Cell Structure

Cells are the basic unit of living organism

Microscopy

Types:
Light microscope uses light rays ! lower resolution
Electron microscope uses beams of electrons ! higher resolution, more defined

Fraction of a metre Symbol Unit
Millimetre mm 0.001 = 1/1000 = 10
-3
Micrometre m 0.000 001 = 1/1 000 000 = 10
-4
Nanometre nm 0.000 000 001 = 1/1 000 000 000 = 10
-9

Magnification :
" is how much bigger the image is than the
specimen (actual sample)
" does not increase the level of detail seen,
it just increase the size

Resolution :
" is how detailed the image is. The greater the resolution, the greater the detail
" the ability to distinguish between two points that are close together
E.g. :
Resolution of light microscope is 200 nm
Hence, any images (two distinct points) closer than 200 nm will be seen as one
object
Resolution of electron microscope is 0.5 nm ! 400 times better
General rule : The limit of resolution is about one half the wavelength of the radiation used
to view the specimen
Therefore, the best resolution of a light microscope that uses visible light is 200 nm.
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Magnification (M) = Image size (I)
Actual size (A)
(shortest) (longest)
Visible light : 400 nm ! 700nm ; shorter wavelength = greater resolution
(violet) (red)

Light Microscope (200 nm)
Any images closer than 200 nm will be seen as one object
Due to magnitude of the wavelength of light
2 objects can only be seen if light can pass between them
Human eye resolution = 100 m
Magnification of objective lens : x4, x10, x40, x100 (oil immersion)
Eyepiece lens : x10

Electron Microscope
Wavelength is extremely short (shorter than that of light)
o Resulting in much higher resolution
Electrons can be focused easily using electromagnets due to their negative charge
Electron beam has to be projected onto a fluorescent screen
o Areas hit by electrons shine brightly, giving a black & white image
Stains used contain heavy metal atoms which stop the passage of electrons
o The denser the part of the specimen, the darker the colour
o False colour images are created by processing the image using a
computer
Specimen observed in a vacuum
o Electrons scatter when they collide with air molecule
Water boils at room temperature in a vacuum. So, all specimens must be dehydrated
Only dead specimen can be examined


Two types:
a) Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEMs)
Use electromagnets to focus a beam of electrons
o Transmitted through the specimen
o Allowing us to see the inner part of the cells
Denser parts of the specimen absorb more electrons, producing darker colour
Produces high resolution images
Can only be used on thin specimens


b) Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEMs)
Only the reflected beam of electrons from the surfaces is observed
SEMs scan a beam of electrons across the specimen
o This knocks off electrons from the specimen
o Gathered in a cathode ray tube to form an image
Final images show the surface of the specimen
o Can be in 3D
Can be used on thick specimens
Have lower resolution than TEMs


Light Microscope Electron Microscope
Advantages Disadvantages
Cheap to purchase and operate Expensive to purchase and operate
Small and portable can be used almost
anywhere
Very large operated in special room
Unaffected by magnetic fields Affected by magnetic fields
Preparation of material is relatively quick &
simple, requiring only little expertise
Preparation of material requires extensive
training
Material rarely distorted by preparation Material may be distorted by preparation
Living specimen may be observed Specimen must be dehydrated. Hence, only
dead specimen may be observed
Natural colour of the material can be
observed
Produces only black & white image
Disadvantages Advantages
Magnifies object up to 1000x only Magnifies object up to 500 000x
Resolution is only 200nm Resolution is 0.5nm
The depth of field is restricted Produces greater depth of field


Ultrastructure

Animal Cell










Plant Cell











Chloroplast










Animal Cell VS Plant Cell
Structure Animal Cell Plant Cell
Shape Do not have a fixed shape Have a fixed shape
Cell Wall Do not have a cell wall Have cellulose cell walls. Plant
cells are linked to neighbouring
cells by means of fine strands of
cytoplasm called plasmodesmata
Chloroplast Do not have a chloroplast Have chloroplast
Vacuole Do not have vacuoles. If present,
vacuoles are usually small and
numerous
Mature cells have a large and
permanent central vacuole which
is surrounded by tonoplast
Nucleus Nucleus at the centre of the cell Nucleus at the edge of the cell
Food Storage Carbohydrate stored as glycogen Carbohydrate stored as starch
Centrioles Have centrioles Do not have centrioles

