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TheEvolutionofHumanIntelligence:
IncreasingImportanceofDomain
SpecificIntelligenceintheModern
Environment
KyleR.Skottke
RochesterInstituteofTechnology
Humanintelligencehasevolvedsteadilyoverthecourseofthousandsof
generationswithoutdrasticchangeintheenvironment.However,thechallengeswe
faceinmodernsocietyhaveforcedtheindependentdomainofintelligenceto
assumetherolesthatotherdomainswouldhaveplayedintheprimitive
environmentinwhichweevolved.Therearecleargeneticlinksthatpredispose
peopletohavealargercerebralcortex,allowingthemtobetterdealwiththe
challengesoftheexpandedworkloadmodernlifeputsonourintelligencedomain.
Evolutionhasnotyethadachancetocatchuptotherapidprogresswehave
madeasasocietyandmightnotduetohumancircumventionofnaturalselection.
Generalintelligence(g)canbedescribedastheabilityofanindividualtoacquireandapply
knowledge.Manystudieshaveshownthatgisatleast50percentheritableandthus,canbe
passeddownfromgenerationtogeneration(DiLalla,2000).Evolutionistheconceptthatthe
geneexpressionoforganismschangesovertime.Itisthoughtthateithernaturalselectionor
sexualselectioniswhatdrivesthischangeingeneexpression.Itisclearthathumanintelligence
haschangedsincetheemergenceoftheveryfirsthominids.Whilethereareseveralgenetic
explanationsforthischange,withseveralgenesdirectlyinvolveding,therearealso
environmentalandmigrationalfactorsthathaveinfluencedhumanintelligence.Themigrationof
peopletoallareasoftheearthalongwiththeindustrializationofmodernsocietyhasabstracted
modernmanfromourancestors.Sinceourenvironmentsareabstracted,agreaterimportance
hasbeenplacedoncognitiveabilityandintelligencetoallowustofunctioninmodernsociety.
Thefollowingisanargumentforhowmigrationandindustrializationhaveimpactedganda
discussionofsomeofthegenesthathavebeenassociatedwithintelligence(Dewsbury,2000).
GeneralIntelligenceasanIndependentDomain
Twomaintheoriesconcerninggarethedependentdomainandtheindependentdomainmodels.
Thedomaindependentmodelhasgeneralintelligenceasabroadcategorywhichisdividedinto
smallermorespecificintelligences,includingmateselection,cheaterdetectionmodule,andface
recognitionmodule.Underthismodel,itcanbeinferredthatifanindividual'sgishigh,thentheir
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abilitytoselectandobtainamate,detectlies,andrecognizepeople'sfaceswouldalsobe
higher.ItalsofollowsthatsomeonewithalowIQwouldhavetroublefindingamateand
detectingwhenpeoplewerelying.
Theindependentdomaintheorystatesthatgeneralintelligenceisonlyoneofseveral
psychologicalmechanisms,alongwithmateselection,thecheaterdetectionmolecule,andthe
facerecognitionmodulethathaveevolved.Itisimportanttonotethatinthismodel,general
intelligenceisdefinedastheabilitytousedeductivelogicandabstractthought.
Ibelievetheindependentdomainmodelismorerealisticsincetherehavebeennumerousstudies
showingthatthepsychologicalmechanismsofthebrainareunlinked.Onesuchstudywasdone
tocomparethecorrelationbetweenIQ,whichmeasuresg,andthesuccessofindividualsin
findingamate,whichwasmeasuredintermsofmarriage.Thestudiesfoundshownthatvery
intelligentindividuals(withIQsabove125,atorabovethe95thpercentileoftheIQdistribution)
aretheleastlikelytomarryofallthecognitiveclasses(Kanazawa,2004).Thisdatasuggests
thatmateselectionandgeneralintelligenceareunrelated,suchasinthefieldindependentmodel.
Basedonthefindingsfromthestudyabove,itispossibletoconcludethateachofthe
psychologicalmechanismsisdedicatedtoitsownareaofexpertise,whichhasbeenforgedover
thousandsofgenerationsofhumanevolution.Theconceptofdedicatedpsychological
mechanismsdenotesthateachofthepreviouslymentionedpsychologicalmechanismscansolve
adaptiveproblemsinitsownnarrowdomainbutnowhereelse(Kanazawa,2004).Thiswould
explainwhysomeonemighthaveincreasedintelligence,butitwouldnotbeabletohelpin
acquiringamate,justlikesomeone'sabilitytofindamatewouldnotincreasetheirabilitytouse
logicandabstractthought.
