+ 6) = +

(
1
3
) =

(
3
) = 3
4
=

(2
1
) =

(2
0.5

0.5
) =
0.5
+ 0.5
1.5
=

ln(
10
) =

10 ln(t) = 10
1
) =
()

Page 10 of 33
3.2 Chain Rule

If and are differentiable functions where =
()), then

())
()

This formula can be extended to include more than two differentiable functions. For three
functions,

=
()))
()))
())
()

Examples

(4
2
+ 5)
7
= 7(4
2
+ 5)
6

(4
2
+ 5)
= (
+)
( + )

(
1
1
2
) =

(1
2
)
1

= (1
2
)
2

(1
2
)
= (1
2
)
2
(0 2)
=

(
(1

10
) = 0

10
)
= (

10
)

(

10
)
= (

10
) (
1
10
)
=


Page 11 of 33
ln(1 +
2
) =
1
1 +
2

(1 +
2
)
=
1
1 +
2
(0 + 2)
=

+
(1 + sin)
4
= 4(1 + sin)
3

(1 + sin)
= 4(1 + sin )
3
(0 + cos )
= ( +)

3.3 Product Rule

Lets define =
() and =
(), where and are differentiable functions. If =

, then

3.4 Quotient Rule

Lets define =
() and =
(), where and are differentiable functions. If =

,
then

2

Tip:

It is not necessary to memorize the quotient rule, because
can be written as
1
, which
is a product. Then, we can use the product rule instead.


Page 12 of 33
Example 1

(3 +1)
2
(
2
+ 2) = (
2
+ 2)

(3 + 1)
2
+(3 + 1)
2

(
2
+2)
= (
2
+ 2) 2(3 + 1)

(3 + 1) + (3 + 1)
2
2
= (
2
+ 2) 2(3 + 1) 3 + (3 + 1)
2
2
= ( +)(
+ ) +( +)
[
(4
2
3)
3
] =

[(4
2
3)
3

]
=
(4
2
3)
3
+ (4
2
3)
3

3(4
2
3)
2

(4
2
3) + (4
2
3)
3

()
=
3(4
2
3)
2
8 + (4
2
3)
3

(1)
= (

3.5 Derivative of Absolute Value Functions

We can write any absolute value function as follows:

|
()| = {

(),
() 0
(),
() < 0

Then, the derivative of the absolute value function is the derivative of its individual
components.

()| = {

(),
() > 0
(),
() < 0

The derivative may or may not be defined at
() = 0.


Page 13 of 33
Example 1

|| = {
, 0
, < 0

|| = {

(), > 0
(), < 0
= {
, > 0
, < 0

The derivative is undefined at = 0.

Example 2

|
2
| = {

2
,
2
0
2
,
2
< 0

Because
2
cannot be negative, |
2
| =
2
for all . Therefore,

|
2
| = , < <

3.6 Second Derivative

The second derivative of a function is the derivative of the first derivative.

() =

())

Example

=
1
1

(
1
1
)
=

(1 )
1

= (1 )
2

(1 )
=
1
(1 )
2


Page 14 of 33
2
=

)
=

[
1
(1 )
2
]
=

(1 )
2

= 2(1 )
3

(1 )
=
2
(1 )
3

3.7 Optimization

Derivatives can be used to find the maximum or minimum of a function, specifically the
local max or min. We will illustrate this application using the following examples.

Example 1

Find the local minimum of the function
() =
2
2 5.

Step 1: Take derivative of function.

() = 2 2

Step 2: Set derivative equal to zero, and solve for .

() = 2 2 = 0
= 1

If the question asks for the value of that minimizes
(), then the answer is = 1. To

find the minimum value of
(), we continue with Step 3.

Step 3: Substitute into function.

(1) = (1)
2
2(1) 5 = 6

The minimum value of
() is .


Page 15 of 33
Step 4: Perform second derivative test (optional).

