Constitutive Equations for Linear Elasticity and Newtonian Fluids

I. The Generalized Hookes Law

The generalized Hookes law is a linear constitutive equation relating the Cauchy stress
to the infinitesimal strain.

C o c = (1)
Since this is a double inner product it is sometime written as

C : o c = (2)

and the fourth order tensor C is expressed in dyadic notation as


ijkl i j k l
C C e e e e = (3)
or



ijkl i j k l
C C eeee = (4)

The double inner product may be written using dyadic notation as


( ) ( )
ijkl i j k l mn m n
ijkl mn i j k m l n
ijkl mn i j km ln
ijkl kl i j
C eee e : e e
C ee e e e e
C ee
C ee
o c
c
c o o
c
=
=
=
=
(5)
Hence

ij ijkl kl
C o c = (6)

Equation (6) is the usual starting point for discussing the constitutive equations of linear
elasticity and is referred to as the generalized Hookes law.
ijkl
C is often termed the
elastic tensor or sometimes it is termed Hookes elastic tensor.
ijkl
C is a fourth order
tensor with 81 components. Since
ij ji
o o = 27 of the components are redundant as this
forces
ijkl jikl
C C = . Further redundancies are found if we recall that
kl lk
c c = , meaning that
we must have
ijkl ijlk
C C = and 18 more coefficients may be eliminated. This leaves us with
36 independent components in the tensor
ijkl
C . Further reductions depend on material
symmetries or properties.



II. Reduction of the Number of Coefficients in the Generalized
Hookes Law for Hyperelastic Materials

The material models used in linear elasticity are based upon the hyperelasticity model,
i.e. there exists a strain energy function

ijkl ij kl
1
W C
2
c c = (7)
and the stress is the derivative with respect to the strain of the strain energy function


mn
mn
W
o
c
c
=
c
(8)

This results in a further reduction of the number of independent coefficients as follows.
First we perform the differentiation


( )
( )
ijkl ij kl
mn
mn
ijkl ij
kl
kl ij
mn mn
kl mnkl ij ijmn
mnkl klmn kl
C
1
2
C
2
1
C C
2
1
C C
2
c c
o
c
c
c
c c
c c
c c
c
c
=
c
c | | c
= +
|
c c
\ .
= +
= +
(9)

We also have the generalized Hookes law (equation (6))


mn mnkl kl
C o c = (10)

Comparison of equations (9) and (10) indicates that


mnkl klmn
C C = (11)

And this results in a further reduction from 36 independent coefficients to 21 independent
coefficients. This reduction is seen more easily by using contracted notation. Contracted
notation allows us to write the generalized Hookes law using matrices as follows. First
we make the notational transformation:




1 1 11 11
2 2 22 22
3 3 33 33
4 4 23 23
5 5 13 13
6 6 12 12
o c o c
o c o c
o c o c
o c o c
o c o c
o c o c






` ` ` `




) ) ) )
(12)

Next, we write the generalized Hookes law using this notational transformation


1 11 12 13 14 15 16 1
2 21 22 23 24 25 26 2
3 31 32 33 34 35 36 3
4 41 42 43 44 45 46 4
5 51 52 53 54 55 56 5
6 61 62 63 64 65 66 6
c c c c c c
c c c c c c
c c c c c c
c c c c c c
c c c c c c
c c c c c c
o c
o c
o c
o c
o c
o c
(
(
(
(

=
( ` `
(
(
(
(
) )
(13)
or



k ki i
C o c = (14)

The strain energy now is written

ki k i
1
W C
2
c c = (15)
and the stress is the derivative with respect to the strain of the strain energy function


m
m
W
o
c
c
=
c
(16)

Next, we perform the differentiation


( )
( )
ki k i
m
m
ki i k
k i
m m
k mk i im
mk km k
C 1
2
C
2
1
C C
2
1
C C
2
c c
o
c
c c
c c
c c
c c
c
c
=
c
| | c c
= +
|
c c
\ .
= +
= +
(17)

We also have the generalized Hookes law (equation(14))


k ki i
C o c = (18)

Comparison of equations (17) and (18) indicates that


mk km
C C = (19)

And the reduction from 36 independent coefficients to 21 independent coefficients is
easily seen in the matrix form of the generalized Hookes law:


