1

CHAPTER ONE
ESTIMATING POWER SYSTEM STABILITY REGION USING ARTIFICIAL
NEURAL NETWORK
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper presents a new method to estimate the region of stability of an
asymptotically stable equilibrium point of an autonomous nonlinear system
using artificial neural network. In contrast to model-based analytical methods,
this approach uses empirical data from the system to train the neural
network. The neural network results are compared with estimates obtained
by previously proposed methods for some sample two dimensional problems
and for an inverted pendulum. The problem of estimating the region of
stability for the stable equilibrium of autonomous nonlinear systems is
fundamental in the theory of dynamic systems, and has been studied for many
years. In applications, knowledge of regions of stability is essential for the safe
operation of many complex dynamic systems, such as power systems and
nuclear reactors. Despite many years of theoretical attention to this problem,
and its clear practical importance, the existing methods for estimating
stability.
The objective of the Electric Power Industry is to supply electricity at the least
possible cost with a constant service quality.
Among the factors that provoke difficulties in achieving this goal, the inherent
variability of the load and the fast growth of the demand are foremost,
followed by requirements of clean environment, weather, quality fuels,
accelerated aging of the plants and fast changes in technology.
2

Recently, promising Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) approaches have been
developed to solve problems in power plants and power systems --tuning of
controllers, process identification, sensor validation, monitoring and fault
diagnosis, in power plants, and security assessment, load identification, load
modeling, forecasting and fault diagnosis, in power systems.
POWER PLANTS AND CONTROL PROBLEMS
A power plant converts energy from nonelectrical to electrical form. Based on
the energy transformation, the plants are classified as fossil, nuclear, solar,
geothermal, hydro, etc.
The main goal is to carry out this conversion in the best possible way. Safety,
efficiency, reliability and availability criteria are taken into account as
references.
A plant consists of several generating units which work together to meet the
electric load demand. For a fossil power plant, each unit consists of three basic
components: the boiler, the turbine and the generator.
The complexity of the operation comes from the variability of the load, and the
high efficiency demanded over a wide range of operation. The main difficulties
for the control task then arise by the high coupling among the process
variables and the nonlinearities of the process.
Fossil plants at the beginning were designed to operate over a base-load.
Single input - single output controllers were used. Control strategies using
feed forward control action proved to satisfy the established requirements at
that time. However, the high growth of the demand, the fuel crises and the
3

new restrictions for environmental protection demanded different and more
efficient types of operations for the electric power plants.
In more detail, there are three types of operation:
* Base-load * Load-following * Cyclic
* Base-load operation: This mode of operation is in general the most economic
for the plants. Plants operate at fixed demand, at maximum capacity, with
variations no bigger than 15-20% of nominal capacity over long periods of
time (months). Plants in this mode basically require regulators or steady-state
controllers.
* Load-following operation: Plants in this operation mode, along with those
operating in cyclic operation are responsible for maintaining the fixed
frequency at 60 Hz. These plants absorb the fast and random load
2 NEURAL NETWORKS IN POWER PLANTS
There are a number of papers in the literature dealing with the use of ANN to
power plants. Several of these are briefly described in the subsections below.
They are grouped into papers dealing with identification & modeling, control,
sensor validation, monitoring, fault diagnosis and prediction.
IDENTIFICATION AND MODELING
One point of view about the use of ANN to deal with the modeling of nuclear
power systems. The special emphasis was placed on the interrelationship
among sensor outputs. An ANN is used to predict one or more of the sensor
outputs. If there exist significant difference between the predicted and the
actual outputs, then something in the components, system or instrumentation
has changed. Topics described in the article: transient diagnostics, sensor
validation, plant-wide monitoring, check valve monitoring, and analysis of
4

vibrations. Interesting approach for sensor validation function and detection
of incipient faults. Most of the works mentioned have been realized to
demonstrate feasibility of some ANN approach (8 references).
Parlos, Atiya and Chong, [36]-1992, presented a procedure using ANN to
identify the nonlinear empirical model of a steam generator. A hybrid
feedforward/feedback ANN is used. The feedforward portion provides
interpolation, while the feedback portion enables representation of temporal
variations in the nonlinearities of the system. Simulation results showed that
empirical models can be effectively used to predict transient responses; this
approach appears to produce more accurate results than those reported in the
literature based on conventional nonlinear identification techniques (24
references).
Guo and Uhrig, [37]-1992, addressed the problem of modeling the
thermodynamic behavior of a nuclear power plant using a hybrid ANN.
Measurements of heat rate acquired over 1-yr period were utilized. Original
data were clustered and their centroids used as training patterns. Comparison
between calculated and predicted heat rates gave an error of less than 0.1%.
Then sensitivity analysis was performed. The reported methodology could be
utilized by existing heat rate monitoring systems.
CONTROL
An investigation on tuning of power system stabilizers (PSS). The outputs of
the neural net were the desired parameters of the PSS. The inputs were the
generator real power and the power factor. Both are measured on-line and are
representative of the operating conditions. Thus, the PSS parameters can be
adapted in real time. Simulation results demonstrated the effectiveness of this
5

approach. Multilayer feedforward neural networks were used. Since this
approach doesnt require model identification, it is more efficient than the
self-tuning controllers, and therefore more suitable for real-time applications .