Ultrastructure of Animal Cell

1. Nucleus
Largest organelle in the animal cell
Surrounded by a double membrane known as nuclear envelope which contains many
small pores called nuclear pores
Outer membrane is continuous with endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Function of nuclear pore : allow & control exchange between nucleus & cytoplasm
E.g. Entering substances : protein (to make ribosomes), nucleotides (to make DNA
and RNA), ATP (adenosine triphosphate), hormones (e.g. thyroid hormone T3)
E.g. Leaving substances : mRNA, ribosomes (for protein synthesis on rough ER)
Function of nucleolus : makes ribosomes
The genetic materials are in a loosely coiled state known as chromatin
o Chromatin is made from proteins and DNA
o Genetic materials = chromosomes
o Chromosomes contain DNA, which is organised into functional units called
genes
Function of genetic material (DNA/genes) : control the activities of cell &
inheritance

2. Ribosomes *
Consist of two subunits : large and small (at high magnification)
Sites of protein synthesis
Found free in the cytoplasm as well as on the rough ER
Very small (20 to 25 nm in diameter)
Made up of rRNA (ribosomal ribonucleic acid) and protein

3. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Network of flattened sacs that interconnected to form a complex structure for
internal transport of substances
These sacs are known as cisternae
ER can be divided into two types : rough ER and smooth ER
a) Rough ER
Attached with a lot of ribosomes
Provides large surface area for the synthesis of protein
Transports the protein synthesized by ribosome to smooth ER or to the
Golgi apparatus through sacs (vesicles) pinched off from its surface
b) Smooth ER
Has no ribosome
Major function is to synthesize lipids and steroids (e.g. cholesterol,
oestrogen, testosterone)
SER in liver cells contain lytic enzyme for the detoxification of drugs and
toxins

4. Golgi Apparatus / Golgi Body / Golgi Complex
Stack of fluid-flattened sacs (cisternae)
More than one may be present in a cell
Functions :
a) Collect & sort protein molecules from the rough ER
b) Process protein :-
(i) Modify proteins into glycoprotein with the addition of sugars
(ii) Remove the first amino acid, methionine, from newly formed proteins to
make a functioning protein
c) Secretion : processed proteins are packaged into Golgi vesicles and transported
either to other parts of the cell or out of the cell
d) Others : make lysosomes, convert sugars into cell wall component in plants
* Prokaryotes, mitochondria & chloroplast have smaller ribosomes of 70S type; about
20nm in diameter (mitochondria & chloroplast have smaller ribosomes than those in the
cytoplasm)
* Eukaryotes have bigger ribosomes of 80S type; about 25 nm in diameter (cytoplasmic
ribosomes)

5. Lysosomes
Formed by breaking off from the Golgi apparatus
Spherical sacs surrounded by a single membrane and have no (clear) internal
structure
Contains digestive (hydrolytic) enzyme responsible for the breakdown of old,
unwanted & damaged organelles or even whole cells
o Which are kept separate from the rest of the cell to prevent damage, by the
surrounding membrane
o E.g. : mammary glands after lactation (breast feeding)
In white blood cell, lysosomes are used to digest bacteria or invading cells during
the process of endocytosis
In sperm, its head contains a special lysosome, the acrosome, to digest the thick
wall of ovum