1 11 12 13 14 15 16 1
2 12 22 23 24 25 26 2
3 13 23 33 34 35 36 3
4 14 24 34 44 45 46 4
5 15 25 35 45 55 56 5
6 16 26 36 46 56 66 6
c c c c c c
c c c c c c
c c c c c c
c c c c c c
c c c c c c
c c c c c c
o c
o c
o c
o c
o c
o c
(
(
(
(

=
( ` `
(
(
(
(
) )
(20)




III. Reduction of the Number of Coefficients in the Generalized
Hookes Law for Hyperelastic Materials with Symmetry

Recall that Hookes Elastic tensor is a fourth order tensor


ijkl i j k l
C C eeee = (21)

It may be shown that when subjected to an orthogonal transformation, Q, this fourth order
tensor transforms as

i j kl pqrs pi qj rk sl
C C Q Q Q Q
' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
= (22)

This transformation may be used to exploit material symmetries with a view towards
reducing the number of independent constants to describe a material constitutive equation
using Hookes law.

Consider first a monoclinic material. This material has one plane of symmetry. Let us
choose that plane to be the
1 2
x x plane and let Q define the transformation


1 1 2 2 3 3
x x , x x , x x ' ' ' = = = (23)
or


1 0 0
Q 0 1 0
0 0 1
(
(
=
(
(

(24)

where

klmn mnkl
C C = (25)


Since this transformation is a reflection about a plane of symmetry, Hookes elastic
tensor must have the property

i j kl ijkl
C C
' ' ' '
= (26)
where

i j kl pqrs pi qj rk sl
C C Q Q Q Q
' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
= (27)

Consider the element
1111
C , we must have



1111 pqrs p1 q1 r1 s1
C C Q Q Q Q
' ' ' '
= (28)

The only non-zero contributions are when p =q =r =s =1 ,thus


1111 1111 11 11 11 11 1111
C C Q Q Q Q C
' ' ' '
= = (29)

and this is obviously true. Next consider
1123
C , we must have


1123 1123
C C
' ' ' '
= (30)
where

1123 pqrs p1 q1 r2 s3
C C Q Q Q Q
' ' ' '
= (31)


The only non-zero contributions are p =1, q =1, r =2, s =3 ,thus we have


1123 1123 11 11 22 33 1123
C C Q Q Q Q C
' ' ' '
= = (32)

Equations (30) and (32) can only be satisfied if
1123
C 0 = . Continuing in this manner we
would find eight zero elements and the generalized Hookes law for the monoclinic case
would reduce to




1111 1122 1133 1112 11 11
2211 2222 2233 2212 22 22
3311 3322 3333 3312 33 33
2323 2313 23 23
2313 1313 13 13
1112 2212 3312 1212 12 12
c c c 0 0 c
c c c 0 0 c
c c c 0 0 c
0 0 0 c c 0
0 0 0 c c 0
c c c 0 0 c
o c
o c
o c
o c
o c
o c
(
(
(
(

=
( `
(
(
(
(
)

`




)
(33)

Or, using the other notation to:


1 1 11 12 13 16
2 2 12 22 23 26
3 3 13 23 33 36
4 4 44 45
5 5 45 55
6 6 16 26 36 66
C C C 0 0 C
C C C 0 0 C
C C C 0 0 C
0 0 0 C C 0
0 0 0 C C 0
C C C 0 0 C
o c
o c
o c
o c
o c
o c
(
(
(
(

= (
` `
(

(

(

(
) )
(34)

Note that shear strains may cause normal stresses for this material. Consider next an
orthotropic material. This material has three planes of symmetry. An example of a
material with three planes of symmetry is wood. Shown in the following figure is a cross-
section cut along the axis of the fibers thus this cross-section is a plane of symmetry. The
other planes of symmetry should be clear from the figure.


















