Load Characteristics

At a given irradiance and cell temperature, a PV system can produce power atvoltages
ranging between zero and the open circuit voltage, V OC" Between these limits,the output
current, It is a function of voltage only. An I-V curve shows the possiblepoints, or I-V pairs,
at which the system may operate. Electrical loads also have acharacteristic I-V curve. This
chapter describes the I-V characteristics of three general types of electrical loads used in
direct-coupled applications: fixed voltage, resistive, and inductive motor loads.In a direct-
coupled PV system, the load is connected so that the array and load voltage are the same. The
intersection of the load I-V curve and the array I-V curve, if there is one, determines the
operating voltage and current of the system. If the load and array I-V curves do not intersec4
there will be no power output from the array. To find the intersection of the load and array I-
V curves, an expression for load voltage as an explicit function of load current (V = f(I)) is
developed. This expression is substituted into the array I-V equation (Eqn. 2.67) for V. The
operating current, I, can be calculated implicitly from the resulting equation. Appendix B
details the operating point calculation procedure for each load type.

3.1 Fixed Voltage Loads
The I-V characteristic of a fixed voltage load is simple: For any current drawn by the load,
the voltage is constant The I-V "curve" is a straight venica1line on a currentvoltage
coordinate scale. The vertical line extends from zero amps to some upper-rated 113 current,
usually limited by a fuse or other protective device. The magnitude of the load voltage
depends on the specific application. Some fixed voltage applications include cathodic well
protection, DC appliances such as television and radio, and idealized battery loads. The long-
term performance model presented in Chapter 5 is, however, not applicable for systems with
battery energy storage.The operating current is found by substituting the load voltage into
Eqn. 2.67 and then solving for I. To be used effectively, an array should be designed so that
the number of modules in series produces a maximum power point voltage that, under typical
summer operating conditions, is close to the load voltage. The load and maximum power
point voltages should be designed to match at a high (summer) cell temperature. The reason
is that the maximum power point voltage decreases by about O.4%/C increase in cell
temperature (at constant irradiance); if the load voltage is designed to match the maximum
power point voltage at a low cell temperature, typical of winter operation, the load voltage
may exceed the array open circuit voltage at high (summer) cell temperatures and the power
output may drop to zero. Figure 31 shows how the power output and maximum power point
voltage vary with cell temperature for a 30 W Solarex module. Both power vs. voltage curves
are based on an irradiance of 1000 W/m2, but one curve is representative of winter operation,
at 10 C, and the other represents summer operation at 67 C. The cell temperature does not
vary as much within a day as it does from season to season. The daily variation in maximum
power point voltage is less than the O.4%/C 114 cell temperature sensitivity would indicate.
This is because the irradiance is not constant, and the sensitivity of maximum power point
voltage to irradiance opposes (although not - as strongly) the temperature dependence. The
net effect of varying irradiance and cell temperature is illustrated in Figure 32 in the
following section.Figure 31. Variation of Optimal Voltage with Cell Temperature

3.2 Resistive
Figure 31. Variation of Optimal Voltage with Cell Temperature


3.2 Resistive Loads
Resistive loads are used for applications such as incandescent lighting, cooking, and heating.
The I-V characteristic of a resistive load is governed by Ohms' law, V = I x RL. where RL is
the load resistance. The I-V "curve" for a resistive load is a straight linebeginning at the
origin, with a slope of 1/ RL. The load I-V line continues out to the maximum current and
voltage of the device. The operating current is found by substituting the load voltage, V = I x
RL, into Eqn. 2.67 and then solving for I. A well matched direct-coupled resistive load and
array will have I-V curves that intersect near the maximum power point of the array.
Choosing an optimal fixed resistance load is more difficult than choosing an optimal fixed
voltage load. The optimal resistive load is equal to the ratio VMP/IMP. While the maximum
power point voltage is relatively constant over a typical day's operation, the maximum power
point current isnot. The resistive load which yields the highest long-term output lies closer to
an optimal resistance at high irradiance, because the potential electric generation is greater
than at low irradiance levels. Figure 32 illustrates the typical hourly variation of optimal
resistive loads for a 75 W Applied Solar module. At each time shown, the optimal resistive
load passes through the maximum power point.




The maximum power point voltage decreases from 17.3 V at 8 AM to 15.8 V at noon as the
cell temperature rises from -5 C to 38 C. The variation of maximum power point voltage
over this temperature range is less than O.4%/C, but, as discussed in the previous section,
this is because the maximum power voltage also increases slowly with increasing irradiance.
In this example, the effect of irradiance on voltage is significant, because the irradiance at
noon is about 7 times higher than the 8 AM irradiance. The net effect is that the locus of
maximum power points over a typical day's operation occurs over a fairly narrow voltage
range.

