CHAPTER 3

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM AND OTHER ELEMENTS MODELING

Paulo F. Ribeiro
BWX Technologies, Inc.
Naval Nuclear Fuel Division
Lynchburg, VA !"#"$#%&"
'.( In)ro*uc)ion
+ne *i,,icul)y in calcula)ing har-onic vol)ages an*
curren)s )hroughou) a )rans-ission sys)e- is )he nee* ,or an
a*e.ua)e e.uivalen) )o re/resen) )he *is)ribu)ion sys)e- an*
consu-ers0 loa*s ,e* ra*ially ,ro- each busbar.
I) has beco-e evi*en) )ha) )he use o, e.uivalen)s
1i)hou) a co-/rehensive chec2 on )he e,,ec) o, all i-/e*ances
ac)ually /resen) can lea* )o inaccura)e es)i-a)ion o, har-onic
vol)ages an* curren)s in )he )rans-ission sys)e-. +n )he
o)her han*, i) is no) /rac)icable )o ob)ain an* re/resen) all )he
sys)e- *e)ails.
A *e)aile* analysis o, *is)ribu)ion sys)e-s, loa*s an*
o)her sys)e- ele-en)s is carrie* ou), -o*els *iscusse* an* a
si-/le bu) -ore realis)ic a//roach a*o/)e*. I) consis)s
basically o, re/resen)ing )he *o-inan) charac)eris)ics o, )he
ne)1or2 using al)erna)ive con,igura)ions an* -o*els. Also
si-/ler e.uivalen)s ,or e3)en*e* ne)1or2s are sugges)e*.
'. 4eneral 5onsi*era)ions
Al)hough ,ur)her consi*era)ions lea*ing )o si-/ler
e.uivalen)s are given la)er, )he basic assu-/)ions use* in )his
/a/er are as ,ollo1s6
7(8 Dis)ribu)ion lines an* cables 7say, 9:$''2V, ,or
e3a-/le8 shoul* be re/resen)e* by an e.uivalen) /i.
For shor) lines, es)i-a)e )he )o)al ca/aci)ance a) each
vol)age level an* connec) i) a) )he )er-ina)ion buses.
78 Trans,or-ers be)1een *is)ribu)ion vol)age level
shoul* be re/resen)e* by an e.uivalen) ele-en).
7'8 As )he ac)ive /o1er absorbe* by ro)a)ing -achines
*oes no) corres/on* )o a *a-/ing value, )he ac)ive
an* reac)ive /o1er *e-an* a) )he ,un*a-en)al
,re.uency -ay no) be use* s)raigh),or1ar*ly.
Al)erna)ive -o*els ,or loa* re/resen)a)ion shoul* be
use* accor*ing )o )heir co-/osi)ion an*
charac)eris)ics.
7!8 Po1er ,ac)or correc)ion 7PF58 ca/aci)ance shoul* be
es)i-a)e* as accura)ely as /ossible an* alloca)e* a)
)he corres/on*ing vol)age level.
7"8 +)her ele-en)s, such as, )rans-ission line in*uc)ors,
,il)ers an* genera)ors shoul* be re/resen)e*
accor*ing )o )heir ac)ual con,igura)ion an*
co-/osi)ion.
798 The re/resen)a)ion shoul* be -ore *e)aile* nearer
)he /oin)s o, in)eres). ;i-/ler e.uivalen)s, ei)her ,or
)he )rans-ission an* *is)ribu)ion sys)e-s shoul* be
use* only ,or re-o)e /oin)s.
7%8 For *is)ribu)ion sys)e- s)u*ies all )he ele-en)s -ay
be assu-e* )o be uncou/le* )hree$/hase branches
1i)h no -u)uals, bu) allo1ing unbalance*
/ara-e)ers /er /hase.
A *is)ribu)ion sys)e- co-/rises a nu-ber o, loa*s
convenien)ly su//lie* by circui)s ,ro- )he neares) *is)ribu)ion
/oin). The *is)ribu)ion circui) con,igura)ion *e/en*s on )he
/ar)icular loa* re.uire-en)s. In general, a consi*erable
nu-ber o, loa*s are loca)e* so close )oge)her an* su//lie*
,ro- )he -ain *is)ribu)ion /oin), )ha) )hey can be consi*ere*
as a 1hole. For )he -a<ori)y o, ins)alla)ions, 1he)her
su//lying a s-all ,ac)ory, *o-es)ic=co--ercial consu-ers, or
a large /lan), a si-/le ra*ial sys)e- is use*.
(
A )y/ical
*is)ribu)ion ne)1or2 is sho1n in Figure '.(
Figure '.(6 Ty/ical *is)ribu)ion sys)e- con,igura)ion
A si-/li,ie* *o-inan) con,igura)ion can be *erive*
as illus)ra)e* in Figure '., base* on )he basic assu-/)ions.
This arrange-en) 1oul* re/resen) )he *o-inan)
charac)eris)ics 7i-/e*ances8 o, )he su//ly circui) ,e* ra*ially
,ro- each )rans-ission busbar.
('.&2V
'&#2V
('.&2V
9:2V
i*en)ical circui)s
loa*s /.,.c.
ca/.
'#2V
9:2V
'# 2V
9: 2V
/.,.c.
ca/.
i*en)ical circui)s
9:2V
('.& 2V
'&# V
Figure '.6 Do-inan) arrange-en)
In or*er )o si-/li,y )he -ani/ula)ion o, )he
*is)ribu)ion sys)e-, loa* an* o)her ele-en)s *a)a, )he
,ollo1ing /roce*ure base* on )he con,igura)ion o, Figure '.,
is sugges)e*. The *o))e* lines in Figure '.' -ean *i,,eren)
/ossibili)ies o, connec)ing )he loa* or o)her ele-en)s, such as,
co-/ensa)or ,il)ers, genera)or, e)c.. The )o)al e.uivalen)
i-/e*ance is )hen calcula)e* a) each har-onic ,re.uency in
s)ar$groun*e* an* connec)e* )o )he )rans-ission busbar as a
shun) ele-en). 5onse.uen)ly, )here is no al)era)ion o, )he
*i-ension o, )he )rans-ission sys)e- -a)ri3. ;ee illus)ra)ion
in Figures '.' an* '.!. A co-/osi)ion o, *i,,eren)
arrange-en)s can be re/resen)e* a) )he sa-e busbar.
Figure '.'6 Dis)ribu)ion sys)e-, loa*s an* o)her ele-en)s
'.' The >o*eling o, Loa*s
In )his sec)ion, )he -o*eling o, in*ivi*ual ele-en)s
is *iscusse* in *e)ail. 5onsi*ering )ha) )here is so-e
*isagree-en) regar*ing 1hich har-onic -o*els are bes) ,or
loa*s, )rans,or-ers, genera)ors, e)c.,