Starting with the
1 2
x x symmetry plane we would obtain again the result given by
equation (33). Assuming next that the
2 3
x x plane is a plane of symmetry we would use
the transformation
x1
x2
x3


1 0 0
Q 0 1 0
0 0 1
(
(
=
(
(

(35)

and we would find that


16 26 36 45
C C C C 0 = = = = (36)
Finally, if we use the
1 3
x x plane we would obtain no new information. This result might
lead us to be so bold as to suggest that materials possessing two planes of symmetry
necessarily possess a third plane of symmetry. The resulting contracted form of Hookes
law for an orthotropic material contains 13-4=9 independent constants and is:



1 1 11 12 13
2 2 12 22 23
3 3 13 23 33
4 4 44
5 5 55
6 6 66
C C C 0 0 0
C C C 0 0 0
C C C 0 0 0
0 0 0 C 0 0
0 0 0 0 C 0
0 0 0 0 0 C
o c
o c
o c
o c
o c
o c
(
(
(
(

= (
` `
(

(

(

(
) )
(37)

Note that unlike the monoclinic material the orthotropic material will not generate normal
stresses in the presence of shear strains only. This expression may be inverted to get the
strains in terms of the stresses and the coefficients may now be written using the usual
engineering constants.


13 12
1 2 1
23 12
1 1 2 2 2
2 2 13 23
3 1 2 3 3
4 4
23 5 5
6 6
13
12
1
0 0 0
E E E
1
0 0 0
E E E
1
0 0 0
E E E
1
0 0 0 0 0
G
1
0 0 0 0 0
G
1
0 0 0 0 0
G
v v
v v
c o
c o v v
c o
c o
c o
c o
(
(
(
(
(

(

(


(


(
=
` `
(

(

(

(

) )
(
(
(
(
(

(38)


The reader should be able to see the usual interpretation of the Youngs moduli and the
Poisson ratios.

Consider next a transversely isotropic material. This material has three planes of
symmetry and there is an axis about which arbitrary rotations do not change the material
properties. Such a case is shown below (typically a fiber embedded isotropic material a
composite material). The axis about which the properties are isotropic is
3
x and the
orthogonal rotation for this case would be


( ) ( )
( ) ( )
cos sin 0
Q sin cos 0
0 0 1
u u
u u
(
(
=
(
(

(39)


















Applying this transformation to Hookes elastic tensor for the orthotropic case will result
in the four conditions:


( )
11 22 13 23 44 55 66 11 12
1
C C , C C , C C , C C C
2
= = = = (40)

The resulting contracted form of Hookes law for a transversely isotropic material
contains 9-4 = 5 independent constants and is:

x1
x2
x3

( )
11 12 13
1 1
12 11 13
2 2
13 13 33
3 3
44
4 4
44
5 5
6 6
11 12
C C C 0 0 0
C C C 0 0 0
C C C 0 0 0
0 0 0 C 0 0
0 0 0 0 C 0
1
0 0 0 0 0 C C
2
o c
o c
o c
o c
o c
o c
(

(

(

(

(
=
` `
(

(

(

(

) )
(

(41)

Note that this form is only for the case where the axis of symmetry is the
3
x axis.
Finally consider next an isotropic material. This material will be isotropic with respect to
rotations about the three axes
1 2 3
x ,x ,x . Note that the material cannot contain fibers with
different properties for this type of symmetry to exist. The orthogonal transformation for
the rotation about the
1
x axis is

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 0 0
Q 0 cos sin
0 sin cos
u u
u u
(
(
=
(
(

(42)

Applying this transformation to Hookes elasticity tensor obtained from the transversely
isotropic case we get the conditions


( )
22 33 12 13 55 66 66 22 23
1
C C , C C , C C , C C C
2
= = = = (43)

If we then proceed to apply the orthogonal transformation corresponding to the rotation
about the
2
x axis we would find no new information. This result might lead us to be so
bold as to suggest that materials possessing two axes of symmetry necessarily possess a
third axes of symmetry. Combining this result with the result given by equation (40) and
eliminating the redundancy we have the seven constraints


( )
11 22 33 12 13 23 44 55 66 11 12
1
C C C , C C C , C C C C C
2
= = = = = = = (44)

Thus Hookes elasticity tensor will have 9-7 = 2 independent constants. The constants are
represented using the Lameconstants , as follows


( )
11 22 33
12 13 23
44 55 66 11 12
C C C 2
C C C
1
C C C C C
2

= = = +
= = =
= = = =
(45)

The resulting contracted form of Hookes law for a isotropic material containing 2
independent constants is:


1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
2 0 0 0
2 0 0 0
2 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
o c
o c
o c
o c
o c
o c
+ (
(
+
(
( +

=
` ` (
(
(
(

) )
(46)

Hookes law for an isotropic material may also be written using indicial notation as


ij kk ij ij
2 o c o c = + (47)

And Hookes elasticity tensor for an isotropic material takes the form


( )
ijkl ij kl ik jl il jk
C o o o o o o = + + (48)

Recall that the most general fourth order isotropic tensor may be written in terms of three
linearly independent terms as


( )
ij kl ik jl il jk
o o o o vo o + + (49)

The symmetry of the stress tensor,
ij ji
o o = , reduces this expression to the preceding
expression.