Geneticanalysisalsosupportsthefieldindependentmodel.Onefinding,"concerningspecific
cognitiveabilitiesisthatmultivariategeneticanalysesindicatethatthesamegeneticfactors
largelyinfluencedifferentabilities"(Plomin1999).Thisreferstothefactthatgenesinvolvedin
verbalabilityarealsolinkedtospatialabilityandothercognitiveabilities.Therefore,the
psychologicalmechanismofgeneralintelligenceisnotdividedintosmallergroupsbasedon
specificcognitiveactionratherthatitisacategorythatencompassesallcognitiveability.This
supportsthefieldindependentmodelbecausethepsychologicalmechanismsofmateselection
andcheaterdetectionarenotcognitivefields,butaremorehardwiredgutfeelings.Multivariate
geneticanalysisalsodiscreditsthefielddependenttheorybecausetheanalysisshowsthatverbal
andspatialabilitiesaretiedtothesamegeneticfactors,whereasinfielddependenttheory,they
areseparatecategoriesunderg.
OriginsofDedicatedIntelligence
Reverseengineeringinthecontextofevolution,istheattempttoinfertheancestralconditions,
calledtheenvironmentofevolutionaryadaptation,thatwouldhavemadecertaingenetically
inheritedbehaviorinducingmodulesincreasetheirbearers'reproductivesuccess(David,2002).
IthasbeeninferredthatprehistoricmanoriginatedinAfricabasedonarcheologicalevidence.In
thisprimitiveenvironment,therewouldhavebeencertainphysiologicaltraitsthatwouldhave
beenmorefavorabletothebearerofthetrait.
Onesuchexamplethatsurvivestothisdayisthetastepreferenceforfoodsthatarehigherinfat
andsugar(Emery&Clayton,2004).Itcanbeassumedthatduringtheoriginofman,people
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whohadtastebudsthatwouldhavemadethemmoreinclinedtoeatfattyfoodswouldhave
beenmuchhealthierandhadabetterchanceatsurvivingandpassingontheirgenesthan
individualsthathadapredispositiontopreferfoodslowinnutrition.
PrehistoricmanevolvedduringthePleistoceneepoch,about1.6millionto10,000yearsago,a
periodcharacterizedbyconstancyandcontinuity(Kanazawa,2004).Ourancestorswere
huntergathererswhowouldhavespenttheirwholelivesontheAfricansavanna.Notonlythis,
butformanygenerations,theenvironmentremainedstable,whichiswhyevolutionwasableto
takeplace.Evolutionisaveryslowprocess,whichoccursoveralongperiodoftimethrough
themechanismsofnaturalselectionandsexualselection.
TheconsistencyofthePleistoceneepochwouldhavepromotedevolutioninaspecificdirection
withoutmuchdeviation.Onekeyaspectofthiserawasthatmorechildrenwerebeingbornthan
weresupportablebytheenvironment.Therehadnotbeentheadventofmodernagricultureto
massproducefood,andtherewasnodomesticationofanimals.Itisprimarilybecauseofthis
aspectofthePleistoceneepochthatevolutionwasabletoshapethehumanracethroughnatural
selection.Sinceonlysomeofthepopulationwasabletosurviveandreproduceeachgeneration,
itfollowsthattheindividualsbestsuitedtotheenvironmentwouldsurviveandpassontheir
traits,sincemosttraitsareatleast50percentheritable.
However,inthepast1000years,wehavecomealongwayfromourrootsinAfrica.Itissafe
tosaythatnoteventhemostbasicthinginourlives,thenaturallandscape,resemblesthe
landscapethatourancestorslivedin.Thismeansthatmanyofthepsychologicalmechanisms
thatevolvedoverthebackdropofaneverconstantsavannahenvironmentarenowuselessgiven
themodernenvironment.Forexample,inAmericawiththelargeabundanceoffoodthatwe
have,theinbornpredispositiontofoodshighinsugarandfatisnolongeranadaptiveadvantage,
butmightactuallyshortenthelifespanofanindividualbyincreasingtheriskofobesityandheart
disease.
Notonlyhastheavailabilityoffoodchanged,butmanyotheraspectsoflife,includingpersonal
interactionshavechanged.Thebusinessrelatedsocietyweliveinfostersmanydifferenttypesof
relationshipsandinteractionsthatprimitivemanwouldnothavedealtwithandwouldnothave
hadamechanismtocopewith.Theseinteractionsincludeshortencounterswithstrangersand
relativelyunknownpeople,whichthebusinessenvironmentreliesheavilyupon.Thefactthatwe
werenotadaptedtodealwithimpersonalrelationshipslikethisexplainswhysomepeoplehave
betterpeopleskills,sinceitisnotauniversaladaptation.
