CHAPTER 6-BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES

I. Bone tissue is an ever-changing, growing, developing tissue in the human body. It serves as the major
support tissue for the human body.
A. Osteology
II. F!"#IO!$ OF BO!% #I$$%
A. $upport-bone provides a framewor& for the human body. It supports soft tissues and serves as a
region for muscle attachment.
B. 'rotection
". (ovement-s&eletal muscle attaches to and moves bones.
). (ineral $torage-bone is a reservoir for calcium and phosphate. On demand, bone tissue can
release both of these minerals into the bloodstream for use in the human body.
%. Blood "ell 'roduction
*. +emopoiesis ,hematopoiesis--the formation.production of blood cells. #his process ta&es
place in red bone marrow.
F. %nergy $torage
*. /ellow Bone (arrow-associated with bone. #his material is composed of adipose tissue
and scattered leu&ocytes. #he adipose tissue serves as a source of energy for the human
body.
III. O01A!I2A#IO! OF #+% $3%4%#A4 $/$#%(
A. #he human s&eleton is composed of 567 bones dispersed throughout the body. #hese bones are
classified into two major s&eletal divisions8
*. #he A9ial $&eleton-bones located along the central a9is of the body.
5. #he Appendicular $&eleton-bones of the e9tremities.
b. #ypes of Bones in the +uman $&eleton-based on shape.
*. 4ong Bones-are longer than they are wide.
a. Are typically curved. #he curvature acts to increase their strength which allows them
to withstand great stress: thus reducing the chance of fracture.
b. #he (ajor 'arts of a 4ong Bone8
*- )iaphysis-the shaft of the bone.
5- %piphyses-the ends of the bone. #hese are covered and protected by hyaline
cartilage.
;- (etaphysis-the region in a mature bone where the diaphysis meets the
epiphysis. #his region of the bone contains the epiphyseal plate-a region
where cartilage is replaced by bone. #he epiphyseal plate is involved in bone
growth.
<- +yaline ,Articular- "artilage-a layer of cartilage that covers the ends of a
long bone. #he cartilage serves as a shoc& absorber between bones.
=- 'eriosteum-a membrane that surrounds the surface of a bone. It is composed
of 5 4ayers8
a- An outer fibrous layer that is composed of dense irregular connective
tissue. #his layer contains blood vessels, nerves and lymphatic
vessels that pass into the bone.
b- An inner osteogenic layer that contains elastic fibers, blood vessels
and bone cells.
c- Overall, the periosteum is involved in bone growth, repair and
development. It also serves as a site of attachment for ligaments and
tendons.
7- (edullary ,(arrow- "avity-an open space within the diaphysis of a bone. It
contains yellow bone marrow.
>- %ndosteum-a membrane that covers and lines the medullary cavity of a bone.
It contains 5 speciali?ed types of bone cells8 osteoprogenitor cells and
osteoclasts.
5. $hort Bones-are cube-shaped. #hese are composed of spongy bone tissue e9cept for an outer
layer of compact bone tissue. #he carpals and tarsals are e9amples of short bones.
;. Flat Bones-are very thin bones. #he cranial bones, sternum and ribs are flat bones.
a. #hese are composed of 5 plates of compact bone tissue that encloses a layer of spongy
bone. #hese bones provide considerable protection and they offer a great surface
area for tendon and ligament attachment.
<. Irregular Bones-have comple9 shapes. #he vertebrae of the spinal column and some facial
bones are classified as irregular bones.
=. $esamoid Bones-small bones embedded in tendons in the body. #he patella is an e9ample.
I@. +I$#O4O1/ OF BO!% #I$$%
A. Overall, bone tissue is composed of < types of cells that are embedded in a thic&, hardened matri9.
B. Bone (atri9-is composed of about 5=A water, 5=A protein, and =6A mineral salts ,calcium
carbonate and calcium phosphate-.
*. "alcification ,(inerali?ation--the formation of new matri9. #his occurs as the above mineral
salts accumulate over collagen fibers. #he collagen fibers act to provide strength to the
matri9.
". < #ypes of "ells in Bone #issue8
*. Osteoprogenitor cells-unspeciali?ed cells derived from mesenchyme. #hese cells are capable
of undergoing rapid cell division. #hese can develop into osteoblasts.
a. Osteoprogenitor cells are located near blood vessels in the periosteum and endosteum
of bone.