Load Factor, Load Profile and Power Factor
So what's the difference between Load Factor, Load Profile and Power Factor? People in our
industry will say that a meter has a low, medium or high load factor.but do you know how to
calculate a load factor? If not, it's important to learn how to do this using historical energy
usageddata.LoadFactor(LF)This term refers to the the energy load on a system as compared
to its maximum or peak load for a given period. Load factor is most typically calculated on a
monthly or annual basis. When a customer creates his maximum demand on the system, he
will probably not continue to use electricity at that same level for the whole month, but will
use it at different levels throughout the month. The extent of his use for the month as
compared to his maximum use for that same month is called his "load factor". Load Factor is
computed by dividing his kWh usage for the month by the product of the month's "peak" or
maximum demand for him times the hours for the same period (730 for a month and 8,760
for a year). Here is the formula: Load Factor = Month's kWh Usage / (Peak Demand or KW x
730)So what is the difference between load factor and load profile? Load profile is not the
sameasLoadFactor.LoadProfileLoad profile is a graph of the variation in the electrical over
time. A load profile will vary according to customer type, (typical examples include
residential, commercial and industrial), temperature and holiday seasons.
So.what is power factor? Is it the same as Load Factor? The answer is no. See the definition
of power factor, below, and make note of the difference between these two forms of
measurement.PowerFactor(PF)This term is used to express the relationship between "useless
current" and "useful power". It can be very confusing to explain and understand. Certain
types of electrical devices have a power factor of 100%, such as an electric stove, a light
bulb, toaster, etc., which means when the appliance is on, all available power is being used to
heat or illuminate and none is being wasted. Some other devices, especially induction motors
as commonly used today, are not being used at capacity and result in a demand on the system
greater than actually being used or put to good use. The actual work being done by the motor
results in a certain kilowatt (kW) demand that is measured by the ordinary meters for
measuring such demand. This motor, however, when "partially" loaded, makes an additional
demand on the electric system which is not measured by the ordinary meter, but such
additional demand requires capacity in the electric system in just the same way as the useful
demand requires capacity. When there is no useless current in evidence, the power factor is
said to be in "Unity". Power Factor is normally used in calculating kilowatts by the
expression wW = kVA x PF. To compute power factor, the expression would be: PF =
kW/kVA or (W/(E x I)). If an electric motor requires 100 kilowatts of useful power and is
operating at 50% power factor, the above formula would yield as follows: 100 kW = kVA x
.50 PF. To solve for kVA, kVA =100 / .5 = 200. In other words, this motor requires 200
kilovolt-amperes (kVA) of capacity in the electric system although it only uses 100 kW of
useful power. The electric system is still having to provide 200 units of capacity in
transformers, lines, etc. to serve that motor. If power factor for that motor could be increased
to "unity", the motor would do no more useful work, it would take no more energy to perform
this work, but would make a demand of 100 kw on the electric system, and only 100 kw in
capacity in the electric system would be required to serve the motor. If that same 100 kw
motor is now working at 70% power factor, the kVA required would be 143, or 100 / .7. An
improvement over the 200 previously required. The higher the power factor of a load, the
betteritistoserve.Generally, if a customer pays an electricity bill with units of energy
measured as kVA, then the customer will benefit from savings by increasing power factor. If
the customer pays an electricity bill with units of energy measured as kW, then the utility
company will benefit from savings by increasing power factor. Frequently, however, utility
companies impose a power factor penalty charge on customers with poor PF, giving the
customer an economic incentive to increase power factor, even if the customer is billed based
onkWdemand.

The EMF is equal to: (I ) M I A AF , = (3.2)
MAF = mutual inductance between the armature and field, H The gross motor torque, T,
which is the sum of the frictional torque loss plus the load torque, is related to the motor
current by:T T T M I 2 LOAD LOSS AF = + = (3.3)
To link the mechanical (speed, torque) characteristics of the load to the electrical
characteristics of the motor, an explicit expression of the load torque in terms of speed is
needed. Often, such an expression is unavailable. Instead, discrete load points where the
torque is calculated as a function of speed must be used, which means that I-V points must be
calculated one at a time. Section 3.3.4 details three cases: The first is a ventilator fan, where a
continuous speed-torque relationship is given [37]; the second case is for a centrifugal water
pump, where the torque must be calculated from a manufacturers

performance curve [39]; and the third case is for a positive displacement water pump
connected to a permanent magnet motor. For this case, the I-V characteristic is supplied
directly by the manufacturer, so no torque-speed conversions are needed [40]. Eqn. 3.3 can be
rearranged to solve for I directly in terms of T and MAF (Eqn. 3.4). Equation 3.4 is then used
to eliminate I from Eqn. 3.1. The result, Eqn. 3.5, is an explicit expression for the motor
voltage in terms of motor speed, torque, and the known motor constant MAF and (RA + RF).



With the considerable increase of the losses in electric utilities of developing countries, such
as Brazil, there is an investigation for loss calculation methodologies, considering both
technical (inherent of the system) and non-technical (usually associated to the electricity
theft) losses. In general, all distribution networks know the load factor, obtained by
measuring parameters directly from the network. However, the loss factor, important for the
energy loss cost calculation, can only be obtained in a laborious way. Consequently, several
formulas have been developed for obtaining the loss factor. Generally, it is used the
expression that relates both factors, through the use of a coefficient k. Last reviews introduce
a range of factor k within 0.04 - 0.30. In this work, an analysis with real life load curves is
presented, determining new values for the coefficient k in a Brazilian electric utility
The National Electricity Rules (NER) requires that distribution loss factors (DLFs) be
determined by a Distribution Network Service Provider (DNSP) for all connection points on
its distribution network either individually or collectively.
According to the NER, DLFs notionally describe the average energy losses for electricity
transmitted on a distribution network between a distribution network connection point and a
transmission network connection point or virtual transmission node for the applicable
financial year. DLFs are to be used in the settlement process as a notional adjustment to the
electrical energy - expressed in MWh - flowing at a distribution network connection point in
a trading interval to determine the adjusted gross energy amount for that connection point in
that trading interval. For more information, please refer to clauses 3.6.3 and 3.15.4 on the
National Electricity Rules website.
Methodology
In broad terms, the Rules require that site-specific DLFs are calculated for:
Embedded generators with greater than 10 MW of generation.
All customers of greater than 10 MW demand or 40 GW.h annual consumption i.e.
Individually Calculated Customers (ICCs).
Generators of less than 10 MW or 40 GWh per annum capacity where the Generator
meets reasonable costs for Energex to perform the necessary calculations.
DLFs for all other customers may be calculated on an average basis, which means
determining DLFs for each voltage level of the network. The methodology used by Energex
involves a full recalculation of all DLFs (both average and site specific) every three years. In
the intervening years, site specific DLFs are calculated, but all average DLFs are simply
reviewed, based on allocation of the same proportion of network losses determined at the last
full recalculation. The annual DLF review also requires that a reconciliation of the previous
year's calculated DLFs be completed. The DLFs of the previous financial year are used to
calculate losses on the distribution network for that year. These are then compared to
historical metered data and reasons for discrepancies are explained or reconciled.
Site specific customer calculations
The methodology for determining DLFs for Site Specific Customers is identical whether it be
a full re-calculation (every third year), or only a review. Site specific DLFs are calculated
using load flow analysis based on the customers forecast demand data and network load data
for the year in which the DLFs are to be applied. The analysis involves load flow studies on
the directly connected network between the customer connection point and the transmission
network connection point. The directly connected network is defined as all parts of the
network which experience a change in power flow due to a change in customer loads. In
addition, iron losses of the transformers included in the directly connected network are
calculated and apportioned based on the ratio of customer load and network load flowing
through the transformer. Energex uses the Marginal Loss Factor methodology to calculate
site specific DLFs. This process involves determining the customer's losses by assessing the
relativity between the change in system load associated with a change in the customer's load.
Calculation of average loss factors (for full recalculation)
Average DLFs are calculated for each significant supply level in the network, whereas DLFs
for major customers are calculated individually to determine the losses directly attributable to
their loads.
The average DLF categories applied by Energex are:
132/110 kV Network
33 kV Network
11 kV bus
11 kV line
LV bus
LV line
The method used to calculate average DLFs is to carry out load flow studies to determine the
losses at the coincident network peak, followed by the application of calculated Loss Load
Factors (LLFs) to obtain the actual losses. The transmission and sub-transmission systems are
modeled using appropriate load flow packages. Losses on the 11 kV distribution network are
calculated using forecast feeder peak demand data and feeder length data which is obtained
from Energex's corporate database. Losses at the LV bus are calculated based on the average
impedance of distribution transformers, and losses in the LV network are calculated as the
difference between the total losses (calculated by the difference between total purchases and
total sales), and the losses resulting from the higher voltage network studies. The DLFs for
the network are calculated based on the formula:

1.1 Calculation of Loss Load Factors
Loss Load Factors (LLFs) are calculated based on load duration curves, which are computed
from half-hour average demands over a full year. The load duration curve is squared and
averaged to obtain the LLF. The LLFs are applied to the losses calculated at peak demands to
determine the actual losses.
1.2 Transmission (132 and 110 kV) Network
Load flow studies are carried out down to the 33kV or 11kV busbar at all bulk supply points
and direct transformation substations. The 132/33kV, 110/33kV, 132/11kV and 110/11kV
transformer losses are subtracted from the transmission system losses.
Losses calculated by these studies are converted to annual energy losses using the LLF for
the system under consideration. The sum of the annual energy losses for all transmission
network connection points excluding ICC losses are divided by the sum of all non-ICC
energy sales through the 132kV & 110kV networks to obtain the DLF, viz:

1.3 Bulk Supply Networks
The bulk supply systems are modeled from the 33kV busbar to the 11kV busbar including
33/11kV transformers. The peak losses in kW calculated from load flow studies are converted
to annual energy losses using the LLF. Losses attributed to the 132/33kV, 110/33kV,
132/11kV and 110/11kV transformers are added to the losses obtained from these load flows.
The total energy supplied is taken from billed sales figures and the DLF derived by dividing
the total losses excluding ICC losses by the total energy sales to non-ICC customers, viz:

The bulk supply and 11kV bus DLFs are separated from the total DLF using ratios. The ratios
used by Energex from 1 July 2013 are 0.617353208 for the Bulk Supply System DLF and
0.382646792 for the 11kV Bus DLF. The ratios are based on the 2013/14 full DLF review.
These ratios are validated during each full review, and if found to be no longer appropriate,
are recalculated, subject to the latest network configurations and consumption patterns. These
ratios will apply to years 2013/14, 2014/15 and 2015/16.
1.4 11 kV circuits
Losses on 11 kV feeders are calculated using the length of each feeder and forecast peak
demand data. The formula for determining 11kV losses is as follows:

The feeder lengths are obtained from Energex's corporate database, and allow calculation of
the resistance of each feeder based on average overhead and underground resistances per unit
length. The peak demand is also obtained from a corporate database, and a load growth is
applied to determine peaks during the forecast year. Average branching factors are calculated
for urban, rural and high-density feeders based on losses obtained for each 11kV feeder
during each full review. This data allows losses to be calculated for each 11kV feeder. An
annual loss energy is then produced for each feeder using LLFs, which are then summed to
produce the total 11kV feeder losses. The DLF is thus:

1.5 LV bus and LV circuits
LV losses are generally determined as being the remaining losses when all calculated losses
for the higher voltage networks have been deducted from the total network losses (known
from purchases - sales). LV losses need to be appropriately allocated between the LV Bus
and LV Line categories. The calculated ratios used by Energex from 1 July 2013 are LV Bus
= 0.514371103 and LV line = 0.485628897 of total LV losses.
The conventional wisdom of the past few years has been that the region's power system is
becoming capacity constrained in part because of growing peak loads. But does the data
support this perception?A Council presentation on trends in regional energy and peak
electricity loads tells a different story. Since 1995, annual energy loads grew at an average
rate of only 0.40 percent, and winter peak loads haven't grown at all. What this portends for
the energy industry is a topic of interest as work begins on the Seventh Power Plan. What sort
of industry are we planning for? Utilities have traditionally planned system expansions to
meet the expectation of growing loads, but the trend of the past 20 years suggests this may
longer be the case.Energy efficiency is a big reason why. It has helped the region grow
economically without having to rely too heavily on adding new generating resources.

SYSTEM PLANNING
Demand and generation forecast
Evolution of the demand characteristics
Methodologies for demand forecast in an assigned area
Electric vehicle impact on the electrical demand
Ways to regulate the impact of electrical vehicles in demand
Vehicle-to-grid strategies
RES-generation forecast
Performance requirements, results and benchmarking
Economical versus technical performance
System reliability and degree of adequacy
Methods for performance assessment
Results of performance evaluation and benchmarking
Satisfaction of customers and stakeholders
Predictive assessment of power quality
Reliability assessment in smartgrids
Network schemes and design criteria
Advanced network schemes for the best exploitation of distributed generation, energy
storage and electric vehicles
Design of active networks and smartgrids
Distribution systems for off-shore wind farms
Low-losses design
Dependence on local environment
Co-existence and synergy with other infrastructures
Distribution network design criteria to manage low probability high impact extreme
events
Distribution network schemes for developing countries
Schemes for the connection of electric vehicles in car parks, public or private
buildings, and regulation rules
Network planning
Planning techniques in the smartgrid era
Improving efficiency in distribution networks
Optimal DER integration
Storage and compensation systems planning
Planning criteria for electrification in low load density areas, including quality of
supply issues
Integration in the network of speed charge installations for electric vehicles
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM PLANNING & SECURITY STANDARDS
4.1 General:
4.1.1 The Licensee shall plan and develop its Distribution System, particularly to ensure that
subject to the availability of adequate generating and transmitting capacity, the system is
capable of providing consumers with a safe, reliable, economical and efficient supply of
electricity.
4.1.2 The Licensee's Distribution System shall conform to the statutory requirements of
Indian Electricity Act 1910, Electricity Supply Act 1948, and Indian Electricity Rules
1956.