SinceweliveinanenvironmentthatisfarabstractedfromtheAfricansavannah,eventhe
simplestofthingsthatwetakeforgrantedreliesonourfunctionofg.Changeshavebeenmade
sorapidlyinsocietythatthenaturalselectionmechanismofevolutionhasnothadachanceto
catchuptotheprogresswehavemadetechnologically.Thus,thepartofthebrainthatisableto
processabstractthoughtisusedtohelpusnavigateandcopewithour"foreign"environments.
Thereisnophysiologicalmechanismforhumanstoknowhowtooperateanelevatororhowto
travelthroughacityfilledwithskyscrapers,whichiswhyghasbecomeincreasinglyimportant
overthepastmillenniawehavefurtherdevelopedgthroughourdependenceonit.Astudywas
donewhichsupportstheideathatintelligencecandevelopovertime.Newbornchickswhich
havesmallbrainsareabletocorrectlyperceivepartiallyoccludedobjectsasoneobject.
However,humanbabieswerelikelytoperceiveitastwoseparateobjects(Langer,2004).This
studydemonstratesthatintelligencedevelopsovertime,andifintelligencecandevelopovertime
inoneindividual,itispossibleforintelligencetodevelopovertimeforanentirepopulation.
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Sinceintelligencecandevelopandbecausepopularviewsonintelligenceandtypesof
intelligencearechanging,therehasalsobeenincreasedpressuretorevisemethodsoftesting
intelligenceforwhichthemostcommonmeasureiscurrentlymodificationsoftheWechsler
intelligencetest(Esters,1999).
TheMolecularBiologyofIntelligence
Therehavebeenseveralexampleswhereonespecificgenehasbeenlinkedtolossoffunction
ordisease.SickleCellAnemia,Hemophilia,andPKUareexamplesofamutationinasingle
genecausinglossoffunctionofaproteinthatleadstodisease.However,intelligenceisnot
dimorphic,thereisabroadrangeofintelligenceandthereareseveralgenesthatgoverng.These
multiplegenesystemsareoftenreferredtoasquantitativetraitloci(QTLs),whichcan,
contributeinterchangeablyandadditivelylikeprobabilisticriskfactors(Plomin,1999).
Historicallygeneticshasutilizedmutantstoidentifythelocationandfunctionofgenes.Duetothe
slowreproductiveratesofhumansandobviousethicalissues,itismuchharderidentify,isolate,
andstudyhumanmutations.Oneofthefewchancesscientistshadtolookatgenemutations
affectingintelligencewasinthecaseofPakistanifamiliesisolatedinYorkshire.Forsocial
reasonsthePakistanifamiliesinterbredandasaresultthehomozygosityofthegroupincreased.
Thismeansthatthereweremorecasesoftworecessivemutatedallelesoccurringthatwere
oncecoveredupbyadominantwildtypeallele.Asaresult,therewasaveryhighproportionof
thegroupthathadmicrocephalycomparedtotherestofthepopulation.Microcephalyisa
conditionwhichleavesthepatientwithanabnormallysmallheadandbrain.
Thephysicalsizeofspecificregionsofthebraincanhavetremendouseffectsonanindividual's
g.Onegenethatwaslinkedtothesmallerbrainsizeinthemicrocephalypatientswasnamed
microcephalin.Thisgenewasdeterminedtobeactiveonlyduringthefetalstagesof
development.
Anothergenelinkedtosmallerbrainsizeisfoundinnearlyallmembersoftheanimalkingdom.
TheAspgeneisresponsibleforformingspindlefibersduringcelldivision.Thespindlefibersact
toseparatehomologouspairsofchromosomessothattherewillbegeneticmaterialforbothof
thedaughtercells.InthePakistanipatientsthathadmicrocephaly,halfofthemhadtwo
defectivecopiesoftheAspgene.WhenbothcopiesoftheAspgenearedefective,spindle
formationandchromosomeseparationaresubstantiallyslowed.Thisresultsinmuchslower
growthofthebrain,asmallerbrain,andthereforeamuchlowerg.
