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Paul A Fuchs
y
, Elisabeth Glowatzki
z
and Tobias Moser
]. In contrast,
vesicles attached to the opposite pole of the synaptic
ribbon were less affected, resulting in a graded loss across
the ribbon, which supports the hypothesis that ribbons
participate in vesicular release. The overall loss of synap-
tic vesicles in the active zone was compensated by an
equivalent increase in nearby cisternal bodies, which are
thought to represent a stage of endocytotic recycling of
vesicular membrane.
Given the intuitive appeal of the ribbon as a kind of
vesicular vending machine, what molecular entities could
452
Current Opinion in Neurobiology 2003, 13:452458 www.current-opinion.com
serve this function? The composition of the electron-
dense proteinaceous synaptic body remains largely
unknown, although several vesicle-associated proteins
have been found at retinal ribbons [7]. For example,
antibodies to a microtubule motor protein, KIF3A, label
ribbons and a subset of associated vesicles in the retina
[8]. It remains to be seen if KIF3A or other putative
ribbon proteins, such as Ribeye [9] (but see Update),
Bassoon and Piccolo [10], and the B16 antigen [11] can
be found in hair cells, but a variety of vesicle and
release-site-associated proteins have been detected
including syntaxin 1, SNAP-25 and the vesicle asso-
ciated membrane protein 1 (VAMP1) [12]. Noteworthy
for their absence are synapsin and some of the synap-
totagmins [13]. Recently, a cysteine-string protein has
been identied in hair cells [14
18
].
Genetic inactivation of the a
1D
subunit of the L-type
VGCC in mice eliminates 90% of the voltage-gated
calcium current from IHCs, resulting in their eventual
degeneration and deafness [19]. It is worth noting that
non-dihydropyridine-sensitive VGCCs carry a fraction of
the current in vestibular hair cells [20
].
Activation of VGCCs is followed by the opening of
voltage-gated potassium channels. Prominent among
Figure 1
Support
cell (sc)
Afferent bouton
Hair cell
GLAST
GLAST
BKs
VGCCs
AMPARs
sc
Current Opinion in Neurobiology
Ribbon
The hair cells ribbon synapse. The inner hair cells afferent synapse is demarcated by an electron-dense synaptic body, or ribbon, to which small,
clear-core synaptic vesicles are tethered. In the mammalian cochlea the ribbon is around 0.2 microns in diameter, and the synaptic vesicles are
3540 nm. Voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs) and BK-type (calcium-sensitive) voltage-gated potassium channels are clustered near the
synaptic ribbons. AMPA receptors are found on the postsynaptic afferent bouton, glutamate transporters (GLAST) are expressed by supporting cells
that surround the inner hair cell and its afferent contacts.
Hair cell transmitter release Fuchs, Glowatzki and Moser 453
www.current-opinion.com Current Opinion in Neurobiology 2003, 13:452458
these are the large-conductance, calcium-sensitive BK
type potassium channels whose cell-specic kinetics pro-
duce tuned receptor potentials in hair cells of non-
mammalian vertebrates [21]. These BK channels may
be specically localized to the active zone [22,23], as
occurs at the neuromuscular junction [24]. mRNA for
both a and b subunits of the BK channel is upregulated in
inner hair cells just before the onset of hearing [25
], and
the functional currents can be detected at this time [26
].
Perfusion of the cochlea with neurotoxins that specically
block BK channels eliminates the afferent compound
action potential (although this toxin could be acting both
on the IHC and the afferent neuron) [27
]. Thus, a
carefully orchestrated interaction between VGCCs and
BK channels is required for effective synaptic transmis-
sion from the mammalian IHC.
Capacitance measurements
The hair cells membrane area changes when vesicles
fuse or pinch off the plasma membrane during exocytosis
and subsequent endocytosis, causing a change in mem-
brane capacitance (C
m
). These changes in membrane
capacitance can be detected by measuring the capacitave
current (I
Cm
C
m
(dV/dt)) during voltage-clamp record-
ings from hair cells [28,29]. There are several advantages
to this technique. Presynaptic C
m
provides a measure of
vesicular cycling that is not subject to postsynaptic lim-
itations of receptor saturation and desensitization. C
m
measurements can be conveniently combined with other
techniques, such as ash photolysis of caged Ca
2
[16
],
to describe exo- and endocytosis. Although capacitance is
a measure of the net change in membrane area, exocytosis
and endocytosis can be studied separately because of
their different time courses. Only at very high cytosolic
Ca
2
concentrations ([Ca
2
]
i
) does endocytosis begin to
overlap exocytosis [16
].
One disadvantage of whole-cell capacitance recordings is
their low sensitivity, which precludes detection of single
vesicle fusion. In addition, C
m
changes under various
experimental conditions are not necessarily synaptic in
origin. So one must ask, how strong is the correlation
between C
m
and synaptic transmission from hair cells?