Hookes law may be inverted to obtain the strains in terms of the stresses with the result


( )
ij kk ij ij
1
2 3 2 2

c o o o

= +
+
(50)

Where 3 2 0 + = . This expression may be used to define Youngs modulus and
Poissons ratio in terms of the Lame constants. To see this consider
11
c


( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
11 11 22 33 11
22 33 11
22 33 11
22 33 11
1
( )
2 3 2 2
1
( )
2 3 2 2 2 3 2
2
( )
3 2 3 2
1
( )
E E

c o o o o


o o o

o o o

v
o o o

= + + +
+
| |

= + + +
|
|
+ +
\ .

| |
+
= + +
|
|
+ +
\ .
| |
= + +
|
\ .
(51)


where


( ) 3 2
E


+
=
+
(52)

and

( ) 2

v

=
+
(53)

The usual from of Hookes law for isotropic linear elastic bodies may be found by adding
and subtracting the same term to the left and right hand sides of equation (51). The result
is



11 22 33 11 11
1
( )
E E
v v
c o o o o
+ | |
= + + +
|
\ .
(54)

A similar set of operations in the other directions results in the usual form of Hookes law
for isotropic linear elastic bodies.


ij kk ij ij
1
E E
v v
c o o o
+
= + (55)
Finally, equation (47) may be written using Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio as


( ) ( )
ij kk ij ij
E E
1 1 2 1
v
o c o c
v v v
= +
+ +
(56)

Example 1

Plane stress is define as a state of stress where
zz zy zx
0 o o o = = = . Determine the form
that Hookes law must take for this case note that
zz
0 c = . Show that
xz yz
, 0 c c = and
find formulas for
xx yy xy zz
, , , c c c c given
xx yy xy
, , o o o . Show



xx xx
yy yy 2
xy xy
1 0
E
1 0
1
1
0 0
2
o v c
o v c
v
v
o
(

(

(
=
` `
(

) )
(

(57)

Note that the engineering strain,
xy
=
xy
2c


Solution

The pertinent form of the constitutive equation is

ij kk ij ij
1
E E
v v
c o o o
+
= +

Expanded for this case we get the six strains:

xx xx yy xx
yy xx yy yy
zz xx yy
xy xy
xz xz
yz yz
1
(1) ( )
E E
1
( 2) ( )
E E
( 3) ( )
E
1
(4)
E
1
(5) 0
E
1
(6) 0
E
v v
c o o o
v v
c o o o
v
c o o
v
c o
v
c o
v
c o
+
= + +
+
= + +

= +
+
=
+
= =
+
= =


Solving (1) and (2) for
xx
o and
yy
o we obtain

( )
( )
xx xx yy 2
yy yy xx 2
E
(1 )
E
(1 )
o c vc
v
o c vc
v
= +

= +

And from (6) we have
( )
xy xy xy
E E
1 2 1
o c
v v
= =
+ +


Putting these into matrix form we get the desired result

xx xx
yy yy 2
xy xy
1 0
E
1 0
1
1
0 0
2
o v c
o v c
v
v
o
(

(

(
=
` `
(

) )
(


End of Example 1
Similarly, plane strain is defined as a state of strain where
zz xz yz
, , 0 c c c = , note that
zz
0 o = but
xz yz
, 0 o o = .
xx yy xy
, , o o o may be found given
xx yy xy
, , c c c with the matrix
formula:

( ) ( )
xx xx
yy yy
xy xy
1 0
E
1 0
1 1 2
1 2
0 0
2
o v v c
o v v c
v v
v
o
(

(

(
=
` `
(
+

(

) )
(

(58)

Example 2

Develop the appropriate form of Hookes law in terms of the Lame constants for plane
strain and for plane stress.