5. Osteoblasts-secrete collagen and other materials needed to build bone tissue. #hese have lost
the ability to undergo cell division. #hese cells function by secreting new bone matri9.
a. #hese are located on the surface of bone tissue.
b. Bhen osteoblasts are completely surrounded by matri9, they are referred to as
Osteocytes.
;. Osteocytes-mature bone cells. #hese cells have lost the ability to divide. Osteocytes do not
secrete bone matri9. #hey are involved in nutrient.waste e9change between bone and blood.
a. #hese cells regulate the daily activities of bone tissue.
<. Osteoclasts-are involved in bone resorption ,the destruction of bone matri9-. #hese play a &ey
role in bone growth and repair.
). 5 #ypes of Bone #issue8 "ompact Bone and $pongy Bone.
%. "ompact Bone #issue
*. "ompact bone forms the e9ternal layer over all bones in the body. It also ma&es up the
diaphysis of long bones.
5. "ompact bone is composed of repeating units &nown as +aversian $ystems ,Osteons-.
;. $tructure of a +aversian $ystem8
a. +aversian ,"entral- "anals-run longitudinally in bone tissue. #hese contain blood
vessels and nerves.
b. 4amellae-rings of matri9 in bone. #his is composed of the mineral salts calcium
carbonate and calcium phosphate.
c. @ol&mannCs "anals-run hori?ontally in bone tissue. #hese also contain blood vessels
and nerves.
d. 4acunae-small spaces in the lamellae of compact bone. Osteocytes are in these small
spaces.
e. "analiculi-small channels e9tending from lacunae. #hese serve as passageways
through which nutrients and wastes can pass.
F. $pongy Bone #issue-contains many open spaces.
*. $pongy bone tissue is composed of thin plates of bone &nown as trabeculae. It does not
contain +aversian $ystems.
5. #he spaces between trabeculae are filled with red bone marrow which is involved in blood cell
production.
;. Osteocytes are located in the trabeculae.
<. $pongy bone tissue is found in8 short bones, flat and irregular bones and in the epiphyses of
long bones. $pecifically, spongy bone is found in the sternum, ribs, s&ulls, and vertebrae.
1. Bone contains a large supply of blood. !utrient arteries carry blood into the diaphysis of long bones.
#hese enter the bone through nutrient foramina.
*. %piphyseal arteries carry blood into the epiphyses of a bone.
@. BO!% FO0(A#IO! ,O$$IFI"A#IO!-
A. Bone is a dynamic, ever-changing type of tissue. Ossification is the process by which bone forms.
B. 5 'atterns of Ossification in the +uman Body8
*. Intramembranous Ossification-bone formation directly on or over loose fibrous connective
tissue.
a. !o cartilage stage is present in bones that form in this fashion.
b. $teps in Intramembranous Ossification
*- (esenchyme cells cluster at the site of bone formation and differentiate into
osteoprogenitor cells. #his cluster of cells is referred to as a center of
ossification.
5- !e9t, the osteoprogenitor cells develop into osteoblasts which secrete bone
matri9. As the matri9 forms, it develops into trabeculae which fuse together
to form spongy bone. 0ed bone marrow fills the spaces between the
trabeculae.
;- %ventually, the surface layers of the spongy bone develop into compact bone.
a- $pongy bone remains in the center of the developing bone.
5. %ndochondral Ossification-bone formation over hyaline cartilage.
a. (ost human bones form in this manner.
b. $teps in %ndochondral Ossification8
*- (esenchyme cells develop into chondroblasts which secrete the matri9 of
hyaline cartilage.
5- !e9t, the cartilage grows via interstitial and appositional growth.
;- %ventually, a nutrient artery grows into the developing hyaline cartilage. #his
stimulates osteoprogenitor cells to develop into osteoblasts which begin
secreting matri9.
<- Bone tissue forms as trabeculae over the hyaline cartilage. Osteoclasts form
the marrow cavity of the bone. #he diaphysis completely replaces the spongy
bone with compact bone.
@I. BO!% 10OB#+-I! 4%!1#+
A. Bone growth in length generally ends before the age of 5=: however, bones may continue to thic&en
throughout a personCs life. 4ength growth may stop earlier in females than in males.