various /ro/ose*
-o*els are *iscusse*. Also si-/ler e.uivalen)s ,or
*is)ribu)ion an* )rans-ission sys)e-s a) re-o)e /oin)s o, )he
area o, in)eres) are *iscusse*.
5onsu-ers0 loa*s /lay a very i-/or)an) /ar) in )he
har-onic ne)1or2 charac)eris)ic. They cons)i)u)e no) only )he
-ain ele-en) o, )he *a-/ing co-/onen) bu) -ay a,,ec) )he
resonance con*i)ions, /ar)icularly a) higher ,re.uencies.
In*ee*, -easure-en)s
'
have sho1n )ha) -a3i-u- /lan)
con*i)ions resul)e* in a lo1ering o, )he i-/e*ance a) )he
lo1er ,re.uencies, bu) cause an increase a) higher ,re.uencies.
>ah-ou* an* ;hul)?
!
observe* in si-ula)ions )ha) )he
a**i)ion o, loa* can resul) in ei)her an increase or *ecrease in
har-onic ,lo1.
Figure '.!6 +verall ;ys)e- re/resen)a)ion
5onse.uen)ly, an a*e.ua)e re/resen)a)ion o, )he
sys)e- loa*s is nee*e*. @o1ever, i) is very har* )o ob)ain
*e)aile* in,or-a)ion abou) )his. >oreover, as )he general
loa*s consis) o, an aggrega)e nu-ber o, co-/onen)s, i) is
*i,,icul) )o es)ablish a -o*el base* on )heore)ical analysis.
The necessi)y o, /rac)ical -easure-en)s on
*is)ribu)ion /oin)s, a) ('.&2V ,or e3a-/le, )oge)her 1i)h
*e)aile* in,or-a)ion o, )he ne)1or2 un*er s)u*y, is vi)al ,or
)he un*ers)an*ing an* es)ablish-en) o, a realis)ic -o*el.
A))e-/)s )o *e*uce a -o*el ,ro- -easure-en)s have been
-a*e. ;ee Bergeal e) al
"
an* Ba2er
9
. @o1ever, -ore
co-/rehensive -easure-en)s an* sys)e- *a)a are nee*e*.
Al)hough /rac)ical e3/erience is s)ill insu,,icien) )o
guaran)ee )he bes) -o*el, sys)e- s)u*ies have )o /rocee* 1i)h
1ha)ever in,or-a)ion is available. Thus, loa* charac)eris)ics
are loo2e* a) in *e)ail an* al)erna)ive -o*els *evelo/e* in )he
,ollo1ing.
A )y/ical co-/osi)ion o, consu-ers0 /lan) loa*
co-/osi)ion -ay be as sho1n in Table '.( . Fro- Table '.(,
i) see-s evi*en) )ha) )here are basically )1o sor)s o, loa*s $$
resis)ive an* -o)ive. Tha) 1oul* i-/ly a si-/le co-bina)ion
o, resis)ances an* in*uc)ances. @o1ever, )he *i,,icul)y in
ob)aining *e)aile* in,or-a)ion abou) co-/osi)ion, /o1er an*
varia)ion 1i)h )i-e -a2es )he )as2 very har*.
Never)heless, i) is /ossible )o a//roach )he /roble-
o, re/resen)ing loa*s ,or har-onic s)u*ies by using al)erna)ive
-o*els accor*ing )o )he loa* charac)eris)ics an* in,or-a)ion
available.
'.'.( Reco--en*e* >o*els
Loa*s are generally e3/resse* by )heir ac)ive an*
reac)ive /o1er P an* A, res/ec)ively, 1hich are use* )o
calcula)e )he e.uivalen) i-/e*ance ,or loa* ,lo1 s)u*ies a)
,un*a-en)al ,re.uency, assu-ing )he sys)e- vol)age.
@o1ever, a) har-onic ,re.uency, P an* A canno) be use*
s)raigh),or1ar*ly because )he ac)ive /o1er absorbe* by a
ro)a)ing -achine *oes no) e3ac)ly corres/on* )o a *a-/ing
value an* so a**i)ional in,or-a)ion is necessary. The
,ollo1ing al)erna)ive -o*els can be use* accor*ing )o )he loa*
charac)eris)ics an* in,or-a)ion available6
TABLB '.( Loa* 5o-/osi)ion
Na)ure Ty/e o, Loa* Blec)rical
5harac)eris)ics
230kV
69kV 69kV
13.8kV
/.,.c. ca/.
Trans,. ( Line=5able Trans,.
Loa* C
+)her
Ble-en)s
Di,,eren)
/ossibili)ies o,
connec)ion
Trans.
sys)e-
busbar
Trans-ission
;ys)e- '$/hase
Re/resen)a)ion
Dis)ribu)ion sys)e-
an* o)her ele-en)s
Do-es)ic Incan*escen)
La-/
5o-/ac)
Fluorescen)
;-all >o)ors
5o-/u)ers
@o-e Blec)ronics
Passive Resis)ive
Non$linear
Passive In*uc)ive
Non$linear 7D8
Non$linear7D8
5o--ercial Incan*escen)
La-/
Air 5on*i)ioner
Resis)ive @ea)er
Re,rigera)ion
Washing >achine
Fluorescen) La-/
A;Ds
Fluorescen)
7Blec)ronics8
5o-/u)ers
+)her Blec). Loa*s
Passive Resis)ive
Passive In*uc)ive
Passive Resis)ive
Passive In*uc)ive
Passive In*uc)ive
Non$linear7D8
Non$linear7D8
Non$linear7D8
Non$linear7D8
Non$linear7D8
Non$linear7D8
;-all
in*us)rial
Plan)s
7Lo1
Vol)age8
Fan
Pu-/
5o-/ressor
Resis)ive @ea)er
Arc Furnace
A;Ds
+)her Blec)ronic
Loa*s
Passive In*uc)ive
Passive In*uc)ive
Passive In*uc)ive
Passive Resis)ive
Non$linear7D8
Non$linear7D8
Non$linear7D8
7D8These loa*s are har-onic /ro*ucing. @ence, )hey *o no)
e3hibi) a cons)an) R, L, or 5, ie. )hey are non$linear an*
)here,ore canno) be inclu*e* in an e.uivalen) ne)1or2 o,
i-/e*ances. For)una)ely, )here is every reason )o believe )hey
have insigni,ican) e,,ec) 7o/en circui)8 on )he har-onic
i-/e*ance an* -ay be neglec)e*.
A. A) har-onic ,re.uencies, )he reac)ive /o1er
es)i-a)e* -ay have a negligible e,,ec) in so-e cases.
Thus, )he P is consi*ere* e.uivalen) )o a resis)ance o,
value REV