InadditiontotherareopportunitytostudyfieldmutationinYorkshire,QTLstudieshave
isolatedinsulinlikegrowthfactor2receptor(IGF2R)asageneonchromosome6whichis
linkedtointelligencebecauseithas,"beenshowntobeespeciallyactiveinbrainregionsmost
involvedinlearningandmemory"(Plomin,1999,p.789).Ofthetwoallelesthatarepossible,it
wasfoundthatagroupofchildrenwithhighIQhadtwicethefrequencyofonealleleas
comparedtothegroupofchildrenwithlowIQ.Morestudiesareneededtoshowthedirect
rolethatthisgeneplaysindeterminingintelligence,butitisimportanttonotethatgenes
determiningintelligencedoexistandcanbepassedontooffspring.
BrainRegionsandNeurotransmittersAssociatedWith
Intelligence
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Itisalongestablishedfactthattheneocortexisnotonlythenewestportionofthebraintohave
developed,buthasalsogottenbiggerovertime(Emery&Clayton,2004).Thedorsalthalamus
isanotherregionofthebrainwhichfunctionsasarelayorgatewayintothecortex.Astudywas
conductedbyK.K.Glendenninginwhichthedorsalthalamusofplacentalmammalswas
examinedforthepresenceofgaminodecarboxylaseimmunoreactiveneurons.Thepresenceof
moreoftheseneuronsresultsintheincreaseduptakeofGABA,atypeofneurotransmitter
whichactstoslowactivityinthebrain.Itwasfoundthatthesystematicincreaseininhibitory
receptorsinthedorsalthalamusofplacentalmammalsiscorrelatedwiththeincreaseinthe
developmentofthecortexofplacentalmammals(Glendenning,1998).
Usingthefindingsofthisexperimentinconjunctionwiththechangingenvironmentsmanhas
foundhimselfinsincetheoriginofHomosapiens,itcanbereasonedthatevolutionhasfavored
individualswiththeabilitytobetterregulatetheirbrainactivity(Fischman,1993).Theabilityto
regulatethebrainisaclearadvantagewhenlivingingroups.Ifanindividualwasnotableto
controlprimalurgesandbehaveinaccordancewiththesocialnormsofthetimes,whether
prehistoricormodern,thisindividualwouldbeexiledfromthegroup.Althoughbeingexiled
fromthegroupdoesnotsoundlikeaterriblyimportantthinginmodernsociety,itwouldhave
beendevastatingtoprehistoricman.Ifearlyhumanswereexiled,theyhadlittlechanceof
reproductionandtheirownchancesofsurvivalweredramaticallydecreased(Kamil,2004).
Withtheexceptionofmassmurderersandrapistsinmodernsociety,mostpeoplearegenerally
abletoregulatetheirprimalurgestolevelsthatareacceptable.Thefactthatmostpeoplenow
possesthistraitofincreasedsensitivitytoGABAsuggeststhatitissuchanimportanttraitthatit
hasevolvedandremainedafavorabletraitoverseveralmillennia.Thiswouldmeanthatearly
humanswhopossessedlessregulationalcontrolovertheirbrainswouldbeostracizedand
wouldnotpasstheirgenestothenextgeneration,resultinginthetraitforlowerGABA
sensitivityfadingaway.
Conclusions
Itisclearthatasaspecies,Homosapiensexhibitsabroadrangeofintelligences,ofwhich
heritabilitycanaccountfor50percent.Thefactthattherearegeneswhichcontrolintelligence
providesaplatformforevolutionandnaturalselectiontoactupon.Duringtheearly
developmentofthehumanrace,therewouldhavebeenmanymorechallengesinfindingfood
andreproducingthanwefacetoday,whichwouldhavemadethemechanismsofnatural
selectionmuchmoreimportant.Intoday'ssociety,nearlyanyonecansurviveandreproduce,
whichnegatestheprinciplesofnaturalselection,whichonlyfunctioniftherearemoreindividuals
bornthanagivenenvironmentcansupport.Inessence,sincewehaveeffectivelyeliminated
hungeranddisease,wehaveremovedanypressurefromtheenvironmenttokeepadaptingand
becomemorefit.
Instead,sincewehaveremovedourselvesfromthe"native"landscapeandchallengesofAfrica,
wehavebecomemoredependentonthepsychologicalmechanismofgeneralintelligencethan
previouslyinthehistoryofmankind.Whiletherehavebeendefinitechangesinthebrainthat
accountforincreasedintelligenceofhumansoverapesandothermammalssuchasthepresence
ofmoreGABAreceptorsandbraingrowthgenes,muchoftheintelligencethatweuseis
partiallyduetoenvironmentalfactors.Sinceweareremovedfromtheenvironmentinwhichwe
evolved,thegregionofthebrainisforcedtoaccountformuchmorethanitwouldotherwise
haveto.Forexample,ifacavemanweretowalkintoamodernkitchen,hewouldhavenoidea
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whattodowithanythingintheroom.Noneoftheotherpsychologicalmechanismsaredesigned
todealwithmicrowavesortoastersonlygeneralintelligenceisadaptedtohandlesituationsthat
arenewandabstract.
