UNIT - 7.PDF Engg Math

115
Line and Surface

Integrals UNIT 7 LINE AND SURFACE INTEGRALS
Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.2 Integration of a Vector
7.2.1 Line Integral
7.2.2 Types of Line Integral
7.2.3 Evaluation of Line Integral
7.2.4 Path Independence Conservative Fields
7.3 Double Integrals
7.3.1 Properties of Double Integrals
7.3.2 Evaluation of Double Integrals
7.3.3 Applications of Double Integrals
7.3.4 Change of Variables in Double Integrals
7.4 Transformation of Double Integrals into Line Integrals Greens Theorem
7.5 Surface Integrals
7.6 Transformation of Surface Integrals into Line Integrals Stokes Theorem
7.7 Triple Integral
7.7.1 Definition
7.7.2 Properties of Triple Integrals
7.7.3 Volume
7.7.4 Evaluation of Triple Integrals
7.7.5 Physical Applications in Three Dimensions
7.8 Transformation of Volume Integrals into Surface Integrals
7.8.1 Gauss Divergence Theorem
7.8.2 Consequences and Applications of Divergence Theorem
7.8.3 Integral Definitions of Gradient, Divergence Theorem
7.8.4 Physical Interpretation of Divergence and Curl
7.8.5 Modelling of Heat Flow
7.8.6 Greens Theorem and Greens Formula
7.8.7 A Basic Property of Solutions of Laplaces Equation
7.9 Solenoidal and Irrorational Vector Fields Revisited
7.10 Summary
7.11 Answers to SAQs
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 6, you have learnt about the differentiation of vectors and arrived at the important
concepts of directional derivative, gradient, divergence and curl, in this unit, we shall talk
about integration of vector functions.
In this unit, we shall begin our discussion in section 7.2 with the definition of a line
integral and see that it is a natural generalization of a definite integral.
We shall discuss the concepts involving double integrals and their evaluation, (iii) plane
region may be transformed in double integrals in Section 7.3. Double integrals over a
plane region may be transformed into the line integrals over the boundary of the region
and conversely. This is achieved through the Greens theorem in the plane and will form
the subject of our discussion in Section 7.4. Section 7.5 is devoted to the discussion of
surface integrals.

116
Engineering Mathematics
The transformation of surface integrals into line integrals and conversely is done through
Stokes Theorem, which will form our subject matter for Section 7.6. In this section, we
shall also take up some applications of the Stokes theorem and give another physical
interpretation of Curl.
You have studied about line integrals, double integrals and surface integrals. In the
process you have learnt to transform double integrals and surface integral into line
integrals. You had learnt that line integrals are the generalisation of a single integral and
a surface integral is a sort of generalization of a double integral. In this unit, we shall give
another generalization of double integral called triple integrals or volume integrals.
We shall first of all define triple integrals in Section 7.2, wherein we shall also give the
properties and evaluation of such integrals. This section will be closed with some
physical applications of triple integrals.
We had made use of integral transform theorems-Greens Theorem and Stokes Theorem
in the last unit. In this unit, we shall discuss another important integral transform
theorem, known as Gauss Divergence Theorem, which helps in the transformation of
volume integral to surface integral and conversely. Divergence Theorem has many
important consequences and various applications, some of which have been discussed in
Section 7.3.
We had earlier discussed solenoidal vector fields and irrotational vector fields in Unit 6.
With our knowledge of vector calculus, we have revisited these concepts in Section 7.4,
where we have now given integral form conditions for vector fields to be solenoidal and
irrotational. The summary of the results discussed in this unit is presented at the end of
this unit.
Objectives
After going through this unit, you should be able to
integrate a vector with respect to a scalar and solve problems based on it,
define a line integral, state various types of it and evaluate it,
compute double integrals and state the conditions under which the order
to integration can be changed,
explain the need of change of variables in double integrals and
evaluation of double integrals by change of variables,
outline method/conditions of transformation of double integral into line
integral and conversely,
solve problems based on Greens theorem,
define a surface integral and transform it into line integral,
outline the representation of curl in terms of line integral,
use Greens theorem and Stokes theorem to relevant physical situations
and solve problems based on them,
define and evaluate triple integral, and
learn the method and conditions under which a volume integral can be
transformed into a surface integral.
7.2 INTEGRATION OF A VECTOR
In Unit 6, you have learnt to differentiate a vector w.r. to scalar, You also know that
integration is the inverse process of differentiation. If F (t) and f (t) be two vector
functions of a scalar variable t, connected by the relation
( ) ( )
d
t t
dt
= F f . . . (7.1)