=P, V being )he no-inal vol)age a)

,un*a-en)al ,re.uency 7see Figure '."8. This
re/resen)a)ion shoul* be use* 1hen )he -o)or /ar)
is very s-all, i.e. ,or co--ercial an* *o-es)ic loa*s
in 1hich )he ro)a)ing -achinery /ar) is so /ar)i)ione*
)ha) )he resis)ive e,,ec) s /re*o-inan).
Figure '."6 Loa* -o*el A
Figure '.96 Loa* -o*el B
B. The e.uivalen) resis)ance is es)i-a)e* as above, bu)
1i)h an in*uc)ance in /arallel. This shoul* be
evalua)e* using an es)i-a)ion o, )he nu-ber o,
-o)ors in service, )heir ins)alle* uni)ary /o1er, no)
*e-an*, an* )heir nega)ive se.uence in*uc)ance.
@o1ever, as /recise in,or-a)ion on )he nu-ber o,
-o)ors, e)c. in use a) any given )i-e is unavailable, a
,rac)ion F o, )he )o)al >W *e-an* -us) be use* )o
re/resen) )he -o)or /ar). This is )hen -ul)i/lie* by a
,ac)or o,, ,or e3a-/le, (. in or*er )o consi*er )he
ins)alle* /o1er 1hich shoul* be use*. To calcula)e
)he e.uivalen) nega)ive se.uence in*uc)ance, a ,ac)or
F(, /ro/or)ional )o )he severi)y o, )he s)ar)ing
con*i)ion shoul* be use*. This -o*el is a
co-bina)ion o, co--on /rac)ices. There,ore, one
can have6
R E V

GGGG L E V

GGGG
P7($F$FB8 (. F( PF
1here P E )o)al >W *e-an*
F E -o)or ,rac)ion o, )he )o)al >W
FB E elec)ronic con)rolle* loa* ,rac)ion o,
)o)al >W
F( E severi)y o, s)ar)ing con*i)ion
E ra*ian ,re.uency
F assu-es values aroun* #.&# ,or in*us)rial loa*s an*
aroun* #.(" ,or co--ercial an* *o-es)ic loa*s. F( assu-es
values be)1een ! an* %. FB can assu-e values be)1een #.(
an* #.!. I) -ay 1ell be )ha) i) is su,,icien)ly accura)e )o
ignore )he resis)ive co-/onen) o, )he -o)or /ar). @o1ever,
an a**i)ional resis)ance re/resen)ing )he -o)or *a-/ing can
be inclu*e* as R(EL1=F, 1here F is a ,rac)ion o, )he
nega)ive se.uence in*uc)ance or loc2e*$ro)or in*uc)ance. F
assu-es values aroun* #.#.
5. When a big in*uc)ion -o)or or grou/ o, -o)ors are
connec)e* *irec)ly a) in)er-e*ia)e vol)age levels,
1hich is )he case in in*us)rial /lan)s, )he ro)a)ing
-achinery /ar) is be))er re/resen)e* by a resis)ance
in series 1i)h )he nega)ive se.uence in*uc)ance o,
)he -o)or. The -o*el can be assesse* as ,ollo1s6 $$
The e.uivalen) resis)ance, )he resis)ive /ar), an* )he
R
resis)ive /ar)
only
resis)ive
/ar)
-o)or /ar)
I
R
R L
nega)ive se.uence in*uc)ance o, )he -o)or is
es)i-a)e* as in B, an* )he series resis)ance
es)i-a)e* by R E L=F', 1here
F' E e,,ec)ive A o, )he -o)or circui) H &
E ra*ian ,un*a-en)al ,re.uency
Al)erna)ively, a series in*uc)ance LT )o re/resen) )he
e.uivalen) lea2age reac)ance o, )he *is)ribu)ion
)rans,or-ers a) lo1er vol)age connec)ing )he
resis)ance loa* can be incor/ora)e* 7see
Figure '.%8. A value o, LT E #.(R can be assu-e*.
D. This -o*el 7also calle* 5I4RB >o*el8 1as
*evelo/e* ,ro- e3/eri-en)s /er,or-e* on -e*iu-
vol)age ou)/u)s using au*io$,re.uency ri//le$con)rol
genera)ors a) BDF
%
. The circui) sugges)e* 1as an
in*uc)ance in series 1i)h a resis)ance. This branch
1as connec)e* in /arallel 1i)h ano)her in*uc)ance.
The es)i-a)e* P an* A are use* in e-/irical
,or-ulae )o calcula)e )he e.uivalen) i-/e*ances.
Thus,
R E V

=PI L( E #.#%'R=I L E R=79.%)g7/hi8$#.%!8

I
)g7/hi8 E A=P 7;ee Figure '.&8.
Al)hough )his -o*el 1as ob)aine* base* on )1o
,re.uencies only, (%" an* !:"@?, an* )he
in,or-a)ion available is no) clear enough
&
on ho1
)he e.uivalen) circui) 1as *erive*, )he /ara-e)ers
*o no) *i,,er subs)an)ially ,ro- -o*els B an* 5. L
see-s e.uivalen) )o )he -o)or /ar) in*uc)ance an*
R=L( )o )he resis)ive circui).
Figure '.%6 Loa* -o*el 5
+bs. Wi)h )he a//roach a*o/)e*, a co-/osi)e loa* -o*el a)
)he )rans-ission sys)e- subs)a)ion can be re/resen)e*. The
e3/ec)e* e,,ec) is a be))er re/resen)a)ion o, )he loa*. ;ince
-os) su//ly elec)rici)y co-/anies have no) )horoughly s)u*ie*
)heir o1n loa*s, a co-/rehensive inves)iga)ion o, )he loa*
co-/osi)ion is necessary )o enable )he engineer )o choose a
be))er -o*el or co-/osi)ion o, -o*els base* on an es)i-a)e o,
)he sys)e- loa*.
Figure '.&6 Loa* -o*el D 75I4RB >o*el8
'.'. +)her 5onsi*era)ions
When )he har-onic nu-ber increases, i) is necessary
)o use larger values o, R. As no in,or-a)ion is ye) available, a
,ac)or o, h
(=
, 1here h is )he har-onic or*er, see-s a
reasonable value as a ,irs) a//ro3i-a)ion. Pesonen e) al
78
have sugges)e* a ,ac)or o, a//ro3i-a)ely #.9h
(=
.
The har-onic i-/e*ance o, *is)ribu)ion sys)e-s an* loa*s
has ac)ually been -easure* on a ,e1 si)es in )he J.F. The
resul)s coul* no) be sa)is,ac)orily re/ro*uce* *igi)ally un)il )he
*o1ns)rea- sys)e- ,ro- ''2V an* ca/aci)ance a) !("V 1ere
re/resen)e*
:
. >easure-en)s, Ba2er Brror6 Re,erence source
no) ,oun*