B. %vents in 4ength 1rowth of Bone8
*. %piphyseal 'late-a layer of hyaline cartilage in the metaphysis of a growing bone. It consists
of < (ajor 2ones8
a. #he 2one of 0esting "artilage-cells here anchor the epiphyseal plate to the compact
bone of the epiphysis. #he cells here are not involved in bone growth.
b. #he 2one of 'roliferating "artilage-contains actively dividing chondrocytes. As the
cells here divide, the epiphysis moves away from the diaphysis. #his in turn produces
length growth in bone.
c. #he 2one of +ypertrophic "artilage-contains mature chondrocytes.
d. #he 2one of "alcified "artilage-contains osteoblasts which secrete bone matri9.
". Final 'oints on 4ength 1rowth in Bones8
*. #he epiphyseal plate is the only area in a bone where length growth can occur. %ventually,
cells in the epiphyseal plate stop dividing. At this point, bone tissue replaces the cartilage.
#his produces a remnant &nown as the epiphyseal line.
5. Fractures of the epiphyseal plate can result in a cessation of bone growth. )ue to this, a
fractured bone may be shorter than its counterpart.
;. Bone growth usually stops before the age of 5=. In general, length growth ends earlier in
females than in males.
@II. BO!% 10OB#+-I! #+I"3!%$$-this occurs as osteoblasts secrete new matri9 to the periosteum of a
bone.
@III. +O0(O!A4 0%14A#IO! OF BO!% 10OB#+
A. +uman 1rowth +ormone ,+1+--secreted by the pituitary gland. #his hormone regulates bone
growth prior to puberty. Oversecretion of this hormone may lead to gigantism: whereas
undersecretion may lead to dwarfism.
B. At puberty, the se9 hormones estrogen and testosterone stimulate changes in the human s&eleton.
#hese hormones are responsible for the growth spurt that occurs at puberty. #hey also stimulate the
s&eleton to develop into the typical male and female shape.
". #hyroid +ormones-also play a role in bone growth and development.
ID. BO!% 0%(O)%4I!1-the ongoing replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue.
A. Bone is an ever-changing type of tissue. 0emodeling removes worn and injured bone tissue and
replaces it with new, healthy bone tissue. #his ensures that bone remain healthy.
B. Osteoclasts-bone cells that are responsible for removing old bone matri9 ,bone resorption-.
*. #hese cells brea&down matri9 by secreting protein-digesting en?ymes and various acids.
5. Once old bone matri9 has been removed, osteoblasts secrete new matri9.
;. 0emoval of too much matri9 can cause osteoporosis: whereas, oversecretion of bone matri9
can lead to bone spurs or calcium deposits.
". Al&aline phosphatase-an en?yme that regulates the formation of calcium carbonate and calcium
phosphate #his en?yme is needed in large supplies for bone remodeling to occur.
). @itamins and (inerals that are needed for Bone 0emodeling to occur8
*. "alcium
5. @itamin "-needed for the formation of collagen fibers.
;. @itamin )-needed for the absorption of calcium.
<. @itamin A-maintains a balance between bone deposit and bone resorption.
=. (agnesium, phosphorous, manganese
D. F0A"#0%-refers to any brea& in a bone.
A. #he repair of a fracture is a slow and painful process.
B. $teps in Fracture 0epair8
*. A fracture occurs. #his brea&s the bone and blood vessels around the bone.
5. As bleeding occurs around the fracture, a blood clot forms. #his clot is &nown as a fracture
hematoma. #his hematoma is fully formed about E hours after the fracture.
;. Blood capillaries grow into the damaged area. Bhite blood cells and osteoclasts begin
removing old, damaged and dead bone tissue at the site of the fracture. #his may ta&e several
wee&s to occur.
<. !e9t, capillaries grow into the fracture hematoma. #his produces a structure &nown as a
procallus. Osteoprogenitor cells from the periosteum of healthy bone tissue invade the
procallus. #he Osteoprogenitor cells then develop into8
a. "hondroblasts-which secrete cartilage tissue.
b. Ostoeblasts-which secrete bone matri9.
=. #he procallus develops into a callus which is a cartilaginous mass of tissue that bridges the
ends of the bro&en bone. Osteoblasts secrete matri9 over the callus to produce new bone
matri9.
7. 0emodeling occurs to shape and strengthen the bone.
". #ypes of Fractures8
*. 'artial fracture-the bone is not bro&en into two or more pieces.
5. "omplete fracture-the bone is bro&en into two or more pieces.
;. "losed ,$imple- fracture-the brea& does not brea& the s&in.
<. Open ,"ompound- fracture-the fracture does brea& the s&in.