AlthoughthousandsofyearshavepassedsincemankindmigratedfromAfricaandpopulated
thevastexpansesoftheworld,therehasbeeninsufficienttimeforevolutiontotakeeffectand
modifyustobetterfitournewenvironments.Somepeoplebelievethatinthefuturewewill
evolvesothatourbrainsarelargerandourcognitiveabilitieswilldramaticallyincrease.The
chancesofevolvingtothislevelareslimbecauseevenifweweregivensufficienttimetolet
geneticchangesaccumulate,thereisnopressuretoweedoutthelessintelligentindividuals,who
actuallyprocreatemorethanindividualswithhighIQ's(Kanazawa,2004).Sincewearenowin
astateoflimbowherethereisnoevolutionarypressure,unlessthereisadramaticchangeinthe
environment,orwearenotabletosupportasmanypeoplelivingontheearth,Ibelievethatthe
evolutionofhumanintelligencewillcease.
PeerCommentary
WhatAbouttheRoleSexualStrategiesPlayinthe
EvolutionofHumanIntelligence?
LisaC.Burt
RochesterInstituteofTechnology
Skottkepointedouthowdomainspecificintelligencebecomesmoreimportantasthe
environmentbecomesmoremodern.Thereviewoftheevolutionofintelligencediscussedhow
thehumanbrainhasgrownwiththechangesindustrializationbroughtonandwiththeincreasing
demandsofthemodernworld.Iagreethathumanintelligencehasevolvedtomeetthedemands
oftoday'ssocietyhowever,Ihavetowonderwhatrolesexualstrategiesplaywhenitcomesto
procreation,relativetotheevolvinghumanmind.Skottkedevelopedtheideathat
industrializationhasengulfedthechangesinintelligenceandthehumanmindhasevolved
domainspecificintelligence.Ifeelamoredominantaspectofevolutionhastodowithsexual
strategies.SkottkemadethepointthatmostpeoplewithhighIQsdonotmarryandtherefore
donotprocreate.Withthisinmind,thoseworkingintoday'smodernsocietyarethosewith
averageintelligenceorlower.
Sexualstrategieshavealsobeenevolving.Ithasbeenshownthatpeoplelookforamatesimilar
tothemselves.Usually,peopleprocreatewithsomeonewiththesameintelligencetheyhave.
Therefore,intelligencehasevolvedinthesensethatsimilarintelligenceshaveprocreated
together.
Sexualstrategiescanbeseenandhavebeenstudiedinanimals.Competitionbeginsinmate
selectionandmovesallthewayupintoindustries.Itcanbearguedthatpeoplelearntheir
competitivedrivesandtheirworkethicbecauseofsexualstrategies.Thosewhoworkhardfor
whattheywant,thosewhodonotgiveup,andthosewhoareseenasthestrongest,moreoften
thannotgetthematetheywant.Thiscanalsobeseeninsociety.Thesamecharacteristicsand
thesametraits,markthepersonalityofthemostsuccessfulpeopleinthemodernworld.
Intelligencealsocanbelargelyvaluedthroughaperson'sstatus.Procreationcanplayarolein
theevolutionofhumanintelligencealongwiththedemandsofachangingworld.Withoutpeople
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matingwithothersofthesameintelligence,therewouldbenogrowth,justaswithoutthe
increaseintheneedforgreaterintelligenceinsociety,therewouldbenoneedforintelligenceto
evolvelikeithas.Iagreethattherehasbeenaneedfordomainspecificintelligencebecauseof
thechangesinmodernsociety,butIalsofeelthatwithoutsexualstrategiesandwithoutthe
importanceofmateselection,theevolutionofhumanintelligencewouldhavebeenmorelimited.
PeerCommentary
StagnationCouldCauseExtinction
AlexandriaK.Cherry
RochesterInstituteofTechnology
LetmefirstmakethepointIfeeltheindependentdomainmodelforintelligencehasafirmbasis.
Thisseemstobethemostlogicalandwelldevelopedmodelsofaronintelligence.
