Basic Concepts in

Nuclear Physics
Paolo Finelli
Literature/Bibliography
Some useful texts are available at the Library:
Wong,
Nuclear Physics
Krane,
Introductory Nuclear Physics
Basdevant, Rich and Spiro,
Fundamentals in Nuclear Physics
Bertulani,
Nuclear Physics in a Nutshell
Introduction
Purpose of these introductory notes is recollecting few basic notions of
Nuclear Physics. For more details, the reader is referred to the literature.
Binding energy and Liquid Drop Model
Nuclear dimensions
Saturation of nuclear forces
Fermi gas
Shell model
Isospin
Several arguments will not be covered but, of course, are extremely
important: pairing, deformations, single and collective excitations,
! decay, " decay, # decay, fusion process, fission process,...
The Nuclear Landscape
The scope of nuclear physics is
Improve the knowledge of all nuclei
Understand the stellar nucleosynthesis
Basdevant, Rich and Spiro
e
5
e
6
e
7
e
4
Stellar Nucleosynthesis
Dynamical r-process calculation assuming an
expansion with an initial density of 0.029e4 g/cm3, an
initial temperature of 1.5 GK and an expansion
timescale of 0.83 s.
The r-process is responsible for the
origin of about half of the elements
heavier than iron that are found in
nature, including elements such as
gold or uranium. Shown is the result of
a model calculation for this process
that might occur in a supernova
explosion. Iron is bombarded with a
huge flux of neutrons and a sequence
of neutron captures and beta decays is
then creating heavy elements.
The evolution of the nuclear abundances. Each square is a nucleus. The colors indicate the
abundance of the nucleus:
JINA
m
N
c
2
= m
A
c
2
Zm
e
c
2
+
Z

i=1
B
i
m
A
c
2
Zm
e
c
2
B = (Zm
p
+Nm
n
) c
2
m
N
c
2
[Zm
p
+Nm
n
(m
A
Zm
e
)] c
2
B =

Zm(
1
H) +Nm
n
m(
A
X)

c
2
Binding energy
Electrons Mass (~Z)
Atomic Mass Electrons Binding Energies
(negligible)
Basdevant, Rich and Spiro
E
/
A

(
B
i
n
d
i
n
g

E
n
e
r
g
y

p
e
r

n
u
c
l
e
o
n
)

A (Mass Number)
Average mass of fission
fragments is 118
Fe
Nuclear Fission Energy
Nuclear
Fusion
Energy
235
U
Gianluca Usai
The most bound
isotopes
Binding energy
Binding energy and Liquid Drop Model
Basdevant, Rich and Spiro
Volume term, proportional to R
3
(or A): saturation
Surface term, proportional to R
2
(or A
2/3
)
Coulomb term, proportional to Z
2
/A
1/3
Pairing term, nucleon pairs
coupled to J
$
=0
+
are favored
Asymmetry term, neutron-rich nuclei are favored
Binding energy and Liquid Drop Model
Gianluca Usai
Contributions to B/A as function of A
Comparison with empirical data
Nuclear Dimensions
Ground state
Excited States (~eV)
Gianluca Usai
Ground state
Ground state
Excited States (~ MeV)
Excited States (~ GeV)
Nuclear Dimensions: energy scales
(r) =
(0)
1 + e
(rR)/s
R : 1/2 density radius
s : skin thickness
Nuclear Dimensions
Basdevant, Rich and Spiro
Fermi distribution
Nuclear forces saturation
An old (but still good) definition:
E. Fermi, Nuclear Physics
Mean potential method: Fermi gas model
In this model, nuclei are considered to be composed of two fermion gases,
a neutron gas and a proton gas. The particles do not interact, but they are
confined in a sphere which has the dimension of the nucleus. The
interaction appear implicitly through the assumption that the nucleons are
confined in the sphere. If the liquid drop model is based on the saturation
of nuclear forces, on the other hand the Fermi model is based on the
quantum statistics effects.
The Fermi model could provide a way to calculate
the basic constants in the Bethe-Weizscker formula
H =
A

i=1
T
i

A

i=1

2
2M

2
i

H(r
1
, r
2
, . . .) = E(r
1
, r
2
, . . .)
(r
1
, r
2
, . . .) =
1
(r
1
)
2
(r
2
) . . .