2. CONCLUSION
Clearly the term artificial neural networks encompass a great variety of
different software packages with many different types of artificial neurons,
network architectures, and learning rules. These different networks can, in
turn, be applied to a diverse range of functions in everything from beer
manufacturing to better understanding the properties of the biological brains
on which they are based.
3. REFRENCE
[1] Sobajic, D.J., and Y-H Pao, "Artificial Neural Net Based Dynamic Security
Assessment for Electric Power Systems," IEEE Transactions on Power
Systems, Vol.4, No.1, February 1989, pp. 220-228.
[2] Santoso, N.I. and O.T. Tan, "Neural-Net Based Real-time Control Capacitors
Installed on Distribution Systems," IEEE Transaction on Power Delivery, Vol.5,
No.1, January 1990, pp. 266- 272.
[3] Ebron, S., D. Lubkerman, and M. White, "A Neural Network Approach To
The Detection Of Incipient Faults On Power Distribution Feeders," IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol.5, No.2, April 1990, pp. 905
[4] Pao, Y-H and D.J. Sobajic, "Combined Use Of Unsupervised And Supervised
Learning For Dynamic Security Assessment," IEEE Transactions on Power
Systems, Vol.7, No.2, May 1992, pp. 878-884.

6

CHAPTER TWO
SERVICE WIRING
1. INTRODUCTION

Building wiring is the electrical wiring and associated devices such as
switches, meters and light fittings used in buildings or other structures.
Electrical wiring uses insulated conductors.
Wiring safety codes vary by country, and the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) is attempting to standardize wiring amongst member
countries. Wires and cables are rated by the circuit voltage, temperature, and
environmental conditions (moisture, sunlight, oil, chemicals) in which they
can be used. Color codes are used to distinguish line, neutral and ground
(earth) wires.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Early wiring methods
The first interior power wiring systems used conductors that were bare or
covered with cloth, which were secured by staples to the framing of the
building or on running boards. Where conductors went through walls, they
were protected with cloth tape. Splices were done similarly to telegraph
connections, and soldered for security. Underground conductors were
insulated with wrappings of cloth tape soaked in pitch, and laid in wooden
troughs which were then buried. Such wiring systems were unsatisfactory
7

because of the danger of electrocution and fire, plus the high labour cost for
such installations.
Knob and tube

Knob-and-Tube wiring
The earliest standardized method of wiring in buildings, in common use in
North America from about 1880 to the 1930s, was knob and tube (K&T)
wiring: single conductors were run through cavities between the structural
members in walls and ceilings, with ceramic tubes forming protective
channels through joists and ceramic knobs attached to the structural
members to provide air between the wire and the lumber and to support the
wires. Since air was free to circulate over the wires, smaller conductors could
be used than required in cables. By arranging wires on opposite sides of
building structural members, some protection was afforded against short-
circuits that can be caused by driving a nail into both conductors
simultaneously.
By the 1940s, the labour cost of installing two conductors rather than one
cable resulted in a decline in new knob-and-tube installations. However, the
US code still allows new K&T wiring installations in special situations (some
rural and industrial applications).
Metal-sheathed wires
In the United Kingdom, an early form of insulated cable,
[1]
introduced in 1896,
consisted of two impregnated-paper-insulated conductors in an overall lead
sheath. Joints were soldered, and special fittings were used for lamp holders
8

and switches. These cables were similar to underground telegraph and
telephone cables of the time. Paper-insulated cables proved unsuitable for
interior wiring installations because very careful workmanship was required
on the lead sheaths to ensure moisture did not affect the insulation.
A system later invented in the UK in 1908 employed vulcanized-rubber
insulated wire enclosed in a strip metal sheath. The metal sheath was bonded
to each metal wiring device to ensure earthing continuity.
A system developed in Germany called "Kuhlo wire" used one, two, or three
rubber-insulated wires in a brass or lead-coated iron sheet tube, with a
crimped seam. The enclosure could also be used as a return conductor. Kuhlo
wire could be run exposed on surfaces and painted, or embedded in plaster.
Special outlet and junction boxes were made for lamps and switches, made
either of porcelain or sheet steel. The crimped seam was not considered as
watertight as the Stannos wire used in England, which had a soldered
sheath.
[2]