sho1e* )ha) )here is a s)rong in*ica)ion o, an e,,ec)
o, /o1er ,ac)or correc)ion ca/aci)ance on )he har-onic
i-/e*ance o, ((2V, ''2V, an* ('2V sys)e-s. There,ore,
)here are reasons )o believe )ha) PF5 ca/aci)ance shoul* be
re/resen)e*. The PF5 >VAr coul* be u/ )o hal, o, )he >W
nu-erically, *e/en*ing on )he local PF5 /olicy an* sys)e-
con*i)ions, i.e. 1he)her -a3i-u- or -ini-u- /lan). @ence,
)he overall loa* re/resen)a)ion shoul* be as Figure '.:. The
PF5 >VAr shoul* be re/resen)e* as a ,rac)ion o, )he )o)al
>W es)i-a)e*.
Figure '.:6 +verall loa* re/resen)a)ion
'.'.' ;ensi)ivi)y Tes)s
In or*er )o illus)ra)e )he sensi)ivi)y o, )he e.uivalen)
har-onic i-/e*ance 1i)h )he loa* level an* co-/osi)ion
several e3a-/les 1ere si-ula)e* using )y/ical /ara-e)ers ,or
a 9: 2V *is)ribu)ion sys)e-. The resis)ive, in*uc)ive, an*
ca/aci)ive /ar)s o, )he loa* are varie* an* )he e.uivalen)
i-/e*ance calcula)e*.
The resul)s sho1 consi*erable varia)ion in )he
e.uivalen) i-/e*ance ,or varia)ions o, )he resis)ive an*
R
L
1
L
2
resis)ive
/ar)
-o)or /ar)
resis)ive
/ar)
-o)or /ar)
/ar)
L
T
1
R L
R
P.F.5.
ca/aci)ance
K
linear
loa*
5
reac)ive co-/onen)s o, )he loa*. For ins)ance, 1hen )he
resis)ive /ar) o, )he loa* a//ro3i-a)es )he surge i-/e*ance o,
)he line, )he resonance e,,ec) is signi,ican)ly re*uce*.
5onversely, changes in )he reac)ive /ar) -ay a,,ec)
consi*erably )he e.uivalen) i-/e*ance. A general /oin) is )he
-agni)u*e o, )he /ea2 i-/e*ance a) resonance.
These e3a-/les *o sho1 very clearly )he i-/or)ance
o, an accura)e es)i-a)ion an* re/resen)a)ion o, )he
*is)ribu)ion sys)e- an* loa*s. Al)hough )he varia)ions
i-/ose* see- e3aggera)e*, i) is very li2ely )ha) such
*evia)ions be)1een )he es)i-a)e* an* )he ac)ual /ara-e)ers
-ay occur, as )he in,or-a)ion is no) easily ob)ainable.
'.! >o*eling o, +)her Ble-en)s
'.!.( Dis)ribu)ion Lines an* 5ables
Dis)ribu)ion lines an* cables are re/resen)e* by )heir e3ac)
e.uivalen) /i
((
. An es)i-a)e* correc)ion ,ac)or ,or s2in e,,ec)
is a//lie* by increasing )he line resis)ance 1i)h ,re.uency by6
R E R 7( L #.9!9h

8 lines
(:L#."(&h

R E R7#.(&%L#."'h
(=
8 cables
'.!. Trans,or-ers
5o-/le)e re/resen)a)ion o, )rans,or-ers, inclu*ing
ca/aci)ances, is no) /rac)ical an* canno) be <us)i,ie* ,or
har-onic ,re.uencies. B3/erience has sho1n )ha)
ca/aci)ances s)ar) )o have so-e e,,ec) a) (#F@?, i.e. 1ell
above )he co--on har-onic ,re.uencies /resen) in /o1er
sys)e-s, i.e. h2?. Trans,or-er i-/e*ance is sho1n )o be
/ro/or)ional )o )he lea2age reac)ance an linear 1i)h ,re.uency.
Various i-/e*ance re/resen)a)ions have been sugges)e*. The
,ollo1ing al)erna)ive -o*els can be re/resen)e*6$
A. A resis)ance in series 1i)h )he lea2age in*uc)ance.
@ere a correc)ion ,ac)or o, h
(.("
can be use*
(#
7;ee
Figure '.(#8.
FI4. '.(# Trans,or-er -o*el A
B. The lea2age reac)ance in /arallel 1i)h a resis)ance.
This is calcula)e* by -ul)i/lying a ,ac)or )i-es )he
reac)ance. A ,ac)or o, &# is sugges)e* in )he 5B4B
/rogra-
((
7;ee Figure '.((8.
FI4. '.(( Trans,or-er -o*el B
5. Pesonen e) alBrror6 Re,erence source no) ,oun*
sugges)e* a resis)ance Rs in series 1i)h an asse-bly
o, in*uc)ance L in /arallel 1i)h a resis)ance R/.
Resis)ances Rs an* R/ are cons)an) 1ha)ever )he
,re.uency an* an es)i-a)e o, )heir value can be
ob)aine* as /rovi*e* by e3/ressions6$$
:#MV