Nevertheless,tosaythathumanintelligencehasevolvedtothepointofstagnationisquite
absurd.Thereisabsolutelynoevidenceinthepaper,oranywhereelseforthatmatter,thatcan
showthatthehumanbrainhasceasedinitsgrowthorisonitswaytodoingso.
Intelligencehasalwaysseemedtobeoneofhumanity'sgreatestweaponsagainstitsenemies,
whethertheproblembeofsurvivalorreproduction.Theideatherearemanytypesof
intelligencetohelpuswiththeseproblemsseemsappropriate.Theotherideathatthesedifferent
elementshavedevelopedindependentlyoverseveralgenerationsalsoseemsjust.Yes,selection
hasbeenverykindtohumanityintheadaptationofourbrainsandthusourintelligencetobetter
helpuswithourneedtosurvive.Ithastakenussofarastochangeourlittlemakeshifthutsto
buildingsthattouchthesky,andtochangeourrawmeatintosevencoursemeals.
Theproblemarisesintheconclusion.Withthisgrowthandexpansion,theneedtoworkfor
survivalisgreatlylessened.Thisdoesnot,however,meanthattheevolutionofhuman
intelligencewillcease.Themajorreasonwasstated:Evolutiontakesaverylongtime.There
havebeenmanyplaceseveninwrittenhistoryinwhichpeoplelivingthenfeltthattherewouldbe
noneedtoworkforsurvivalbecausetheyhadachievedit.Thatwasobviouslynotthecase,
though.Historyhasbothhighsandlows.Thereareseveralinstancesinwhichanewdiseaseor
newthreatwasdiscovered.Whyisthisthetimeinwhichtherewillbenootherthreat?
Humanexpansionintoplacesofunknownterrainisanexample.Humanityhasenough
intelligencetomoveintoouterspaceandexploreotherworlds.Maybethisisnottheendofthe
growthofintelligencebutjustthebeginning.Severalstudieshaveshownthatintelligenceisstill
rising.Ifintelligenceisstillontherise,thenwhatevidenceistherethatitwillslowandeventually
stop?
Thispapermakesaconclusionthatisunfoundedandunsupported.Thusfar,therehasbeenno
evidencethathumanintelligencehasceaseditsgrowth.
PeerCommentary
PossibleConfoundingFactorsinMarriageand
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Intelligence
RebeccaM.Light
RochesterInstituteofTechnology
KyleR.Skottke'spaper,"TheEvolutionofHumanIntelligence:IncreasingImportanceof
DomainSpecificIntelligenceintheModernEnvironment,"providesanexemplarylookinto
domainspecificintelligenceanditschangeovertime.However,Ithinkhishastyrejectionofthe
domaindependentmodelisflawed.Domaindependentintelligence,asdescribedinthepaper,
holdsthatintelligenceencompassescertainpersonalitycharacteristicsmateselection,cheater
detectionmodule,andfacerecognitionareallinfluencedaccordingtointelligence.Herejects
thistheorybasedonastudydoneonindividualswithanIQhigherthan125.Ofallthecognitive
classes,thestudyshowedthatthispercentilewasleastlikelytomarry.Skottkestated,"This
datasuggeststhatmateselectionandgeneralintelligenceareunrelated..."
Thiscertainlydoesappeartodisprovethedomainspecificmodel.However,perhapsthereisa
graphicaltendencyofintelligencethatisnotstrictlylinear.Asintelligencereachesacertainpoint,
itcouldbearguedthatlikelihoodofgettingmarrieddecreasesinmoreofabellshapedmanner.
Thiswouldsuggestthatthereisarelationshipbetweenintelligenceandmateselection.Thesame
canbeappliedtothoseofexceptionallylowIQsandanytrendinmateselectionthatcanbe
observedwiththem.Theexacttestresultsofthestudywouldneedtobeexaminedatgreater
lengthbeforecompletelyrejectingthedomainspecificmodel.
Therearemanyfactorsthatcouldcontributetothedecreasedlikelihoodofmarriageinthose
withextremelyhighintelligence.ThesocialhabitsofthosewithhighIQscouldhaveaninfluence
onthenumberofpossiblematestochoosefrom.Thoseindividualsthatdedicatethemselvesto
theirworkmayencounterfeweropportunitiestoengageinsocialactivitieswiththeopposite
sex.Beyondsocialhabits,thepersonalitytraitsingeneralcouldmakeitdifficultforintelligent
individualstomeet,connect,pursue,engageandeventuallymarryapotentialmate.Theymay
havetroubleexpressingtheiremotions,nevertellingtheobjectoftheirdesirehowtheyfeel.