6. Mitochondria (singular : mitochondrion)
Usually about 1 m in diameter and often sausage-shaped
Small circular DNA & 70S ribosomes are often found in the mitochondria
Surrounded by a double membrane (envelope) the inner is folded to form finger-
like cristae which project into the interior solution (matrix), which contains enzymes
involved in respiration
Main function : carry out aerobic respiration to make ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate), the universal energy carrier in cells
o First stage of ATP production takes place in the matrix
o Final stage, oxidative phosphorylation, takes place in the membrane of the
cristae
Other function : synthesis of lipids
Found in abundance in cells that are very active and require a lot of energy



7. Cell Surface Membrane
Extremely thin (about 7nm)
At very high magnification (x 100 000), it can be seen to have three layers
o Trilaminar appearance (a narrow, pale interior sandwiched in between to
heavily stained dark lines)
Partially permeable and centriole exchange between the cell and its environment

8. Microvilli (singular : microvillus)
Finger-like extensions on the cell surface membrane
Typical of certain epithelial cells (e.g. digestive tract & proximal convoluted tubule
of the kidney)
Increase the surface area to increase the rate of absorption of substances

9. Centrioles
Only found in animal cells
Located in the centrosome as paired structures lying at right angles to one another
Hollow cylinder (about 0.4 m long & 0.2 in diameter) formed from a ring of short
microtubules, tiny tubes made of a protein called tubulin
There microtubules are used to grow the spindle fibres during nuclear division (a
starting point)
Replicate starting the interphase stage of mitosis and meiosis
o Each pair move to the opposite poles of the nucleus during the division
process
Also organises the formation of cilia & flagella
Ultrastructure of Plant Cell

Chloroplast
Reasonably big enough to be observed under a light microscope
Small, flattened structure
Only found in plant cells
Site of photosynthesis
Found in the part of the plant that is green in colour
Their location in cells are not fixed ! orientate themselves with their large surface
area towards the sunlight
About 100 of them in a palisade mesophyll cell ! the number increases when light
intensity increases
Enclosed by a double membrane (envelope) surrounding the stroma (fluid-filled area
in the chloroplast) which consists of photosynthetic enzymes for light-independent
reaction
o Three phases in the light-dependent reaction, collectively called the Calvin
cycle
At high magnification, small grana (singular : granum) can be seen
o Thylakoids (membrane-bound sacs) form stacks of grana
o Grana contains chlorophyll
o Chlorophyll absorbs energy frim sunlight
o First stage of photosynthesis, light-dependent reaction or
photophosphorylation, takes place in the thylakoid membrane
Grana are linked together by lamellae (singular : lamella), thin and flat pieces of
thylakoid membrane
Small circular DNA and 70S ribosomes are found in chloroplast
Often contains starch grains, storage materials formed from the sugars produced
from photosynthesis

Cilia : Small, hair-like structures found on the surface membrane of some
animal cells. In cross-section, they have an outer membrane and a
ring of nine pairs of protein microtubules inside, with a single pair of
microtubules in the middle. The microtubules allow the cilia to move.
The cell uses this movement to move substances along the cell
surface.



Prokaryotes VS Eukaryotes










Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
0.5 5 m in diameter Commonly, up to 40 m diameter and
1000 10 000 times the volume of
prokaryotic cells
Unicellular Multicellular
DNA is circular and lies free in the
cytoplasm (no nucleus)
DNA is linear and is contained in a nucleus
the nucleus is surrounded by an envelope of
two membranes
DNA is naked and not associated with
histones (protein)
DNA is associated with protein, forming
structures called chromosomes
Slightly smaller (70S) ribosomes (about
20nm diameter)
Slightly larger (80S) ribosomes (about
25nm diameter)
No ER ER present, to which ribosomes may be
attached
Few cell organelles and no internal
membrane
Many types of cell organelle present
Peptidoglycan cell wall Cell wall sometimes present *
Flagella, if present, no 9+2 internal
microtubule arrangement
Flagella, where present, have a 9+2 internal
microtubule arrangement
* E.g. plants and fungi strengthening material is cellulose or lignin in plants, and
chitin in fungi

Living
Organisms
Eukaryotes
Animal Plant Protoctista Fungi
Prokaryotes
Bacteria