If we know for sure that 6 is the minimum and not the maximum point, then we can skip
this step. Otherwise, the second derivative test will tell us whether it is a minimum or
maximum point.

The second derivative of
() is

() = 2

If
() is positive at the value of that we calculated, then the point is a minimum point.
If
() is negative at the value of that we calculated, then the point is a maximum point.

Because
(1) = 2 > 0, (1, 6) is a minimum point, as shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1

Page 16 of 33
4 Integral Calculus

4.1 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

First Theorem

The integral of a continuous function from to is

()
()
(), where
() =
()

Second Theorem

For a continuous function ,

()
= (), = constant

This is because

()
()
()]
=
() 0
=
()

A more general version of the previous equation with functions =
() and =
()
in place of and is

()
()
()

Because the lower limit of integration is not a constant, its derivative is not zero.
Furthermore, the derivatives of and are the result of the chain rule.


Page 17 of 33
4.2 Basic Formulas and Rules

= +

=

+1
+ 1
+, 1

1
= ln() +

=
1
ln()
=
1
+

[
() +
()] =
() +
()

() =
()

sin() = cos() +

cos() = sin() +

Note: , , and are constants.

Examples

(5
3
+ 4)
1
0
= [
5
3+1
3 + 1
+ 4]
0
1

= [
5
4
4
+ 4]
0
1

= (
5
4
+ 4) (0 + 0)
=

(
1
2

2.3
)
3
2
= [

0.5+1
2(0.5 + 1)
+
1
2.3
2.3
]
2
3

= [ +
1
2.3
2.3
]
2
3

= (3 +
1
2.3
2.3(3)
) (2 +
1
2.3
2.3(2)
)
.


Page 18 of 33
2
5
10
1
= [
2
5
ln()]
1
10

=
2
5
[ln(10) ln(1)]
.

(
3
+ 3
5
)
0.1
0
= [
3
3
+
3
5
5 ln(3)
]
0
0.1

= (
3(0.1)
3
+
3
5(0.1)
5 ln(3)
) (
1
3
+
1
5 ln(3)
)
.

4.3 Integration by Substitution

Integration by substitution is the reverse of the chain rule. We use integration by
substitution if the integrand looks like it is the result of the chain rule.

Example 1

2
2

2
1

Notice that 2 is the derivative of
2
. So, we make the substitution =
2
. Then, we
convert the variable of integration from to .

The relationship between and comes from the derivative of =
2
, i.e., = 2 .

We convert the limits of integration by substituting them into =
2
:

Lower limit: = 1
1
= 1
Upper limit: = 2
2
= 4
Therefore,

2
2

2
1
=

4
1

= [
]
1
4

=
1

4

.


Page 19 of 33
Example 2

2
( + 3)
4
8
1

Identify the substitution = + 3, where = 3. Then, we have = .

The new limits of integration are:

Lower limit: = 1 + 3 = 4
Upper limit: = 8 + 3 = 11

Therefore,

2
( + 3)
4
8
1
=
2( 3)
4

11
4

= (2
3
6
4
)
11
4

= [
2
2
2
+
6
3
3
]
4
11

= [
1
2
+
2
3
]
4
11

=
1
11
2
+
2
11
3
+
1
4
2

2
4
3

.

Example 3

(1 +)
3
9
4

Identify the substitution = 1 +, where = 1.
Then, we have =
1
2
, so that = 2 = 2( 1) .

The new limits of integration are:

Lower limit: = 1 +4 = 3

Page 20 of 33
Upper limit: = 1 +9 = 4

Therefore,

(1 +)
3
9
4
=
1
3
2( 1)
4
3

= 2

2
2 +1
3

4
3

= 2 (
1
2
2
+
3
)
4
3

= 2 [ln() + 2
1

2
2
]
3
4

= 2 (ln(4) +
2
4
1
2 4
2
) 2 (ln(3) +
2
3
1
2 3
2
)
.

4.4 Integration by Parts

Integration by parts is the reverse of the product rule.