4.2 Planning Procedure:
4.2.1 The Licensee shall prepare a long term load forecast for a period of 5 (five) years in
its Area of Supply taking into account the probable load growth and consumption pattern of
the consumers. The Licensee shall adopt appropriate load forecasting methods using reliable
data and relevant indices. The methods may include one or more of the following methods.
i. Econometric regression analysis.
ii. Appliance saturation methods.
iii. End-use energy methods.
iv. Any other reasonable and justifiable method.
4.2.2 Consumers seeking to contract demands of 5MW and above shall submit application to
the Licensee along with load data in the manner to be prescribed by the Licensee in
conformity with Distribution Code, as follows :
i. For contracting Loads up to l0 MW - 3years in advance
ii. For contracting Loads in excess of 10 MW - 5years in advance
4.2.3 The consumers shall inform in writing to the Licensee promptly regarding changes, if
any, in their load demand and its scheduling.
4.2.4 The Licensee shall work out the annual Energy Demand and Peak Demand for each of
the succeeding five years relating to each point of interconnection on the basis of its load
forecast.
4.2.5 By suitable sampling and installation of meters the Licensee shall workout the
Diversity Factor/Coincidence Factor of each class of consumers fed from each point of
interconnection in the area of supply. The Licenseeshall maintain a record of such data and
update the same at last once in 5(five) years. The licensee shall prepare the long term load
forecast based on these data as refered to in para 4.2.1.
4.2.6 The Licensee shall arrange to publish a Data Book listing all System Data relating to
its Distribution System as detailed in the Distribution Code. The Data Book shall be
updated every year and copies of same shall be made available to any effected person upon
request on payment of fair copying charges:

4.3 Planning Standards Criteria
4.3.1 Standardization of Sizes and Ratings
For each voltage class of application such as 230/400Volts, 11,000 Volts, and 33,000 Volts,
conductors, insulators, lightning arresters, transformers, switchgear, etc. used in
the Distribution System shall be standardized with the objective of reducing the inventory.
Specifications for these materials shall at least conform to relevant Indian standards in
general.
4.3.2 Standardisation of Sub-Station Layouts
The Licensee shall develop standard layouts to fulfil the minimum requirements detailed
below.
4.3.2.1 33/11kV Sub-Station (20MVA and above)
a. The layouts shall generally conform to CBI&P manual on Layout of Sub-Stations as
applicable and provisions in Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 subject to the requirements
mentioned in Sub paragraph (b), below
b. The layout adopted shall include the following :-
i. Independent Circuit Breaker control of 33kV Feeders and Transformers.
ii. Independent Circuit Breaker control of 11KV Feeders.
iii. Provision of Tariff and Operational metering in accordance with Distribution Code.
iv. Single bus sectionalised.
4.3.2.2 33/11kV Sub-Station (10 MVA above but less than 20MVA)
a. The layout shall generally conform to relevant Construction Standards of Rural
Electrification Corporation Ltd. and provisions in Indian Electricity Rules, 1956
subject to the requirements mentioned in Sub-paragraph (b) below.
b. The layout adopted shall include the following :
i. Independent Circuit Breaker control of 33kV Feeders and Transformers.
ii. Independent Circuit Breaker in each of 11KV Feeders.
iii. Single Bus Sectionalised.
4.3.2.3 33/11kV Sub-Station (Less than 10MVA)
a. The layout shall generally conform to relevant Construction Standards of Rural
Electrification Corporation Ltd / any other improved standards and provisions in Indian
Electricity Rules, 1956 subject to the requirements mentioned in sub paragraph (b) below.
b. The layout adopted shall include the following :
i. Group circuit Breaker control of Transformers.
ii. Independent control of 11KV Feeders.
iii. Single Bus.
4.3.2.4 11/0.4kV 3-phase Distribution Transformer Centres
a. Transformers up to 200 KVA capacity other than those meant for indoor application
shall normally be pole mounted.
b. The layout of the distribution transformers shall generally conform to relevant
Construction Standards of Rural Electricity Corporation Ltd. and provisions in Indian
Electricity Rules, 1956. The Licensee may adopt more improved layout for urban
areas as per project report.
c. The distribution transformers shall be located as close to the load centres as possible.
Transformers above 100 KVA capacity other than those meant for indoor installations
shall be outdoor plinth mounted with space for installation of a second Transformer.
d. Moulded Case Circuit Breakers or Air Break Switches of suitable ratings shall be
provided on the secondary side of transformers of capacity above 100 KVA for
protecting the transformers from over load and short circuits. Fuse units of suitable
ratings shall be provided on the secondary side of transformers of capacity up to and
including 100 KVA for protecting the transformers from overload and short circuits.
4.3.2.5 11/0.23kV 1-phase Distribution Transformers (up to 16KVA Capacity.)
These transformers shall be pole mounted complying with provisions in Indian Electricity
Rules, 1956 for isolating the transformer during overload and short circuit conditions.
4.3.3 Design Criteria for Distribution lines:
These criteria shall apply to all distribution lines up to and including 33kV for both overhead
lines and under ground cables.
4.3.3.1 The lines shall be designed and constructed in accordance with relevant provision of
I.E. Rule 1956 applicable to overhead lines and under-ground cables.
4.3.3.2 The distribution network fed from 11/0.4kV transformers and 33/11kV transformers
shall be initially planned as independent networks within their respective service area. A
service area of any particular substation shall mean for this purpose, an area, load in which
shall normally be supplied by that sub- station by one or more number of feeders, as required,
without exceeding the specified KVA-KM Loading limit of any feeder within the area.
4.3.3.4 The Licensee shall take suitable measures, sufficiently in advance, to augment the
capacity of the feeders in the event of the specified KVA-KM Loading of any feeder being
exceeded.
4.3.3.5 The design of the distribution lines shall incorporate features to enable their
augmentation, in future, with minimum interruption to power supply. The existing Rights of
Way shall be fully exploited.
4.3.3.6 KVA-KM Loading limits for conductors may be calculated in accordance with a
sample calculation shown at
4.3.4 Capacitive Reactance compensation:
Shunt capacitors unswitched/switched type, shall be installed in the Distribution System at
suitable location for improvement of Power Factor, voltage profile and reduction of
transmission and distribution losses. The size and location of capacitor installations shall be
determined on the basis of reliable field data to avoid over voltages at light load periods.
(Useful formulae are given in the which may be applied for determining approximate size
and location of capacitor installations). The Licensee shall, however, undertake optimisation
study of shunt compensation to determine most appropriate sizes and locations for shunt
capacitor installations in comparision to other alternatives.
4.3.5 Service lines:
The service Wires to consumers shall be laid in accordance with relevant Construction
Standards of Rural Electrification Corporation Ltd. for 230V/400V supply and shall conform
to provision in Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 in all cases.
4.3.6 Metering Installations:
For 230V/400V the layout of metering installation shall be in accordance with relevant
construction standards of Rural Electrification Corporation Ltd. The meters and associated
metering equipment including connections shall be enclosed in a suitable tamper proof box.
The tamper proof box shall be of sufficient strength and design with locking and sealing
devices and with adequate provision for heat dissipation and electrical clearances. The design
shall permit readings to be taken without access to the meter or its connections.
For HT and EHT Consumers the meters, maximum demand indicators, secondary
connections, and other secondary apparatus and connections required shall be housed in a
separate metering panel, which shall be locked/sealed to prevent tampering.