=;RsM((#
('M;R/=V

M'#
1i)h ; being )he ra)e* /o1er o, )he )rans,or-er, 7see
Figure '.(8.
FI4. '.( Trans,or-er -o*el 5
'.!.' Ro)a)ing >achines
7a8 ;ynchronous 4enera)ors
When non$linear curren)s=vol)ages a//ear
in )he s)a)or o, a synchronous -achine, )he
,un*a-en)al co-/onen) is res/onsible ,or )he energy
conversion /rocess an* se)s u/ a ro)a)ing --, 1ave
1hich reac)s 1i)h )he ro)or --, )o /ro*uce )he
resul)an) ,un*a-en)al --, ga/ ,lu3. 5onversely, )he
har-onic co-/onen)s se) u/ --, 1aves ro)a)ing a)
*i,,eren) ,re.uencies, bu) )here is no ar-a)ure
reac)ion. There,ore, )he reac)ion o,,ere* )o
har-onics is no) rela)e* )o synchronous /ara-e)ers
bu) an e.uivalen) i-/e*ance 1hich shoul* be a
,unc)ion o, )he lea2age /a)h. Also, i) -ay be
assu-e* )ha) synchronous -achines /ro*uce no
har-onic vol)ages an* )hey can be re/resen)e* by a
shun) e.uivalen) i-/e*ance.
@o1ever, )he li)era)ure is no) in agree-en)
regar*ing a//ro/ria)e i-/e*ances a) har-onic
,re.uencies. Wes)inghouse,
(
Willia-son,
('
an*
Pesonen e) alBrror6 Re,erence source no) ,oun*
R L
R
L
R
R
L
RR

R
(
sugges) a reac)ance *erive* ,ro- ei)her )he
sub)ransien) or nega)ive se.uence in*uc)ance6$$
X E (=7X*NLX.N8 EX
;hilling
(!
sugges) X E X*N, 1hile 5a-/bell an*
>urray
("
sugges) X E X*0. Fresl
(9
sugges)s X
E(=7X*NLX8, 1here X E (=7X*NLX.N8.
Wes)inghouseBrror6 Re,erence source no) ,oun*
sugges)s a correc)ion o, )he e.uivalen) in*uc)ance.
This is because 1hen ,re.uency increases, a s-aller
a-oun) o, ,lu3 /ene)ra)es )he ro)or. The a-oun) is
no) 2no1n accura)ely bu) nor-ally )a2en as )he uni)y
,or )he ,un*a-en)al an* #.& a) (###@?.
When using )y/ical values o, synchronous
-achine reac)ance )o calcula)e )he e.uivalen)
reac)ance X, i) can be observe* )ha) )he sub)ransien)
reac)ance see-s a reasonable value an* shoul* be
use*. A resis)ance re/resen)ing )he *a-/ing can be
incor/ora)e*. Blec)ra 'Brror6 Re,erence source no)
,oun*