Standardsformatesmightbehigherthanthosewithlowerintelligencelevels.Thosewith
extremelyhighIQsmaytypicallydesirequalitiesinmatesthatarerareorunrealistic.For
example,thedesiretomarrysomeonethatisofequalorgreaterintelligencewouldmakeita
challengeforsomeonewhoisageniustofindanothergeniustomarry.Thisrequirement,in
combinationwithanyotherstandardmakesitincreasinglydifficulttoletalonefindamate,
regardlessofifthefeelingsarereciprocated.Thisalsopresentsanotherchallengeperhaps
othersviewthosewithanextremelyhighintelligenceasutterlyundesirable.Therecouldbean
aspectoftheirpersonalitythatpreventsthelovebeingreciprocated.Manygeniusesmight
experiencedismalcasesofunrequitedlove.
Themarriagebeliefsofintelligentindividualsmayalsocausedeclinedmarriagelevelsinhighly
intelligentindividuals.Perhapsitisthegenerallogicofintelligentindividualsthatmarriageis
unnecessary.Thiscouldbeobservedinhighlyintelligentindividualsthattakeonalifelong
partnerorengageinlifelongfriendshipsandaffairs.Forexample,WilkieCollinsnevermarried
CarolineGraves,althoughtheylivedtogetherlikemanandwifeduringtheiradultlife.Wilkie
Collinsalsotookonalover,MarthaRudd,withwhomhefatheredthreechildren.Hewashighly
intelligentandsimplydidnotbelieveintheconstraintsofmarriage.Hesupportedasortof
polygamy,andshowedununwillingnesstolimithimselftoonewomanonly.
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Itcouldbeacharacteristicthathighlyintelligentindividualsarehomosexual.LeonardiDaVinci
nevermarried,probablybecausehewasattractedtomen,whichwasnotsociallyacceptable.
Eventoday,thehomosexualmarriagedebatepresentsachallengetothoseindividualsofhigh
intelligencewhowouldliketogetmarried,butareunabletobecausetheyareattractedto
membersofthesamesex.
Itisarashassumptiontostatethatintelligenceandmateselectioniscompletelyunrelated
aspectsofhumancognition.Beforethedomaindependenttheoryiscompletelyeliminated,the
possibleconfoundingvariablesoughttobefullyexaminedandtested.Patternsandtrendsinthe
characteristicsandbehaviorsofthosewithhighintelligencecouldprovidenewinsightintotheir
mateselectionprocess.
PeerCommentary
EmotionalIntelligenceandItsRoleinEvolutionary
Selection
LaurenA.McCarthy
RochesterInstituteofTechnology
Skottkestatedthatmodernsocietyhascausedhumanstorelymoreon"cognitiveabilityand
intelligence,"butheneglectedtoexpandonaveryimportantskillforsurvivalinthemodern
environmentsocialintelligence,alsoknownasemotionalintelligence.Someonewithahigh
emotionalintelligencewouldbebetterpreparedtogetalongwithothersandavoidconflictina
group.Throughevolutionandnaturalselection,thosewithaloweremotionalintelligencewould
havebeenexcludedfromagroupandlesslikelytosurviveandreproducecomparedwiththeir
peerswhowereabletoworkinagroupandhencebenefitfromtheadvantagesagroup
providedfordefense,foodgathering,andgeneralwelfare.Althoughthisskillwouldhavebeen
veryimportantwhenhumanwerelessindependent,itisstillapplicableintoday'ssociety,as
thosewithalowemotionalintelligencearelesslikelytoformconnectionswithothers.These
importantconnectionscanhelpfostercareerpromotions,discourageapotentialattacker
(becauseoneisnotaloner),andevenprovidefriendshipsthatreducetheriskfordepression.
Spearman,whofirstdeterminedtheexistenceofgeneralintelligence,arguedthatahighscoreon
onefacetofintelligenceoftencorrelatedwithahighscoreonanotherfacet.Gardner,onthe
otherhand,usedtheargumentofabraindamagedpersonorasavantwhohasaspecifictalent
thatdoesnotcorrelatewithhighscoresinanyotherareasofintelligence.IagreewithSkottke's
assertionthatthedomainindependentmodelistheonlyappropriatemodel,becauseonlythis
modeltakesintoaccountthedifferenttypesofintelligencethatpeoplepossess,leadingtotheir
greaterchanceforsurvivalandreproduction.Therefore,evennowafternaturalselectionhas
actedonthepopulation,wehavepeoplenotonlywithhighintelligenceandgoodspatial
reasoning,butalsopeoplewhoareskilledinotherareassuchasartandphotography.The
domaindependentmodelreliesoncorrelationsinhighscoresofintelligence,butthiscould
simplybetheresultoflinkedgenes.Giventhatintelligenceis50%heritable,itwouldbelogical
toseeacorrelationbetweenlinkedgenesandthegfactor.Thisdoesnotsuggest,however,that
alltraitssuchasmateselectionandintelligencearealsocorrelated.