4.4 Security Standards:
The Licensee's Distribution System shall be planned and maintained so as to fulfill the
following security standards except under Force Majeur Conditions beyond the reasonable
control of the licensee.
i. Loading in any current carrying component of the Distribution System (e.g.
Conductors, Joints, Transformer, Switchgear, Cables, other apparatus etc.) shall not
exceed 80% of the respective thermal limit.
ii. In case of single contingency failure in or to any 33/11kV sub-station excluding
equipment, controlling any outgoing 11KV Feeders, the load interrupted shall not
generally exceed 50% of the total demand on the sub-station. The licensee has to
bring it down to 20% within a period of three years.
iii. In case of breakdown of any 33/0.4kV or 11/0.4kV Distribution sub-station,the
electricity supply shall not be interrupted for more than 24 (Twenty four) hours except
in case of major failures involving Transformers, the interruption shall not be for
more than 7 (seven) days.
iv. In case of a failure in any 11KV Feeder including its terminal equipment, supply shall
not normally be interrupted for more than 24 (Twenty four) hours but in no case shall
exceed 7 (seven) days.
v. There shall be at least two numbers of Transformers in each 33/11kV Sub-station.
vi. In each 33/11kV sub-station of capacity 10 MVA and above there shall be at least two
incoming circuits.

5. OPERATING STANDARDS
5.1 General:
These Operating Standards are aimed at operating the Licensee's Distribution
System safely, efficiently and to ensure maximum system stability and security.