A somewhat similar system called "concentric wiring" was introduced in the
United States around 1905. In this system, an insulated electrical wire was
wrapped with copper tape which was then soldered, forming the grounded
(return) conductor of the wiring system. The bare metal sheath, at earth
potential, was considered safe to touch. While companies such as General
Electric manufactured fittings for the system, and a few buildings were wired
with it, it was never adopted into the US National Electrical Code. Drawbacks
of the system were that special fittings were required, and that any defect in
the connection of the sheath would result in the sheath becoming energized.
3. DESIGN
Step 1:Be sure to have the necessary electrical tools. Bring the following to be
used:
A. Pliers
B. Side Cutters
C. Circuit Tester
D. Electrical Tape and tape measures
9

E. Wire stripper
F. Screwdrivers- both Flat bladed and Phillip head
G. Wire, Cables, and Tape measures
H. Safety goggles
Note: There are many list of equipments used in electrical wiring. Never use
low class tools, it can lead you to an electrical accident.
Step 2
Sketch your electrical plan. Analyze and design efficiently what you have
drawn and organize it step by step. This will make your work faster.
Step 3
Set up your wiring lane within the house. Decide the area to place your
switches, fixtures, and outlets. Put switches close to the door for easy used.
Make sure it does not block the other materials in your home. Keep it simple.
Step 4
Set up wires, cables, switches, and outlet. Connect and place them accurately
on you wall or ceilings. Use the necessary tools to do it.
Note: Be sure that your electrical power supply is off upon wiring to avoid
electrical dangers.
Step 5
Connect the wires properly. Same color must connect to each other. Tape the
wires properly. Avoid the exposure of open wires.
Step 6
Evaluate voltage requirement of your appliances and equipments so that you
can choose the right range of your circuit breakers.
Step 7
Test existing connections. Check wires if still working. You can use this to save
your money, time, and energy. If not, replace or establish a new wiring system.
Step 8
Study the existing ordinances and laws in your respective state before
installation of wires. These keep everything to be safe and avoid hazards in
your home. Know the basic Electrical Code.
Step 9
Protect yourself properly. Wear gloves and goggles when you work on your
10

electrical wiring. This will guard you from possible incident such as electric
shocks.
Step 10
Set up your circuit breakers. Please take note that every wiring system you
connected has its own fuse and circuit breakers. It has important roles to
protect your home from possible incidents.
If you have already done the steps and connections ensure that it passed the
safety standards. This is very important to avoid fire or explosion upon testing
your electrical wiring. Make sure you tested all the electrical connection,
switches, fuse, and outlet. After checking the possibilities of improper work
you might have done, test your wiring if it is actually working.

4. BLOCK DIAGRAM


5. COMPONENTS USED IN THE MADE UP THE BLOCK
A. Pliers
B. Side Cutters
11

C. Circuit Tester
D. Electrical Tape and tape measures
E. Wire stripper
F. Screwdrivers- both Flat bladed and Phillip head
G. Wire, Cables, and Tape measures
H. Safety goggles

6. CONCLUSION

An electrical installation is the wiring system of a building from the mains
position to items of electrical equipment, sockets, light fittings and everything
in between and is the system in which all the electrical equipment is, or may
be, electrically connected to a common source of electrical energy. Testing of
electrical installations is also referred to as BS7671, periodic inspection,
landlord testing, Electricity at Work, fixed appliance testing, fixed equipment,
fixed machine, hard wiring, electrical wiring, fixed wiring testing, mains,
circuit or insurance testing.

7. REFRENCE
1. Webb B. Garrison, Behind the headlines: American history's schemes,
scandals, and escapades, Stackpole Books, 1983 - page 107
2. Abdelhay A. Sallam and Om P. Malik (May 2011). Electric Distribution
Systems. IEEE Computer Society Press. p. 21. ISBN 9780470276822.
3. Merlin, A.; Back, H. Search for a Minimal-Loss Operating Spanning Tree
Configuration in an Urban Power Distribution System. In Proceedings of the
12

1975 Fifth Power Systems Computer Conference (PSCC), Cambridge, UK, 15
September 1975; pp. 118.
4. Mendoza, J.E.; Lopez, M.E.; Coello, C.A.; Lopez, E.A. Microgenetic
multiobjective reconfiguration algorithm considering power losses and
reliability indices for medium voltage distribution network. IET Gener.
Transm. Distrib. 2009, 3, 825840.
5. Bernardon, D.P.; Garcia, V.J.; Ferreira, A.S.Q.; Canha, L.N. Multicriteria
distribution network reconfiguration considering subtransmission analysis.
IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2010, 25, 26842691.
6. Amanulla, B.; Chakrabarti, S.; Singh, S.N. Reconfiguration of power
distribution systems considering reliability and power loss. IEEE Trans.
Power Deliv. 2012, 27, 918926.