=. "omminuted fracture-the bone has splintered into several small pieces at the site of the
fracture.
7. 1reenstic& fracture-a partial fracture in which one side of the bone is bro&en and the other side
is twisted. #hese are common in young children.
>. $piral fracture-occurs when the bone is twisted.
E. $tress fracture-microscopic fracture often caused by repeated stress.
F. "ompression fracture-bones are forced together. #his crushes healthy bone tissue.
). #he "lavicle is the most commonly bro&en bone in the human body.
DI. BO!% A!) "A4"I( +O(%O$#A$I$
A. Bone is the major calcium reservoir in the human body. Bones stores FFA of the bodyCs calcium.
B. ses of "alcium in the +uman Body8
*. 0egulation of muscle contraction
5. Impulse formation and conduction in the nerve tissue
;. Blood clotting
<. $erves as a cofactor for many en?ymes
". 'arathyroid +ormone ,'#+--hormone that regulates calcium e9change between bone and the blood.
*. #his hormone is secreted by the parathyroid gland. It aids in regulating bond remodeling.
5. Bhen calcium levels fall in the blood, '#+ stimulates the activity of osteoclasts in bone
tissue.
a. #he osteoclasts respond by increasing their rate of bone resorption. As this occurs,
calcium is released from the bone into the bloodstream: thus, increasing calcium
levels in the blood.
b. '#+ also increases calcium recovery in the &idneys. Once again, this aids in returning
calcium to the bloodstream.
). "alcitonin-secreted by cells in the thyroid gland.
*. Bhen calcium levels rise above normal in the bloodstream, calcitonin responds by decreasing
the activity of osteoclasts. It also increases the activity of osteoblasts. Overall, this reduces
calcium levels in the bloodstream.
DII. )I$O0)%0$.(%)I"A4 #%0(I!O4O1/ A$$O"IA#%) BI#+ #+% $3%4%#A4 $/$#%(
A. Osteoporosis-a condition of porous bone. It is characteri?ed by decreased bone mass and increased
susceptibility to fracture. +as been treated with calcium and vitamin ) supplements. %9ercise appears
to reduce ,an in some cases prevent- the onset of osteoporosis.
B. 'agetCs disease-accelerated remodeling. "auses wea& areas in bone tissue.
". Osteoarthritis-the degeneration of hyaline cartilage.
). Osteomalacia-disorders in which the bones are inadeGuately minerali?ed. For whatever reason,
calcium is not deposited in bone tissue.
%. 0ic&ets-a form of osteomalacia that occurs in children. Is usually associated with vitamin )
deficiency. )rin&ing vitamin ) fortified mil& usually alleviates this illness.
F. Achondroplasia-a type of dwarfism. Involves defective cartilage and endochondral bone growth in
which the bones of the limbs are too short.
1. Bony spur-abnormal projection from a bone due to bone overgrowth.
+. Ostealgia-pain in a bone.
I. Osteitis-inflammation of a bony tissue.
H. Osteomyelitis-inflammation of bone and bone marrow caused by bacterial infection.
3. Osteosarcoma-bone cancer. sually metastasi?es to the lungs and liver. 4imb amputation is the usual
treatment. $urvival rate is less than =6A : even when detected early.
4. 'athologic fracture-fracture in a diseased bone involving slight or no physical trauma.
(. #raction-placing tension on a body part to &eep the parts in proper alignment. sually associated with
severe fractures or damage to the vertebral column.
)I$O0)%0$.(%)I"A4 #%0(I!O4O1/ A$$O"IA#%) BI#+ #+% ADIA4 $3%4%#O!
*. +erniated disc-characteri?ed by the protrusion of the inner layer of an intervertebral disc. "an be repaired via
surgery.
5. Abnormal curves of the @ertebral "olumn8
a. $coliosis-a lateral bending of the vertebral column, usually in the thoracic region.
b. 3yphosis-an e9aggeration of the throacic curve of the vertebral column. Is often referred to as Iround
shoulders.J
c. 4ordosis-an e9aggeration of the lumbar curve of the vertebral column.
;. 4aminectomy-surgical removal of a vertebral lamina to relieve the symptoms of a ruptured disc.
<. $pina bifida-genetic disorder in which the lamina of the vertebral column fail to unite at the midline.
=. $pinal fusion-surgical procedure involving the insertion of bone chips to immobili?e and stabili?e a portion of
the vertebral column. #his is usually associated with herniated discs and vertebral fractures.