2
2M

2
i
(r
i
) = E(r
i
)
E = E
1
+E
2
+E
3
+. . . =
A

i=1
E
i

k
2
i
(k
2
ix
+k
2
iy
+k
2
iz
) =
2ME
i

2
> 0

i
(r)
i
(x, y, z) = N sin(k
ix
x) sin(k
iy
y) sin(k
iz
z)
d
2

i
(x)
dx
2
= k
2
ix

i
(x)
Fermi gas model (I)
Hamiltonian
Wavefunction factorization
Boundary conditions
Separable equations
Gasiorowicz, p.58

i
(x) = Bsin(k
ix
x)
1 =

L
0
dx|
i
(x)|
2
= B
2

L
0
dxsin
2
(k
ix
x) = B
2
L
2
B =

2
L

i
(r) =

2
L

3/2
sin(k
ix
x) sin(k
iy
y) sin(k
iz
z)
k
ix
=

L
n
1i
, k
iy
=

L
n
2i
, k
iz
=

L
n
3i
(n
1i
, n
2i
, n
3i
= positive integers)
E
i
=

2

k
2
i
2M
=

2
2M
(k
2
ix
+k
2
iy
+k
2
iz
)
E
i
(n
1i
, n
2i
, n
3i
) =

2

2
2ML
2
(n
2
1i
+n
2
2i
+n
2
3i
)
Fermi gas model (II)
Solution
Normalization
k
x,y,z
=

L
(n
1,2,3
+ 1 n
1,2,3
) =

L
dn(k) =
1
8
4k
2
dk
1
(/L)
3


(2)
3
d

k
n(

k) =

k
0
dn(k) =

(2)
3
4
3

k
3
A = 4

k
F
0
dn(k) =

(2)
3
4
4
3
k
3
=
2k
3
F
3
2

0
=
2k
3
F
3
2
L
3

0
= A/
Fermi gas model (III)
Density of states
Number
of particles
Density
of particles
spin-isospin
Fermi momentum
(k
F
k)
Fermi gas model (IV)
Fermi gas distribution:
N(k)
k k
F
1
0
Step function
filled empty

0
= 0.17 fm
3
k
F
= 1.36 fm
1

F
=

2
k
2
F
2M
= 38.35 MeV
T = 23 MeV
4dn(k)N(k) = 4

(2)
3
(k
F
k)d

k
T =
2

2
k
2
2M
k
2
dk(k
F
k) =
2k
3
F
3
2
3
5

2
k
2
F
2M
= A
3
5

F
(BE)
vol
= b
vol
A (b
vol
= 15.56 MeV)
< U >= 15.56 < T > 39 MeV
Fermi gas model (V)
The fermi level is
the last level occupied
Evidences of Shell Structure in Nuclei
Basdevant, Rich and Spiro
E
n
= (n + 3/2)
H = V
ls
(r)l s/
2
ls

2
=
j(j+1)l(l+1)s(s+1)
2
= l/2 j = l + 1/2
= (l + 1)/2 j = l 1/2
Mean potential method: Shell model
The shell model, in its most simple
version, is composed of a mean
field potential (maybe a harmonic
oscillator) plus a spin-orbit
potential in order to reproduce the
empirical evidences of shell
structure in nuclei
Basdevant, Rich and Spiro
Mean potential method: Shell model
H
i
=
1
2m
p
2
i
+
1
2
M
2
0
r
2
i
V
0

p
2
2M
+
1
2
M
2
0
r
2

(r) = (E +V
0
)(r)
(r) = R
nl
(r)Y
lm
(, )
R
nl
(r) = (1)
n

2
(l + 1/2)!

l + n + 1/2
n

r
l
e
r
2
/2
1
F
1

n, l +
3
2
, r
2

Shell model (I)

H =
A

i=1
H
i
1
F
1
(n, + 1, z) =
(n + 1)( + 1)
(n + + 1)
L

n
(z)
E
N
=

N +
3
2

0
N = 2n +l
d = 2
N

l=0
(2l + 1) = 2
[N/2]

n=0
(2(N 2n) + 1) =
= 2(2N + 1)

N
2
+ 1

8
[N/2]

n=0
d = (N + 1)(N + 2)
Shell model (II)
Degeneracy
Shell model (III)
Shell model (IV)
Shell model (V)
Shell model (V)
Isospin
In 1932, Heisenberg suggested that the proton and the neutron
could be seen as two charge states of a single particle.
939.6 MeV
938.3 MeV
EM % 0 EM = 0
n
p
N
Protons and neutrons have almost identical mass
Low energy np scattering and pp scattering below E = 5 MeV, after
correcting for Coulomb effects, is equal within a few percent
Energy spectra of mirror nuclei, (N,Z) and (Z,N), are almost identical