Integrating both sides of the equation,

() = +
= +

Then, the integration by parts formula is

=

In general, integration by parts is applicable if the integrand is a product of two terms, one
of which becomes zero when differentiated repeatedly.


Page 21 of 33
Example 1

0

The first step is to identify and , where is the term to be differentiated, and is the
term to be integrated. In this example

= , =

Then, we find and .

= , =

Next, we apply the integration by parts formula as follows:

0
= [ (
)]
0
0

= [
]
0
]
0

= [
]
0

= (0 0) (0 1)
=

Example 2

(3
2
+ 1)

10

0

The first step is to identify and , where is the term to be differentiated, and is the
term to be integrated. In this example

= (3
2
+ 1), =

10

Then, we find and .

= 6 , = 10

10


Page 22 of 33
Next, we apply the integration by parts formula as follows:

0
= [(3
2
+ 1) (10

10
)]
0
6 (10

10
)
0

= [10

10(3
2
+ 1)]
0
+ 60

10

0

To evaluate the integral in blue, we use integration by parts a second time.

= , =

10

= , = 10

10

10

0
= [ (10

10
)]
0
10

10

0

= [10

10
]
0
[100

10
]
0

= [10

10
100

10
]
0

= (0 0) (0 100)
= 100

In our final step,

0
= [(3
2
+ 1) (10

10
)]
0
+ 60(100)
= 0 1 (10) + 6,000
= ,

4.5 Tabular Integration

Integration by parts can sometimes be messy to evaluate, which makes it prone to errors,
especially when it needs to be done more than once. Tabular integration is an alternative
to integration by parts that keeps our calculations organized. Besides, it takes less time and
is less prone to errors.

Tabular integration is best explained with examples. We will rework the two previous
examples to show that integration by parts and tabular integration are equivalent.


Page 23 of 33
Example 1

0

The first step is to choose the term that would be differentiated if were to do integration by
parts, i.e., . We write this term in the first row of the first column of the table (see Table
4.1). In this example, this term is . Then, we differentiate repeatedly until we get zero,
while writing down each derivative in a column. The derivative of is 1, and the derivative
of 1 is 0.

Next, we write the term that would be integrated if we were to do integration by parts in
the first row of the second column. This term is
. Then, we integrate
repeatedly
until we have the same number of rows in both columns.

Then, we draw diagonal lines from the first row of the first column to the second row of the
second column, and from the second row of the first column to the third row of the second
column. If we had more rows, we would continue drawing lines in this matter until we get
to the last row of the second column.

The next step is to label the lines with alternating signs, starting with + for the first line.
We multiply the terms that are connected by the lines and then multiply by 1 if the line has
a plus sign, or 1 if the line has a minus sign. We do the same for each pair of terms and
add them to get the indefinite integral.

+
1

Table 4.1

Therefore,

0
= [+1 (
) + (1) 1
]
0

= [
]
0

= (0 0) (0 1)
=

Page 24 of 33

Example 2

(3
2
+ 1)

10

0

The term to be differentiated is 3
2
+ 1. The term to be integrated is
10
.

3
2
+ 1

10

+
6
10

10

6
100

10

+
0
1000

10

Table 4.2

Using Table 4.2,

(3
2
+ 1)

10

0

= [+1 (3
2
+1) (10

10
) + (1) 6 100

10
+ (+1) 6 (1000

10
)]
0

= [10(3
2
+ 1)

10
600

10
6000

10
]
0

= 0 0 0 + 10 + 0 + 6,000
= ,

Page 25 of 33
5 Multivariate Calculus

5.1 Partial Derivatives

When taking the partial derivative of a multivariate function with respect to a variable, ,
we treat all other variables as constants.