Voltage-evoked increases in C
m
of hair cells do require
inux through dihydropyridine-sensitive Ca
2
channels
[17
]. Finally,
the C
m
change evoked by single calcium action potentials
[30
]. Therefore,
hair cells seem to contain a greater number of fusion-
competent vesicles than those that can be released
during brief calcium transients at the active zone, and
these may be recruited for release during sustained
elevations in calcium or by the global calcium signals
created by buffer photolysis.
Postsynaptic effects of release from ribbons
Individual spiral ganglion neurons make a single bouton
ending on a single IHC in the adult mammalian cochlea.
Thus, an intracellular recording from an afferent bouton
should reveal the entire input provided by its presynaptic
ribbon. Voltage-clamp recordings from afferent boutons
in the cochlea of one to two week old rats showed that the
majority of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents
(EPSCs) had a uniformand rapid time course, lasting only
12 ms at room temperature [31
].
The close correspondence between these two results
helps to justify the very different assumptions under-
lying each method, and supports the hypothesis of multi-
vesicular release.
Excitatory amino acid transporters
Glutamate released from the IHC may be taken up by
specic transporters in the surrounding supporting cells.
Among the ve subtypes of Na
-dependent glutamate
transporters, immunohistology shows EAAT1 (excitatory
amino acid transporter type 1, also known as GLAST)
expression in supporting cells surrounding cochlear hair
cells [39,40,41
]. These authors
used calcium imaging methods and immunohistology to
draw a compelling correspondence between sites of
voltage-gated calcium inux and the synaptic ribbons
of retinal bipolar cells and saccular hair cells. A uor-
escent calcium indicator dye (Fluo-3 or Fluo 5F) was
injected into hair cells along with a high concentration of
calcium buffer (EGTA). Calcium evoked uorescence
was visualized with evanescent wave uorescence micro-
scopy that only captures light within 100 nm of the
plasma membrane. Combined with the high concentra-
tion of calcium buffer that limits repeated binding of
calcium to indicator dye, this technique enabled the
authors to visualize near-membrane calcium hotspots
that were a fraction of a micrometer in diameter, and
whose brightness varied directly with calcium channel
gating. The density of calcium hotspots in bipolar cells
and hair cells corresponded closely to the pattern of
uorescent puncta labeled with an antibody to the
synaptic ribbon protein Ribeye. Thus, voltage-gated
calcium channels may be expressed specically at trans-
mitter release sites demarcated by synaptic ribbons, as
suggested in earlier studies on hair cells of frog [48,49]
and chicken [50].
Acknowledgements
Work in the authors laboratories is supported by the National Institute of
Deafness and Communication Disorders at the National Institutes of Health
(P Fuchs and E Glowatzki), and by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
and the Max Planck Gesellschaft (T Moser).
References and recommended reading
Papers of particular interest, published within the annual period of
review, have been highlighted as:
of special interest
of outstanding interest
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the guinea pig cochlea. J Ultrastruct Res 1961, 5:182-192.
2. Liberman MC, Dodds LW, Pierce S: Afferent and efferent
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light and electron microscopy. J Comp Neurol 1990,
301:443-460.
3. Palmer AR, Russell IJ: Phase-locking in the cochlear nerve of the
guinea-pig and its relation to the receptor potential of inner
hair-cells. Hear Res 1986, 24:1-15.
4. Ruggero M: Physiology of the auditory nerve. In The Mammalian
Auditory Pathway: Neurophysiology. Springer Handbook of
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5. Lenzi D, Runyeon JW, CrumJ, Ellisman MH, Roberts WM: Synaptic
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6.
Skinner LJ, Enee V, Beurg M, Jung HH, Ryan AF, Hadi A, Aran JM,
Dulon D: Contribution of BK-like Ca
2R
-activated K
R
channels to
auditory neurotransmission in the guinea pig cochlea.
J Neurophysiol 2003, in press. Published online: http://
jn.physiology.org/cgi/reprint/01155.2002v1.pdf
The authors perfused specic toxins into the guinea pig cochlea to
examine the role of BK channels (calcium-sensitive, voltage-gated potas-
sium channels) in synaptic transmission in vivo. Charybdotoxin or iber-
iotoxin reversibly blocked the compound action potential but had no
effect on signals generated by outer hair cells. As BK channels appear to
be expressed by inner hair cells and by the afferent neurons, the effects of
toxin on sound evoked afferent signals could occur presynaptically,
postsynaptically, or both.
28. Parsons TD, Lenzi D, Almers W, Roberts WM: Calcium-triggered
exocytosis and endocytosis in an isolated presynaptic cell:
capacitance measurements in saccular hair cells. Neuron 1994,
13:875-883.
29. Moser T, Beutner D: Kinetics of exocytosis and endocytosis at
the cochlear inner hair cell afferent synapse of the mouse.
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000, 97:883-888.
30.