sugges)s a s2in e,,ec) correc)ion ,ac)or o, h
#.:9
.
Regar*ing )he e.uivalen) circui), Personen e)
alBrror6 Re,erence source no) ,oun* sugges) a
/arallel co-bina)ion o, R an* L. @ere a series
co-bina)ion is -ore a//ro/ria)e, as )he e.uivalen)
circui) o, a synchronous genera)or can be visuali?e*
as an in*uc)ion -o)or ,or har-onic ,re.uency.
@o1ever, regar*ing /rac)ical values, )he s2in e,,ec)
re/resen)a)ion an* )he 1ay )o co-bine )he
i-/e*ances 1ill no) cause any signi,ican) *i,,erence
on )he e.uivalen) i-/e*ance. In )he /rogra-, a
series or /arallel co-bina)ion can be use*. ;2in
e,,ec) an* in*uc)ance correc)ion can be re/resen)e*
)oo. A *a-/ing resis)ance base* on )he losses can be
a**e* ,or bo)h series or /arallel co-bina)ion.
7b8 In*uc)ion >o)or
The 1ell 2no1n con,igura)ion o, an
e.uivalen) circui) o, an in*uc)ing -o)or is sho1n in
Figure '.(!a. The sli/, s, a) har-onic ,re.uencies
s7h8 is a//ro3i-a)ely e.ual )o ( as
s7h8 E hO7($s7(8=h8 H (, 1here s7(8 H#.#
Wi)h X- negligible, )he e.uivalen) circui) in Figure
'.(!b is a reasonable a//ro3i-a)ion. @ere L is )he loc2e*$
ro)or in*uc)ance, 1hich can be calcula)e* ,ro- )he severi)y o,
s)ar)ing con*i)ion. R is )he *a-/ing resis)ance 1hich is
*erive* ,ro- )he -o)or losses. For *e)aile* analysis, see
5hal-ers
(%
an* Flingshirn an* Por*an
(&
. In*uc)ion -o)ors
are generally /resen) as /ar) o, )he loa* an* in a grou/ o,
FI4. '.(! In*uc)ion -o)or re/resen)a)ion
7a8 5o-/le)e re/resen)a)ion
7b8 B.uivalen) har-onic -o*el
The har-onic i-/e*ance o, a )rans-ission sys)e- is
*e)er-ine*=a,,ec)e* by ,ac)ors such as ,aul) level, sys)e-
loa*s, ca/aci)ance o, lines an* cables, co-/ensa)ions, e)c. In
general, an increase in ,aul) level re*uces )he har-onic
i-/e*ance a) lo1er ,re.uencies. @o1ever, )he behavior ,or
higher ,re.uencies is un/re*ic)able as s-all ca/aci)ance -ay
have a *o-inan) e,,ec) /ro*ucing resonances.
>easure-en)sBrror6 Re,erence source no) ,oun* have sho1n
)ha) in so-e cases )he -ini-u- i-/e*ance a) )he higher
,re.uencies occurre* a) )he -ini-u- ,aul) level.
The ne) e,,ec) o, increasing )he loa* is )o re*uce )he
i-/e*ance )o bo)h ,un*a-en)al an* har-onic ,re.uencies.
The co-bine* e,,ec) o, increasing genera)ion an* loa* is )o
re*uce sys)e- resonances by increasing sys)e- in*uc)ive
ele-en)s an* increasing )he *a-/ing by lo1er resis)ance
/a)hs )o groun*.
The e,,ec) o, )he line ca/aci)ance is )o re*uce )he
har-onic i-/e*ance ,or higher ,re.uencies. @o1ever, )he
co-bine* e,,ec) 1i)h in*uc)ances -ay cause /arallel
resonances an*, )hus, have )he o//osi)e e,,ec).
'." Dis)ribu)ion ;ys)e- B3a-/le
A si-/le, bu) )y/ical *is)ribu)ion sys)e- 1as
-o*ele* 1i)h )he ,ollo1ing charac)erisi)cs6 A cus)o-er loa* o,
&9" 2VA a) a /o1er ,ac)or o, #.& lagging an* a /o1er ,ac)or
R( L L(
L
-
R =s7h8
R L
L $ loc2e* ro)or
in*uc)ance
7a8
7b
8
R
R
R L
*
L
*
L
*
7a8 7b8 7a8
FI4JRB '.('6 ;ynchronous genera)or re/resen)a)ion
7a8 ;eries co-bina)ion
7b8 Parallel co-bina)ion
correc)ion ca/aci)or o, "# 2VA is connec)e* )o a (( 2V bus.
The cus)o-er 1ishes )o connec) an a*<us)able s/ee* *rive
using a 9$/ulse conver)er a) )he ((2V busbar. The sys)e-
,aul) level a) )he busbar, inclu*ing )he )rans,or-er, is '#>VA
an* )he source i-/e*ance -ay be consi*ere* as /urely
in*uc)ive. The -a3i-u- har-onic curren)s 7")h, %)h, (()h,
an* (')h8 in<ec)e* are s/eci,ie* an* )y/ical ,or 9 /ulse *rives.
The *o-inan) /arallel resonance har-onic
,re.uency is es)i-a)e* co--only by6
h
MVA
MVAr
sc
cap
=
an* 1hich can be *erive* by ,in*ing )he uni)y /o1er$,ac)or
,re.uency o, )he sys)e-. This calcula)ion reveals )ha) )he
resonance ,re.uency is aroun* (#.:" )i-es )he ,un*a-en)al
,re.uency. A) )he resonance ,re.uency )he i-/e*ance o,
)he (( 2V bus beco-es very large as i). Thus, signi,ican)
vol)age *is)or)ion -ay resul) a) )he (()h har-onic. The
high har-onic vol)ages 1ill also resul) in high har-onic
curren)s bo)h in )he ca/aci)or ban2 an* )he sys)e-
reac)ance. A -ore *e)aile* analysis, ho1ever, reveals )ha)
)he resonance ,re.uency varies 1i)h )he resis)ance o, )he
sys)e- an* )he a-/li)u*e o, e.uivalen) har-onic
i-/e*ance or )he ou)/u) vol)age is no) necessarily
-a3i-u- a) )he resonan) ,re.uency, an* is also a ,unc)ion
o, )he *a-/ing 7resis)ance8 o, )he circui). @o1ever since
curren) is only in<ec)e* a) )he (()h har-onic, one *oes no)
nee* )o consi*er o)her ,re.uencies, bu) ra)her re-e-ber )he
sensi)ivi)y o, )he sys)e- har-onic i-/e*ance 7aroun* )he
resonance ,re.uencies8 )o /ara-e)ers varia)ions.
When )he har-onic curren)s are in<ec)e*, i) can be
observe* )ha) a) )he (()h har-onic, )he resul)an) vol)age
ob)aine* 1i)h a /arallel re/resen)a)ion7>o*el B8 is 99 V or
(.#!Q, 1hereas 1i)h )he series re/resen)a)ion 7>o*el A8,
)he (()h har-onic vol)age on )he ((2V bus 1as '' V or
'.'Q. Thus, near )he resonance /arallel ,re.uency, )he
i-/ac) o, )he loa* re/resen)a)ion can be very signi,ican).
Jsing an al)erna)ive series=/arallel loa* re/resen)a)ion 7B*F
or 5I4RB >o*el8, )he ,re.uency res/onse o, )he e.uivalen)
i-/e*ance is sligh)ly al)ere*. T1o i-/or)an) ,ac)s can be
no)e*. Firs) )he resul)an) vol)age on )he ((2V bus 1as no1