N
(r, , ) =

p
(r, ,
1
2
) proton

n
(r, ,
1
2
) neutron
1
2
,
1
2
= | =

1
0

1
2
,
1
2
= | =

0
1

Isospin is an internal variable that determines the nucleon state

One could introduce a (2d) vector space that is mathematical copy of the
usual spin space
proton state neutron state
Isospin (II)

3
| = |

3
| = |

N
= a| +b| =

a
b

[t
i
, t
j
] = i
ijk
t
k
P
p
=
1+
3
2
=

Q
e
P
n
=
1
3
2

1
,
2
,
3
t
i
=
1
2

i
t
+
| = |
t

| = |
t
+
| = 0
t

| = 0
t

= t
1
it
2
Isospin
eigenstates of the third component of isospin
In general
The isospin generators
Projectors Raising and lowering operators
Pauli matrices
neutron to
proton
proton to
neutron
Fundamental representations

T =

t
1
+

t
2
T = 0, 1
T = 0
0,0
=
1

2
(
1

2
)
T = 1

1,1
=
1

1,1
=
1

1,0
=
1

2
(
1

2
+
2

1
)
Isospin for 2 nucleons
|T = 1, T
z
= 1 = |pp
|T = 1, T
z
= 1 = |nn
1

2
[|T = 1, T
z
= 0 + |T = 0, T
z
= 0] = |pn
Proton-proton state
Neutron-neutron state
Proton-neutron state
Isospin for 2 nucleons
(1, 2) =
pp
(r
1
,
1
, r
2
,
2
)
1,1
+
nn
(r
1
,
1
, r
2
,
2
)
1,1
+
a
np
(r
1
,
1
, r
2
,
2
)
1,0
+
s
np
(r
1
,
1
, r
2
,
2
)
0,0
P
T=0
=
1
(1)

2
4
P
T=1
=1
=
1 +
(1)
3
2
1 +
(2)
3
2
P
T=1
=0
=
1
4
(1 +
(1)

(2)
2
(1)
3

(2)
3
)

0,0

1,1
P
T=1
=1
=
1
(1)
3
2
1
(2)
3
2

1,1

1,0
antisymmetric symmetric
Wavefunction
(r, s
1
, s
2
,

t
1
,

t
2
) = (r)f

(s
1
, s
2
)f

t
1
,

t
2
)
()
L+S+T
= ()
Symmetry for two nucleon states
the overall wavefunction must be antisymmetric
L=0, S=1 T=0
3
S
1
isospin singlet
Sistema di 2
nucleoni identici
(pp,nn)
Sistema di 2
nucleoni distinti
(pn)
ISOSPIN SPAZIO SPIN
T
z
= 1
T
z
= 0
Funzione simmetrica
(tripletto T=1)
Funzione antisimmetrica
(singoletto T=0)
L dispari
L dispari
L pari
L dispari
(x)
(x)
(x)
(x)
antisimmetrica
antisimmetrica
simmetrica
simmetrica
S=1
simmetrica
(no onda S)
S=0
()
() antisimmetrica
1
S
0
L pari
L pari
(x) simmetrica
(x) antisimmetrica
S=1
S=1
simmetrica ()
simmetrica ()
S=0
S=0
() antisimmetrica
() antisimmetrica
(no onda S)
1
S
0
(no onda S)
3
S
1
T
z
= 0
Funzione simmetrica
(tripletto T=1)
pp np nn
0.0
60 eV
-2.23 MeV
3
S
1
(T=0)
1
S
0
(T=1)
1
S
0
(T=1)
1
S
0
(T=1)
Coulomb
Additional slides
...many open questions
v(r r

) = v
0
(r r

)
V (r) =

dr

v(r r

)(r

dr v(r) 200 MeV fm

3
V (r) =
V
0
1 + e
(rR)/R
Mean potential method
The concept of mean potential (or mean field) strongly relies on the basic assumption
of independent particle motion, i.e. even if we know that the real nuclear potential
is complicated and nucleons are strongly correlated, some basic properties can be
adequately described assuming individual nucleons moving in an average potential (it
means that all the nucleons experience the same field).
a rough approximation could be
where v
0
can be phenomenologically estimated to be
Then one can use a simple guess for V: harmonic oscillator, square well,
Woods-Saxon shape...