Skottkestatedthattherehasbeenanotedincreaseinthesizeofthedorsalthalamusandcortex
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ascomparedwithourearlierancestors.Hedidnot,however,exploretheideathattherecould
beadirectcorrelationbetweenthesizeofthedorsalthalamusandintelligence.Peoplewhoare
deficientinGABAoftensufferfrompanicattacksoranoverfiringofneuronsinhibitingaperson
fromconcentrating.OverproductionofGABA,however,hasbeenfoundtohavesedative
effects.Therefore,itisimportantforoptimumperformancethatGABAbeneitherdeficientnor
excessive.PerhapsthosewithalargerdorsalthalamusalsohaveaslightexcessofGABA
production,andconverselythosewithasmalldorsalthalamushavedeficientGABAproduction.
Inhisconclusion,Skottkearguedthatevolutioncannotoccurnowbecause"thereisnopressure
toweedoutthelessintelligent,"butitseemsthatheisonlythinkingaboutthepopulationof
developedcountriesratherthanofdevelopingcountries.Peopleindevelopingcountries
competeforavailablefoodandresources,andhencethoselessabletoprovideforthemselves
ortheirfamiliesarelesslikelytosurviveandreproduce.Inadevelopingcountry,notonlyone's
generalintelligencebutalsoone'semotionalintelligenceisimportanttosurvival.Thosewithlow
emotionalintelligencewouldmoreoftenbeostracizedfromagroup,whichwouldthreatentheir
welfareandsafetyandhencetheirchancesforreproduction.
AuthorResponse
NaturalSelectionastheMechanismforEvolution
KyleR.Skottke
RochesterInstituteofTechnology
Inhercommentary,Burtbroughtintoquestiontheimportanceofsexualselectioninthe
evolutionofintelligence.Thisisavalidquestion,becauseDarwinproposedtwomethodsof
evolution,naturalselectionandsexualselection.Althoughthisisaninterestingperspectivefor
exploringintelligenceevolution,Ichosetofocusmainlyonthenaturalselectionaspectand
sexualselectionwaslargelyignoredbecauseofspacelimitations.
Inhercommentary,Cherrydisputedthecessationofintelligenceevolution.WhenIstatedthat
theremightnotbeanyfurtherevolutionofintelligence,itwasmainlybasedonthelackofnatural
selectionthatwefaceinmodernsociety.Thatisnottosaythattherewillnotbefurther
abstractionsofourenvironmentthatwillforceustodevelopgfurther,butmerelythatthereisno
basistoexpectfurtherevolutionofintelligencebasedonthetraditionalnaturalselection
mechanism.
Inherreview,Lightsuggestedthatthedomaindependentmodelshouldbegivenmore
considerationthanitreceivedinmypaper.Lightstatedthatabellshapedcurvecouldaccount
forthelowermarriageratesofhighintelligenceindividuals.Thisisaninterestingproposal
however,Istillfavorthedomainindependentmodel,becausegwasalsocomparedtocheater
detectionandfacerecognition.Ifindithardtobelievethatthesamebellcurveappliestothese
modulesaswellitseemsmuchmorelikelythattheyareindependent.
Inhercommentary,McCarthyadvocatedemotionalintelligenceandsuggestedthatitshouldbe
moreheavilyconsideredthroughoutthepaper.Itistruethatsocialskillsandemotional
intelligenceareimportant,butitiswidelyacceptedthattheywereequallyimportanttoour
primitiveancestors.Emotionalintelligenceappearstobeatraitthathasremainedimportant
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throughoutevolution,whichiswhyIdidnotincludeitwhendiscussingfactorsthatwouldhave
causedaneedforincreasedintelligence,suchasmovingintoanunfamiliarenvironment.
Therearestillseveralaspectsofthispaperthatarecontestable.Expertsarguewhetherdomains
ofthebrainaredependentorindependentaswellaswhetherornotwewillexperienceany
moremajorchangesinintelligence.Althoughtherearestilluncertainties,Ibelievethattheviews
expressedinthispaperarethemostplausiblegivenavailableknowledge.
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