5.2 Operation Criteria:
The operation criteria comprise of :
i. Load monitoring and balancing
ii. Voltage monitoring and control
iii. Interruption Monitoring
iv. Data Logging
v. Load management
vi. Communication
vii. Safety co-ordination
5.2.1.1 Load monitoring:
Licensee shall prescribe Rules and methods in its Operation manuals for monitoring load at
the following places.
i. 33/11 kV Sub-stations
ii. 33 kV Feeders
iii. 11 kV Feeders
iv. 11/0.4 kV Sub-stations (in all phases on the secondary side)
5.2.1.2 Load Balancing:
The unbalance of load between Phases in low tension distribution network fed by 33/0.4kV
and 11/0.4 kV distribution transformers shall not exceed 5% (five percent) of the average
load.
5.2.2 Voltage Monitoring and Control
5.2.2.1 Voltage monitoring at each 33/11 kV Sub-station shall be carried out by data logging.
5.2.2.2 Voltage monitoring on the secondary side of 33/0.4kV and 11/0.4kV distribution
transformers shall be carried out at least once in one year during Peak Load hours to cover at
least two nos. of transformers in each 11KV feeder as follows:
i. One transformer towards the beginning of the feeder
ii. One transformer towards the end of the feeder
5.2.2.3 Improvement to voltage conditions shall be achieved by operating ON LOAD TAP
CHANGE CONTROL of transformers in the Distribution System where such facility exists.
The Licensee shall contact over Telephone the operators of Transmission and Bulk Supply
Licensee at the point of interconnection, to correct voltage at the sending end as required.
5.2.3 INTERRUPTION MONITORING
5.2.3.1 Licensee shall maintain accurate record of consumer interruption caused by
(a) Planned and unplanned outages of following equipments in the Distribution System.
a. 33KV line/equipments
b. 33/11 KV Sub-Stations
c. 11 KV line/equipments
d. 11/0.4KV Sub-Stations
or
(b) Outage of power supply from interconnection points with GRIDCO or other power
supplier
Each record shall contain at least the following information:
a. Name of Section, Sub-Division and Division
b. location
c. Area affected
d. The name of affected lines/ Sub-Station/ equipments/ Interconnection point (i.e. with
Gridco or other power supplier)
e. The date and time of interruption
f. The date and time of restoration
g. The duration of interruption
h. The cause of interruption
i. Whether the interruption is planned or unplanned
j. The protection device if any operated/not operated
k. Action taken for restoration of supply
l. Preventive action if any taken
m. Weather condition
n. Damage/injury to property/life if any
5.2.3.2 Based on the above records, the Licensee is required to evaluate and monitor
electricity supply reliability indices as stated in "Statement of System Performance"
appended at the end of this document.
5.2.4 Data Logging:
All important data such as Voltage, Current, Power Factor, KWH, Transformer operational
data (e.g. Tap position, oil/winding Temperature, etc) shall be logged on hourly basis in all
33/11kV sub-stations with installed capacity of 10 MVA and above and all other attended
sub-stations.
5.2.5 Load Management:
5.2.5.1 In the event of total or partial black outs of Transmission System or Regional
System the Licensee shall follow procedures as laid down in the GRID CODE under the
Section contingency planning.
5.2.5.2 In the event of breakdown within its own System, the Licensee shall restore/maintain
supply within the limit specified under security standards (Sub Section 4.4) by taking
appropriate measures.
5.2.6 Communication:
The Licensee shall establish reliable communication facilities at its major 33/11kV sub-
stations (10 MVA and above). All operating instructions, messages and data received from or
sent to the concerned Grid Sub-station/Grid Substations and SLDC shall be duly recorded at
such sub-station.
5.2.7 Safety Coordination:
5.2.7.1 The Licensee and consumers shall abide by the general safety requirements of
the I.E.Rules 1956 for construction, installation, protection, operation and maintenance of
electric supply lines and apparatus.
5.2.7.2 Procedures laid down in the relevant section of the grid code and distribution
code shall be followed by the Licensee and its consumers, in this regard.
5.2.7.3 The Licensee and its consumers shall abide by provisions of I.E. Rules, 1956 under
Chapter VII. "Electric supply lines, Systems and Apparatus for High and Extra High
Voltages."
5.2.7.4 The Licensee shall develop its own Safety Manual to satisfy requirements of I.E.
Rules and implement the same.
1. Conductor Data
Conductor Size --------------------------------------(6/3.35mm + 1/3.35mm)ACSR
Gross Area of Aluminium--------------------------52.95mm2
Copper Equivalent-----------------------------------32.26mm2
Resistance in ohms per KM (at 20C)------------0.5449*
Inductive reactance at 50 Hz in ohms per KM---0.421*
(For equivalent spacing of 1000mm)
* Appropriate values may be taken for any other temperature and equivalent spacing.
2. Assumptions
Length of line-------------------------1 KM
KVA loading--------------------------1000 KVA
3 phase voltage-----------------------11,000 V
3. Regulation
Percent Regulation (approx) = {I (R cos + X sine ) / E } x 100
Where
I = Current per phase in amp
R = Resistance per phase in ohms
X = Reactance per phase in ohms
Cos = Power Factor
E = Phase-Neutral voltage in volts
Percent Regulation = {48.2 (0.5449 x 0.8 + 0.421 x 0.6) / 6351} x 100 = 0.523%
For 1% Voltage Regulation the KVA-KM loading for the selected conductor size at 0.8 PF
will be 1912 KVA-KM. For any other Power Factor, voltage and conductor temperature the
Voltage Regulation may be calculated by substituting appropriate values of current,
Resistance Cos and Sine in the formula.

The Licensee shall prepare a long term load forecast for a period of 5 (five) years in its Area
of Supply taking into account the probable load growth and consumption pattern of the
consumers. The Licensee shall adopt appropriate load forecasting methods using reliable data
and relevant indices. The methods may include one or more of the following methods.
i. Econometric regression analysis.
ii. Appliance saturation methods.
iii. End-use energy methods.
iv. Any other reasonable and justifiable method.
4.2.2 Consumers seeking to contract demands of 5MW and above shall submit application to
the Licensee along with load data in the manner to be prescribed by the Licensee in
conformity with Distribution Code, as follows :
i. For contracting Loads up to l0 MW - 3years in advance
ii. For contracting Loads in excess of 10 MW - 5years in advance
4.2.3 The consumers shall inform in writing to the Licensee promptly regarding changes, if
any, in their load demand and its scheduling.
4.2.4 The Licensee shall work out the annual Energy Demand and Peak Demand for each of
the succeeding five years relating to each point of interconnection on the basis of its load
forecast.
4.2.5 By suitable sampling and installation of meters the Licensee shall workout the
Diversity Factor/Coincidence Factor of each class of consumers fed from each point of
interconnection in the area of supply. The Licenseeshall maintain a record of such data and
update the same at last once in 5(five) years. The licensee shall prepare the long term load
forecast based on these data as refered to in para 4.2.1.
4.2.6 The Licensee shall arrange to publish a Data Book listing all System Data relating to
its Distribution System as detailed in the Distribution Code. The Data Book shall be
updated every year and copies of same shall be made available to any effected person
upon request on payment of fair copying charges:

4.3 Planning Standards Criteria
4.3.1 Standardization of Sizes and Ratings
For each voltage class of application such as 230/400Volts, 11,000 Volts, and 33,000 Volts,
conductors, insulators, lightning arresters, transformers, switchgear, etc. used in
the Distribution System shall be standardized with the objective of reducing the inventory.
Specifications for these materials shall at least conform to relevant Indian standards in
general.
4.3.2 Standardisation of Sub-Station Layouts
The Licensee shall develop standard layouts to fulfil the minimum requirements detailed
below.
4.3.2.1 33/11kV Sub-Station (20MVA and above)
a. The layouts shall generally conform to CBI&P manual on Layout of Sub-Stations as
applicable and provisions in Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 subject to the requirements
mentioned in Sub paragraph (b), below
b. The layout adopted shall include the following :-
i. Independent Circuit Breaker control of 33kV Feeders and Transformers.
ii. Independent Circuit Breaker control of 11KV Feeders.
iii. Provision of Tariff and Operational metering in accordance with Distribution Code.
iv. Single bus sectionalised.
4.3.2.2 33/11kV Sub-Station (10 MVA above but less than 20MVA)
a. The layout shall generally conform to relevant Construction Standards of Rural
Electrification Corporation Ltd. and provisions in Indian Electricity Rules, 1956
subject to the requirements mentioned in Sub-paragraph (b) below.
b. The layout adopted shall include the following :
i. Independent Circuit Breaker control of 33kV Feeders and Transformers.
ii. Independent Circuit Breaker in each of 11KV Feeders.
iii. Single Bus Sectionalised.
4.3.2.3 33/11kV Sub-Station (Less than 10MVA)
a. The layout shall generally conform to relevant Construction Standards of Rural
Electrification Corporation Ltd / any other improved standards and provisions in Indian
Electricity Rules, 1956 subject to the requirements mentioned in sub paragraph (b) below.
b. The layout adopted shall include the following :
i. Group circuit Breaker control of Transformers.
ii. Independent control of 11KV Feeders.
iii. Single Bus.
4.3.2.4 11/0.4kV 3-phase Distribution Transformer Centres
a. Transformers up to 200 KVA capacity other than those meant for indoor application
shall normally be pole mounted.
b. The layout of the distribution transformers shall generally conform to relevant
Construction Standards of Rural Electricity Corporation Ltd. and provisions in Indian
Electricity Rules, 1956. The Licensee may adopt more improved layout for urban
areas as per project report.
c. The distribution transformers shall be located as close to the load centres as possible.
Transformers above 100 KVA capacity other than those meant for indoor installations
shall be outdoor plinth mounted with space for installation of a second Transformer.
d. Moulded Case Circuit Breakers or Air Break Switches of suitable ratings shall be
provided on the secondary side of transformers of capacity above 100 KVA for
protecting the transformers from over load and short circuits. Fuse units of suitable
ratings shall be provided on the secondary side of transformers of capacity up to and
including 100 KVA for protecting the transformers from overload and short circuits.
4.3.2.5 11/0.23kV 1-phase Distribution Transformers (up to 16KVA Capacity.)
These transformers shall be pole mounted complying with provisions in Indian Electricity
Rules, 1956 for isolating the transformer during overload and short circuit conditions.
4.3.3 Design Criteria for Distribution lines:
These criteria shall apply to all distribution lines up to and including 33kV for both overhead
lines and under ground cables.
4.3.3.1 The lines shall be designed and constructed in accordance with relevant provision of
I.E. Rule 1956 applicable to overhead lines and under-ground cables.
4.3.3.2 The distribution network fed from 11/0.4kV transformers and 33/11kV transformers
shall be initially planned as independent networks within their respective service area. A
service area of any particular substation shall mean for this purpose, an area, load in which
shall normally be supplied by that sub- station by one or more number of feeders, as required,
without exceeding the specified KVA-KM Loading limit of any feeder within the area.
4.3.3.4 The Licensee shall take suitable measures, sufficiently in advance, to augment the
capacity of the feeders in the event of the specified KVA-KM Loading of any feeder being
exceeded.
4.3.3.5 The design of the distribution lines shall incorporate features to enable their
augmentation, in future, with minimum interruption to power supply. The existing Rights of
Way shall be fully exploited.
4.3.3.6 KVA-KM Loading limits for conductors may be calculated in accordance with a
sample calculation shown at Annexure-I.
4.3.4 Capacitive Reactance compensation:
Shunt capacitors unswitched/switched type, shall be installed in the Distribution System at
suitable location for improvement of Power Factor, voltage profile and reduction of
transmission and distribution losses. The size and location of capacitor installations shall be
determined on the basis of reliable field data to avoid over voltages at light load periods.
(Useful formulae are given in the Annexure-II which may be applied for determining
approximate size and location of capacitor installations). The Licensee shall, however,
undertake optimisation study of shunt compensation to determine most appropriate sizes and
locations for shunt capacitor installations in comparision to other alternatives.
4.3.5 Service lines:
The service Wires to consumers shall be laid in accordance with relevant Construction
Standards of Rural Electrification Corporation Ltd. for 230V/400V supply and shall conform
to provision in Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 in all cases.
4.3.6 Metering Installations:
For 230V/400V the layout of metering installation shall be in accordance with relevant
construction standards of Rural Electrification Corporation Ltd. The meters and associated
metering equipment including connections shall be enclosed in a suitable tamper proof box.
The tamper proof box shall be of sufficient strength and design with locking and sealing
devices and with adequate provision for heat dissipation and electrical clearances. The design
shall permit readings to be taken without access to the meter or its connections.
For HT and EHT Consumers the meters, maximum demand indicators, secondary
connections, and other secondary apparatus and connections required shall be housed in a
separate metering panel, which shall be locked/sealed to prevent tampering.

4.4 Security Standards:
The Licensee's Distribution System shall be planned and maintained so as to fulfill the
following security standards except under Force Majeur Conditions beyond the reasonable
control of the licensee.
i. Loading in any current carrying component of the Distribution System (e.g.
Conductors, Joints, Transformer, Switchgear, Cables, other apparatus etc.) shall not
exceed 80% of the respective thermal limit.
ii. In case of single contingency failure in or to any 33/11kV sub-station excluding
equipment, controlling any outgoing 11KV Feeders, the load interrupted shall not
generally exceed 50% of the total demand on the sub-station. The licensee has to
bring it down to 20% within a period of three years.
iii. In case of breakdown of any 33/0.4kV or 11/0.4kV Distribution sub-station,the
electricity supply shall not be interrupted for more than 24 (Twenty four) hours except
in case of major failures involving Transformers, the interruption shall not be for
more than 7 (seven) days.
iv. In case of a failure in any 11KV Feeder including its terminal equipment, supply shall
not normally be interrupted for more than 24 (Twenty four) hours but in no case shall
exceed 7 (seven) days.
v. There shall be at least two numbers of Transformers in each 33/11kV Sub-station.
vi. In each 33/11kV sub-station of capacity 10 MVA and above there shall be at least
two incoming circuits.

5. OPERATING STANDARDS
5.1 General:
These Operating Standards are aimed at operating the Licensee's Distribution
System safely, efficiently and to ensure maximum system stability and security.