Partial derivative of
,
(, ) with respect to
,
(, )

Partial derivative of
,
(, ) with respect to
,
(, )
Second order partial derivative of
,
(, )
with respect to
,
(, ) =

,
(, ))

,
(, )
with respect to
,
(, )
,
(, )
with respect to and
,
(, ) =

,
(, ))

,
(, ) =

,
(, ))

,
(, ) =

2

,
(, )

Example 1

,
(, ) =
2

(
2
) =
Treat as constant.
(
2
) =
Treat as constant.
2
(
2
) =

(2) =
Differentiate
with respect to .
Treat as constant.


Page 26 of 33
2
(
2
) =

(
2
) =
Differentiate
with respect to .
Treat as constant.
2

(
2
) =

(
2
) =
Differentiate
with respect to .
Treat as constant.
2

(
2
) =

(2) =
Differentiate
with respect to .
Treat as constant.
2

(
2
) =

2

(
2
) Order of differentiation is reversible.

Example 2

,
(, ) =
2
2
++3
2

(
2
2
++3
2
) =
2
2
++3
2
(2
2
+ + 3
2
)
=
2
2
++3
2
(4 + + 0)
= ( +)
++
(
2
2
++3
2
) =
2
2
++3
2
(2
2
+ + 3
2
)
=
2
2
++3
2
(0 + +6)
= ( +)
++
2
(
2
2
++3
2
) =

[(4 + )
2
2
++3
2
]
=
2
2
++3
2
(4 +) + (4 +)

(
2
2
++3
2
)
=
2
2
++3
2
(4 + 0) + (4 +)
2
2
++3
2
(4 + + 0)
=
++
+ ( +)
++
2
(
2
2
++3
2
) =

[( + 6)
2
2
++3
2
]
=
2
2
++3
2
( + 6) + ( + 6)

(
2
2
++3
2
)
=
2
2
++3
2
(0 + 6) + ( + 6)
2
2
++3
2
(0 + + 6)
=
++
+ ( +)
++


Page 27 of 33
5.2 Double Integration

We often use double integrals to calculate probabilities and moments. When evaluating
double integrals, we always start with the inner integral and work our way out to the outer
integral. There are two cases to consider:

Case 1: Region of integration is rectangular.
Case 2: Region of integration is not rectangular.

Case 1

In the first case, double integrals are easier to evaluate. Besides, the order of integration is
reversible without the need to redefine the limits of integration. In mathematical notation,
this means

,
(, )
=
,
(, )

Figure 5.1 shows a rectangular region of integration.

Figure 5.1

x 0 c d
y

a

b

Page 28 of 33
Example

Integrate the following function over the shaded region in Figure 5.2.

,
(, ) =

2500
, 0 < < 10, 0 < < 10

Figure 5.2

If we chose as the variable for the inner integral, then the double integral is

2500
6
2

7
1

Starting from the inside out, the inner integral is with respect to , so we treat as a
constant when performing the inner integral. Also, after performing the inner integral, we
substitute the limits into , not , because the inner integral is with respect to . Once we
evaluate the inner integral, the double integral becomes a single integral that we evaluate
in the usual way.

2500
6
2

7
1
= [

2
5000
]
=2
=6
7
1

=

5000
(6
2
2
2
)
7
1

x 0 1 7
y

2
6

Page 29 of 33
=
32
5000

7
1

=
16
5000
[
2
]
1
7

=
16
5000
(7
2
1
2
)
= .

If we evaluate the same double integral in the reverse order of integration, we will get the
same answer.

2500
7
1

6
2
= [

2
5000
]
=1
=7
6
2

=

5000
(7
2
1
2
)
7
1

=
48
5000

6
2

=
24
5000
[
2
]
2
6

=
24
5000
(6
2
2
2
)
= .

Case 2

In the second case, double integrals are trickier. They are reversible, but the limits of
integration have to be redefined. We will demonstrate this with the following example.

Example 1

Integrate the following function over the shaded region in Figure 5.3.

,
(, ) =
(+)
, > 0, > 0

Page 30 of 33

Figure 5.3

Step 1: Draw a diagram that satisfies all the constraints.