!& V or #.9:Q. ;econ* )he resonan) ,re.uency shi,)e*
sligh)ly higher 7,ro- (()h har-onic )o near )he (')h
har-onic8. Table sho1s a su--ary o, )he cases
si-ula)e* 1here )he -o*el an* loa* an* co-/osi)ion 1ere
varie*.
Table $ Loa* >o*eling an* 5on*i)ions ;i-ula)e*
5ase Linear Loa* >o*el
5ase ( No Loa* Re/resen)a)ion
5ase P, A $ Basic Loa* Flo1
5ase ' P, A $ Basic Loa* Flo1
5ase ! "#Q In*uc)ion >o)or
5ase " " Q In*uc)ion >o)or
5ase 9 "#Q In*uc)ion >o)or
5ase % %"Q In*uc)ion >o)or
5ase & :#Q In*uc)ion >o)or
5ase : "Q In*. >o)or L ;2in B,,ec)
5ase (# %"Q In*. >o)or L ;2in B,,ec)
Figure '.("$ @ar-onic Vol)age 7Q8 ,or Di,,eren) Loa*
>o*el
;2in e,,ec) 1as inclu*e* in cases : an* (# )o
accoun) ,or )he i-/ac) on )he sys)e- i-/e*ance o, )he
,re.uency *e/en*ence o, )he resis)ive co-/onen) o, )he
loa*. Figure '.(" illus)ra)es )he a-/li)u*e o, )he ")h an*
(()h har-onic vol)age 7Q8 a) )he (( 2V bus ,or all -o*els
use*.
Case
3 Case
4 Case
5 Case
6 Case
7 Case
8 Case
9 Case
10
V5(%)
V11(%)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
V5(%)
V11(%)
Figure '.(9$ @ar-onic Vol)age 7Q8 a) )he ((2V Bus ,or
Di,,eren) Loa* >o*els
Figure '.(9 *e-ons)ra)es -ore clearly ho1 -uch
)he resul)an) vol)age can vary *e/en*ing on )he -o*el an*
loa* co-/osi)ion use*. When co-/aring )o s)an*ar*s
such as )he IBBB "(:, i) beco-es clear )ha) )he viola)ion o,
)he s)an*ar*, as ,ar as )he har-onic vol)ages are concerne*,
-ay *e/en* on )he loa* -o*el use* ,or )he calcula)ion o,
)he resul)an) *is)or)ion.
>o*eling loa*s using <us) )he econo-ic -o*el 7P
an* A only8 is ina*e.ua)e ,or har-onic s)u*ies. No loa*
7case (8 re/resen)a)ion shoul* no) be use* ,or har-onic
s)u*ies. The loa* -o*els 7sugges)e* in )he li)era)ure can
no) be use* in*iscri-ina)ely 1i)hou) a co-/rehensive chec2
Case
1
Case
2
Case
3
Case
4
Case
5 Case
6 Case
7 Case
8 Case
9 Case
10
V5(%)
V11(%)
0.1
1
10
100
V5 (%)
V11(%)
o, )he ac)ual loa* charac)eris)ics an* co-/osi)ion. The
a//ro/ria)e re/resen)a)ion is /ar)icularly crucial near )he
/arallel resonan) ,re.uencies o, )he sys)e-, e3ac)ly 1here
an accura)e es)i-a)ion o, )he sys)e- behavior is -os)
necessary. Fre.uency res/onse o, )he sys)e- i-/e*ance is
sensi)ive )o bo)h )he -e)ho*ology 7-o*eling=)o/ology8 an*
)he ac)ual loa* co-/osi)ion.
'.9 The Nee* ,or a 5o-/le)e Loa* Re/resen)a)ion
4eneral loa*s in a )rans-ission or *is)ribu)ion
sys)e- are generally e3/resse* by )heir ac)ive an* reac)ive
/o1er P an* A, res/ec)ively, 1hich are use* )o calcula)e )he
e.uivalen) i-/e*ance ,or loa* ,lo1 s)u*ies a) )he
,un*a-en)al ,re.uency, assu-ing )he sys)e- vol)age.
@o1ever, a) har-onic ,re.uencies, P an* A canno) be use*
*irec)ly because, ,or e3a-/le, )he /o1er absorbe* by
ro)a)ing -achines *oes no) e3ac)ly corres/on* )o a *a-/ing
value, nei)her *oes )he -o)or e.uivalen) in*uc)ance bear
any *irec) or si-/le rela)ionshi/ )o )he reac)ive /o1er
es)i-a)e* a) )he ,un*a-en)al ,re.uency. In a**i)ion a
-easurable /ercen)age o, any general loa* no1a*ays is
elec)ronically con)rolle* an* nee*s )o be /ro/erly
re/resen)e*. Blec)ronic loa*s are har-onic /ro*ucing an*
conse.uen)ly *o no) e3hibi) a cons)an) R, L or 5.
There,ore, )hey canno) be inclu*e* as /ar) o, )he /assive
co-/onen) o, )he e.uivalen) i-/e*ance. They shoul* be
re/resen)e* by a har-onic source a) all ,re.uencies o,
i-/or)ance. Wi)h )he /roli,era)ion o, )he u)ili?a)ion o,
/o1er elec)ronics, a /rogressive conversion o, )ra*i)ionally
linear loa*s )o elec)ronically con)rolle* 1ill ha//en.
Ano)her co-/onen) nor-ally overloo2e* in
har-onic s)u*ies is )he Po1er Fac)or 5orrec)ion
ca/aci)ance o, *is)ribu)ion sys)e-s. >easure-en)s have
sho1n )ha) )here is a s)rong correla)ion o, )he e,,ec) o,
/o1er ,ac)or correc)ion ca/aci)ance on )he har-onic
i-/e*ance o, *is)ribu)ion sys)e-s. The PF5 >VAr coul*
be u/ )o hal, o, )he >W nu-erically, *e/en*ing on )he local
PF5 /olicy an* sys)e- con*i)ions.
There,ore, )he /ro/ose* -o*el sho1n in Figure
'.(% -a2es an a))e-/) )o incor/ora)e all )hese as/ec)s in )he
-o*eling general loa*s ,or har-onic s)u*ies, an*
conse.uen)ly -a2e )he so calle* general, nor-al or NlinearN
loa* re/resen)a)ion ,or har-onic s)u*ies -uch -ore
realis)ic. De)aile* research shoul* be carrie* ou) )o assess
)he ac)ual loa* co-/osi)ion an* *e)er-ine )he /ro/er
re/resen)a)ion an* /ara-e)ers o, each loa* or aggrega)e o,
loa*s.
The e.uivalen) i-/e*ance shoul* consis) o, a
co-bina)ion o, series an* /arallel co-bina)ion o,
resis)ances, in*uc)ances, ca/aci)ances, an* har-onic
curren) source as in*ica)e* in Figure '.(%.
;ince )he reac)ive /o1er o, )he loa* es)i-a)e* a)
)he ,un*a-en)al ,re.uency has li))le )o *o 1i)h )he
e.uivalen) i-/e*ance o, )he loa* a) har-onic ,re.uencies,
i) is sugges)e* )ha) A 7es)i-a)e* ,or )he loa* 1i)hou) any
PF58 shoul* be )o)ally *isregar*e* ,or )he es)i-a)ion o, )he
e.uivalen) har-onic i-/e*ance o, )he loa*. Thus, s)ar)ing
1i)h )he )o)al ac)ive /o1er P an* a**i)ional in,or-a)ion
abou) )he loa* co-/osi)ion, )he ,ollo1ing /roce*ure is
sugges)e* ,or calcula)ing /ara-e)ers ,or har-onic s)u*ies.
Figure '.(% $ 4eneral Loa* Re/resen)a)ion ,or @ar-onic
;)u*ies
( )
R
V
P K KE
h (
(