Solution

(i) Plane Strain - we have, using equation (47)



( )
( )
( )
11 11 11 22 33 11 11 22
0
22 22 11 22 33 22 11 22
0
33 33 11 22 33 11 22
0 0
12 12
13
23
2 2
2 2
2
2
0
0
o c c c c c c c
o c c c c c c c
o c c c c c c
o c
o
o

| |
| = + + + = + +
|
\ .
| |
| = + + + = + +
|
\ .
| |
| = + + + = +
|
\ .
=
=
=
(59)


(i) Plane Stress - we have, using equation (47)

( )
( )
( )
11 11 11 22 33
22 22 11 22 33
33 22 11 22 33
12 12
13
23
2
2
0 2
2
0
0
o c c c c
o c c c c
o c c c c
o c
o
o
= + + +
= + + +
= = + + +
=
=
=

Eliminating
33
c using equation expressing
33
0 o =


( )
33 11 22
2

c c c

= +
+
(60)
This may be substituted into the previous expression to arrive at Hookes law for plane
stress in terms of Lame constants:


( ) ( )
( ) ( )
11 11 11 22 11 11 22
22 22 11 22 22 11 22
33
12 12
13
23
2
2 2
2
2
2 2
2
0
2
0
0

o c c c c c c

o c c c c c c

o
o c
o
o
= + + = + +
+
= + + = + +
+
=
=
=
=
(61)

End of Example 2

Note the definition
2
2

=
+
. The reader should be careful that the appropriate Lame
constants are implemented in solutions.


Example 3

Show that Hookes law for an isotropic media (
ij kk ij ij
2 o c o c = + ) may be inverted to
give

ij kk ij ij
1
2 (3 2 ) 2

c o o o

= +
+

Solution

Starting with
ij kk ij ij
2 o c o c = + we expand to obtain

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
xx xx yy zz
yy yy xx zz
zz zz xx yy
xy xy
xz xz
yz yz
(1) 2
( 2) 2
( 3) 2
(4) 2
(5) 2
(6) 2
o c c c
o c c c
o c c c
o c
o c
o c
= + + +
= + + +
= + + +
=
=
=


Solution of equations (4) through (6) for the shear strains is trivial. Solution of equations
(1) through (3) for the normal strains will requires some algebra. The first step is to add
the three equations to get the result

( )
kk kk
3 2 o c = +

The next step is to use this to eliminate
kk
c in the expression
ij kk ij ij
2 o c o c = + , i.e.

kk
ij kk ij ij ij ij
2 2
3 2
o
o c o c o c

= + = +
+

The final step is to solve for the strains

( )
ij
kk
ij ij
2 2 3 2
o
o
c o

= +
+


This is the desired result

End of Example 3



IV. Hookes Law for Isotropic Linear Materials with Thermal Effects
Included.

We consider here only the simplest case of a linear isotropic material subject to a
temperature field that is different then the reference temperature. The only non-zero
strains are given by

( )
( )
( )
xx o
yy o
zz o
T T
T T
T T
c o
c o
c o
=
=
=
(62)

where
o
T is the reference temperature and T is the temperature field and o is the thermal
expansion coefficient. The temperature field may be found from solution of the
conduction equation


2
T
c k T
t

c
= V
c
(63)

Using equation (55) the temperature effects are included in Hookes law as


ij ij kk ij ij
1
T
E E
v v
c o o o oo A
+
= + + (64)


This simplest formulation results in the temperature field solution being uncoupled from
the displacement and stress solution. This is why in a typical linear FEA package thermal
stress problems require the solution of the conduction equation as an input to the stress
and deformation solution. It is possible for large deformation and for different material
models for the energy equation to include mechanical variables in which case the above
mentioned decoupled solution is not possible.

IV. Newtonian Fluids

The constitutive equation for a Newtonian fluid may be expressed as

C : D o = (65)



Recall again that the most general fourth order isotropic tensor may be written in terms of
three linearly independent terms as


ijkl ij kl ik jl il jk
C o o o o vo o = + + (66)

The symmetry of the stress tensor,
ij ji
o o = , reduces this expression to


( )
ijkl ij kl ik jl il jk
C o o o o o o = + + (67)


An additional assumption that well describes Newtonian fluids is Stokes hypothesis:


2
3
= (68)

This restriction reduces the number of coefficients to one resulting in the constitutive
equation for a Newtonian viscous fluid:


ij kk ij ij
D 2 D o o = + (69)

Or, after implementing Stokes hypothesis:


ij kk ij ij
2
D 2 D
3
o o = + (70)