In this example, the diagram has been given. However, on the exam, you often have to
draw your own diagram. The constraints of the region are > 0, > 0, and + < 2.
The region that satisfies these constraints is the shaded region in Figure 5.3.

Note that Step 2 and Step 3 can be interchanged.

Step 2: Choose one variable for the outer integral.

If we choose , then the limits of the outer integration would be the minimum and
maximum value of in the region. From the diagram, we see that the minimum value of
is 0 and the maximum value of is 2. Thus, the lower limit is 0 and the upper limit is 2.

(
,
(, ) )
2
0

Likewise, if we choose , then the limits of the outer integration would be the minimum
and maximum value of in the region, which are 0 and 2, respectively.

(
,
(, ) )
2
0

x 0 1 2
y

1
2
y
x

y

=

2

Page 31 of 33

Both integrals will produce the same answer, but the variable that you choose for the outer
integration will determine the order of integration; so you should choose the variable that
will not require separating the region of integration, if possible.

Step 3: Determine the limits of the inner integral.

The third step is to define the rest of the integral. The variable for the inner integral will
automatically be the variable not chosen for the outer integral. For example, if we chose
for the outer integral, then the inner integral will be with respect to .

To determine the limits of integration when the integration is on , draw a line parallel to
the -axis that cuts across the region of integration, as shown in Figure 5.4. The limits are
the -coordinates of the intersection points of the vertical line that was just drawn and the
top and bottom bounds of the region.

Figure 5.4

In this example, the lower limit is = 0 because the vertical line intersects the lower
bound at 0. Similarly, the upper limit is = 2 because the vertical line intersects the
upper bound at 2 . Since the vertical line can be drawn at any arbitrary location within
the range of values of , we always express the -coordinates in terms of , or the variable
chosen for the outer integral. Therefore, our double integral is

x 0 1 2
y

1
2
y
x

y

=

2
y = 2 x
y = 0

Page 32 of 33
(
,
(, ) )
2
0
= (
,
(, )
2
0
)
2
0

On the other hand, if we chose for the outer integral, then the inner integral will be for the
variable . In this case, we draw a line parallel to the -axis that cuts across the region,
shown below in Figure 5.5.

Figure 5.5

We determine the limits of integration in the same way as before except the limits are now
the -coordinates of the intersection points of the horizontal line and the left and right
bounds of the region, expressed in terms of . In this example, the horizontal line
intersects the left bound at = 0 and the right bound at = 2 . Therefore, our double
integral is

(
,
(, ) )
2
0
= (
,
(, )
2
0
)
2
0

Step 4: Evaluate the double integral.

The last step is to evaluate the double integral. There are 2 possible orders of integration,
or . Regardless, we always start with the inner integral and work our way out.

x 0 1 2
y

1
2
y
x

y

=

2
x = 2 y
x = 0

Page 33 of 33
We will start with the case.

(
,
(, )
2
0
)
2
0
= (
(+)

2
0
)
2
0

= [
(+)
]
=0
=2
2
0

= [
(+2)

(+0)
]
2
0

= (
2
+
)
2
0

= [
2

]
0
2

= (2
2

2
) (0
0
)
=

Next, we will show that the case produces the same answer.

(
,
(, )
2
0
)
2
0
= (
(+)

2
0
)
2
0

= [
(+)
]
=0
=2
2
0

= [
(2+)

(0+)
]
2
0

= (
2
+
)
2
0

= [
2
+
]
0
2

= (2
2

2
) (0
0
)
=

Soa Exam P Prerequisite

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Soa Exam P Prerequisite

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Prerequisites for Exam P/1

PREREQUISITES FOR EXAM P/1

is the last term of the series

(), where and are differentiable functions. If =

(), where and are differentiable functions. If =

(), then the answer is = 1. To

(), we continue with Step 3.

(1) = 2 > 0, (1, 6) is a minimum point, as shown in Figure 3.1.

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