,
XL
V
KmKK P
h
(

= .

R
XL
K

=
V = System Voltage
XL1 = Transformer Reactance
C1 = Estimate Capacitance of the Loa
!1 = Estimate "armonic C#rrent So#rce
1here
P = Total Acti$e Po%er
K = &raction of !n#ction Motors
KE = &raction of Electronic Loas
R1 = E'#i$alent resistance representing the
p#rely resisti$e component of the loa
= factor for s(in effect correction
XL) = E'#i$alent in#ctance representing the
in#ction motors
R) = *amping factor for the in#ction motor
representation
K1 = Se$erity of Starting Conition
Km = !nstalle Motor &actor
K) = &raction of the loc(e+rotor ,or negati$e
se'#ence- in#ctance
h = "armonic orer
XL1 = Lea(age in#ctance of transformers at
lo%er $oltages connecting
the resisti$e loa
!1 = !eal harmonic c#rrent so#rce ,#se
typical $al#es accoring to type
of loa feeer-.
The resis)ance R( is es)i-a)e* ,ro- )he ac)ual
resis)ive loa* connec)e* )o )he bus, )ha) is, *iscoun)ing )he
in*uc)ion -o)or an* elec)ronic loa* /ar). The s2in e,,ec)
can be incor/ora)e* in )he e.uivalen) resis)ance by choosing
an a//ro/ria)e ,ac)or as in*ica)e*. The in*uc)ance o, )he
in*uc)ion -o)ors shoul* be evalua)e* using an es)i-a)ion o,
)he ,rac)ion o, )he )o)al loa* )ha) re/resen)s in*uc)ion
-o)ors an* )heir ins)alle* uni)ary /o1er 7no) )he *e-an*8.
Also a ,ac)or F( re/resen)ing )he severi)y o, )he s)ar)ing
con*i)ion shoul* be use* )o calcula)e )he e.uivalen)
in*uc)ance. R re/resen)s )he *a-/ing co-/onen) o, )he
e.uivalen) in*uc)ion -o)or i-/e*ance. Also bac2groun*
*is)or)ion shoul* no) be neglec)e*. @ar-onic si-ula)ion
s)u*ies 1ill have )o inclu*e bac2groun* *is)or)ion i, )hey
are )o be beco-e -ore accura)e. Bac2groun* *is)or)ion can
increase or *ecrease )he resul)an) *is)or)ion *e/en*ing on
/hase rela)ionshi/. A har-onic curren) or vol)age source
re/resen)ing )he har-onic con)ribu)ion o, )he non$linear
co-/onen) o, )he loa* -us) be -o*ele*.
'.% 5onclusions
This *ocu-en) *e-ons)ra)es )ha) )he re/resen)a)ion
o, )he /o1er sys)e- loa*s an* e3)en*e* ne)1or2s can be
i-/rove* by using al)erna)ive -o*els. The *is)ribu)ion
sys)e-, loa*s, o)her ele-en)s an* e.uivalen)s o, e3)en*e*
ne)1or2s have been consi*ere* in *e)ail. The -o*els
*evelo/e* allo1 a -ore realis)ic re/resen)a)ion o, )he sys)e-
an*, conse.uen)ly, a -ore accura)e assess-en) o, )he
har-onic curren)s an* vol)ages )hroughou) )he )rans-ission
ne)1or2. 4ui*ance has been /rovi*e* on -o*eling o,
in*ivi*ual loa*s an* on )y/ical loa* co-/osi)ion. ;ys)e-
)es)s are necessary )o /rovi*e veri,ica)ion o, )he -o*eling
-e)ho*ology *evelo/e*, as 1ell as a**ing )o )he 2no1le*ge o,
sys)e- loa* charac)eris)ics.
This /a/er *e-ons)ra)es )ha) )he re/resen)a)ion o,
linear ele-en)s is very i-/or)an) ,or har-onic s)u*ies an*
shoul* no) be neglec)e* or re/resen)e* 1i)hou) ,ull
consi*era)ion o, )he loa* charac)eris)ics an* co-/osi)ion.
4ui*ance has been /rovi*e* on -o*eling o, in*ivi*ual
loa*s an* on )y/ical loa* co-/osi)ion. ;ys)e- )es)s are
necessary )o /rovi*e veri,ica)ion o, )he -o*eling
-e)ho*ology *evelo/e*, as 1ell as a**ing )o )he 2no1le*ge
o, sys)e- loa* charac)eris)ics.
An* *on0) be ,oole*6 u)ili?a)ion o, so/his)ica)e*
har-onic /ene)ra)ion /rogra-s 1i)h inaccura)e basic
in,or-a)ion, an* or ina*e.ua)e -o*eling is a 1as)e o,
-oney, an* )he conse.uences o, )he in)er/re)a)ion o, )he
resul)s -igh) cos) even -ore. Never ,orge) )ha) )he
accuracy o, any calcula)ion canno) be be))er )han )he *a)a
on 1hich i) is base*.
Re,erences
1
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2
PBR;+NBN, >.A., R@ar-onics, 5harac)eris)ic Para-e)ers, >e)ho*s o, ;)u*y, Bs)i-a)es o, B3is)ing Values in )he Ne)1or2,S Blec)ra,
Vol. %%, //. '"$"!, (:&(.
3
@JDDART, F.W., an* BRBWBR, 4.L., RFac)ors In,luencing )he @ar-onic I-/e*ance o, a Po1er ;ys)e-,S 5on,erence on @igh
Vol)age D5 Trans-ission, IBB No. , //. !"#$!", (:99.
4
>A@>+JD, A.A. an* ;@JLTK, R.D., RA >e)ho* ,or Analy?ing @ar-onic Dis)ribu)ion in a.c. Po1er ;ys)e-s,S IBBB Trans., PA;$
(#(, No. 9, //. (&("$(&!, (:&.
5
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conse.uences,S In)ernal Re/or) B.D.F., @R=$(#'!, '(.(.&#.
6
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BBR4BAL, P. an* >+LLBR, L., RIn,luence o, Loa* 5harac)eris)ic on )he Pro/aga)ion o, Dis)urbances,S 5IRBD (:&(.
8
>BTNAJD, P., B.D.F., Direc)ion *es B)u*es e) Recherches, Priva)e co--unica)ion, " Fevrier, (:&'.
9
@+WR+TD, D.5., 5BB4 Technology Planning an* Research Division, Priva)e co--unica)ion :.(.&'.
10
Blec)ra, Vol. '
11
@ARP+ ' $ @ar-onic I-/e*ance an* Pene)ra)ion Progra-. 5B4B Re/or) 5;=5=P'##.
12
Wes)inghouse Blec)ric 5or/ora)ion, RBlec)rical Trans-ission an* Dis)ribu)ion Re,rence Boo2,S (:"#.
13
WILLIA>;+N, A.5., RThe B,,ec)s o, ;ys)e- @ar-onics u/on >achines,S In)erna)ional 5on,erence on @ar-onics in Po1er ;ys)e-s,
J>I;T, (:&(.
14
;@ILLIN4, W.P., RB3ci)er ar-a)ure reac)ion an* e3ci)a)ion re.uire-en)s in a brushless ro)a)ing$rec)i,ier aircra,) al)erna)or,S
Trans.A-.Ins).Blec).Bng. (:9#, %:, /). II.
15
5A>PBBLL, L.5. an* >JRRAT, N.;., R@ar-onic Pene)ra)ion in)o Po1er ;ys)e-s,S ")h Jniversi)ies Po1er Bngineering
5on,erences, ;1ansea, Wales, (:%#
16
FRB;L, V.6 R;is)er-i u?bu*e genera)ora @B Dera/,S In,. Ra*e F+N5AR, (:%!, 9#$9', //. 9%$%%.
17
5@AL>BR;, B.P., RIn*uc)ion$-o)or losses *ue )o non$sinusi*al su//ly 1ave,or-s,S Proc. IBB, Vol. ((", No. (, (:9&.
18
FLIN4@RIRN, B.A an* P+RD+N, @.B., RPoly/hase in*uc)ion -o)or /er,or-ance an* losses on nonsinusoi*al vol)age sources,S
IBBB Trans., (:9&, PA;$&%.