5.2 Operation Criteria:
The operation criteria comprise of :
i. Load monitoring and balancing
ii. Voltage monitoring and control
iii. Interruption Monitoring
iv. Data Logging
v. Load management
vi. Communication
vii. Safety co-ordination
5.2.1.1 Load monitoring:
Licensee shall prescribe Rules and methods in its Operation manuals for monitoring load at
the following places.
i. 33/11 kV Sub-stations
ii. 33 kV Feeders
iii. 11 kV Feeders
iv. 11/0.4 kV Sub-stations (in all phases on the secondary side)
5.2.1.2 Load Balancing:
The unbalance of load between Phases in low tension distribution network fed by 33/0.4kV
and 11/0.4 kV distribution transformers shall not exceed 5% (five percent) of the average
load.
5.2.2 Voltage Monitoring and Control
5.2.2.1 Voltage monitoring at each 33/11 kV Sub-station shall be carried out by data logging.
5.2.2.2 Voltage monitoring on the secondary side of 33/0.4kV and 11/0.4kV distribution
transformers shall be carried out at least once in one year during Peak Load hours to cover at
least two nos. of transformers in each 11KV feeder as follows:
i. One transformer towards the beginning of the feeder
ii. One transformer towards the end of the feeder
5.2.2.3 Improvement to voltage conditions shall be achieved by operating ON LOAD TAP
CHANGE CONTROL of transformers in the Distribution System where such facility exists.
The Licensee shall contact over Telephone the operators of Transmission and Bulk Supply
Licensee at the point of interconnection, to correct voltage at the sending end as required.
5.2.3 INTERRUPTION MONITORING
5.2.3.1 Licensee shall maintain accurate record of consumer interruption caused by
(a) Planned and unplanned outages of following equipments in the Distribution System.
a. 33KV line/equipments
b. 33/11 KV Sub-Stations
c. 11 KV line/equipments
d. 11/0.4KV Sub-Stations
or
(b) Outage of power supply from interconnection points with GRIDCO or other power
supplier
Each record shall contain at least the following information:
a. Name of Section, Sub-Division and Division
b. Location
c. Area affected
d. The name of affected lines/ Sub-Station/ equipments/ Interconnection point (i.e. with
Gridco or other power supplier)
e. The date and time of interruption
f. The date and time of restoration
g. The duration of interruption
h. The cause of interruption
i. Whether the interruption is planned or unplanned
j. The protection device if any operated/not operated
k. Action taken for restoration of supply
l. Preventive action if any taken
m. Weather condition
n. Damage/injury to property/life if any
Based on the above records, the Licensee is required to evaluate and monitor electricity
supply reliability indices as stated in "Statement of System Performance" appended at the end
of this document.
Data Logging:
All important data such as Voltage, Current, Power Factor, KWH, Transformer operational
data (e.g. Tap position, oil/winding Temperature, etc) shall be logged on hourly basis in all
33/11kV sub-stations with installed capacity of 10 MVA and above and all other attended
sub-stations.
Load Management:
In the event of total or partial black outs of Transmission System or Regional
System the Licensee shall follow procedures as laid down in the GRID CODE under the
Section contingency planning.
In the event of breakdown within its own System, the Licensee shall restore/maintain supply
within the limit specified under security standards (Sub Section 4.4) by taking appropriate
measures.
Communication:
The Licensee shall establish reliable communication facilities at its major 33/11kV sub-
stations (10 MVA and above). All operating instructions, messages and data received from or
sent to the concerned Grid Sub-station/Grid Substations and SLDC shall be duly recorded at
such sub-station.
Safety Coordination:
The Licensee and consumers shall abide by the general safety requirements of the I.E.Rules
1956 for construction, installation, protection, operation and maintenance of electric supply
lines and apparatus. Procedures laid down in the relevant section of the grid
code and distribution code shall be followed by the Licensee and its consumers, in this
regard.
5.2.7.3 The Licensee and its consumers shall abide by provisions of I.E. Rules, 1956 under
Chapter VII. "Electric supply lines, Systems and Apparatus for High and Extra High
Voltages."
5.2.7.4 The Licensee shall develop its own Safety Manual to satisfy requirements of I.E.
Rules and implement the same.
inform the public of the first phase results, key findings, and conclusions. The study team gave a PowerPoint
presentation summarizing the DRG Phase I report to the MN Public Utilities Commission.
This blog post should allow you to:
1. Understand Dispersed Generation
2. Watch and listen to the DG webinar presentation
3. Get a summary of important slides
4. Learn how to get more info and provide comments on the Study
\
What is Dispersed Generation?

Definition: Dispersed generation is a decentralized power plant, feeding into the distribution
level power-grid and typically sized between 10 and 150 MW. (source) Our electric utility
infrastructure in this country is based on a system of large power plants feeding power to
customers through a vast transmission and distribution system, collectively known as the
grid. Dispersed generation is a concept where smaller, highly efficient power plants would
be built along the existing grid, close to the end-user customer. It is similar in concept to the
move from large central computers to desktop computers on a network. Minnesota, with our
strong renewable energy capabilities, is ideally suited to take advantage of dispersed
generation across the state.

Dispersed generation offers a variety of advantages for many perspectives. Energy
consumers, power providers, and other stakeholders all have their own reasons for wanting
greater adoption of distributed generation. Distributed power generators are small compared
with typical central station power plants and provide unique benefits that are not available
from centralized electricity generation. Many of these benefits stem from the fact that the
generating units are inherently modular, which makes distributed power highly flexible. It
can provide power where it is needed, when it is needed. And because they typically rely on
natural gas or renewable resources, the generators can be quieter and less polluting than large
power plants, which makes them suitable for on-site installation at some customer locations.
The Minnesota NextGen Energy Act was passed in 2007 by the Minnesota Legislature, and
one of the requirements was a statewide study of Dispersed Renewable Generation Potential.
This study is being led by the Minnesota Department of Commerce, and the Phase 1 findings
are those shared during this webinar.