117

Line and Surface
Integrals
then we say that ( ) t F is integral of ( ) t f and write
( ) ( ) f t dt t =
F . . . (7.2)
this gives an indefinite integral of ( ) t f .
We can also add an arbitrary constant vector C on the right hand side of Eq. (7.2) and
write it as
( ) ( ) t dt t = +
f F C
This is because
( ( ) ) ( )
d
t t
dt
+ = F C f 0
d
dt

=

C
While solving problems, this constant C can be determined using the given initial
conditions. Also, the dimension of C is that of ( ). t F
You also know from calculus, that for scalar function ( ), f x the definite integral
( )
b
a
f x dx

can be defined as the limit of a sum. Here we integrate along axis x-axis from a to b and
the integral f is a function defined at each point between a and b.
In the same manner, we can define for a scalar variable t, the definite integral of vector
function ( ) t F as the limit of a sum. We can write
1 1 2 2
0
( ) lim ( ) ( ) ( ) , 1, 2, ,
i
b
n n
t
a
n
x dt t t t t t t i n

= + + + =

F F F F
where the ranges of integration a t b has been divided into n sub ranges
corresponding to increments
1 2
, , ,
n
t t t of the variable t and
1 2
, , ,
n
t t t are values of
t lying respectively in these sub-ranges. Further in the limit , n as the number of
sub-ranges increases indefinitely, each of the increment t tends to zero. The sum on the
right hand side which is, of course, a vector sum tends to a definite limit, which is the
definite integral of function ( ) t F .
A simple example of vector integration is illustrated by a particle of unit mass moving
under gravity with constant acceleration g. Let r denote the position-vector of the particle
at time t. Then from Newtons second law of motion, the equation of motion is
2
2
d
dt
=
r
g . . . (7.3)
Now if we wish to find the trajectory of the particle its motion, i.e., if we wish to find r in
terms of t then we integrate Eq. (7.3) and obtain
d
dt
=
0
r
gt +V . . . (7.4)
where
0
V is the initial velocity (corresponding to 0 t = ). A second integration yields
2
1
2
t t = + +
0 0
r g V r . . . (7.5)
where
0
r is the initial position of the particle.
Thus by interpretation of a vector with respect to scalar, we could determine the
trajectory of the particle when equation of motion is known.

118
You may note that in Eqs. (7.4) and (7.5),
d
dt
r
and r have the dimensions of velocity and
dimension of velocity and
0
r in equation (7.5) has the dimension of position.
Note that in the above example, the particle was moving with constant acceleration g. In
practice, it may happen that the force acting on the particle or the system may also be
function (scalar or vector) of the scalar variable. For example, a transverse
electromagnetic wave propagating in x- direction may have an electric field
0
2
cos ( ) ct x = E E k
. If E is the electric permitivity and is magnetic permeability

of space, then energy flowing through a volume V per unit time is given by
( )
2
V
= +
2 2
U E B
If T be the time period for total energy flowing through volume V during one complete
cycle of electro-magnetic oscillation, then
Total energy
0
T
dt =
U
0
( )
2
T
V
dt = +
2 2
E B
0
( )
2
T
V
dt = +
E E B B
2 2 2 2
0 0
0 0
2 2
cos ( ) cos ( )
2 2
T T
V V
ct x dt ct x dt = +

E B
2 2
( and ) = = E E E B B B
2 2 2
0 0
0
2
cos ( )
2 2
T
V V
E B ct x dt

= +

2 2
0 0
0
1
( ) 1 cos 4 ( )
4
T
V E B ct x dt

= + +

2 2
0 0
0
sin 4 ( )
1

( )
4
4
T
ct x
V E B t
c
= + +
2 2
0 0
1 4 4
( ) sin ( ) sin
4 4 4
V T cT x x
c c

= + + +

E B
Note that in the above integration for the calculation of total energy, we have used
2
E E E, = the dot product of vectors. It may also happen that the integration of vectors
may involve cross product of vectors.
We may wish to evaluate dr
A from 0 t = to 1 t = where
2

xy z x = + A i j k and
2 3
, 2 , . x t y t z t = = =
Here
2 3

2 t t t = + + r i j k

2

(2 2 3 ) t t dt = + + dr i j k
and
2

xy z x = + A i j k

119

Line and Surface
Integrals

3 3 4

2t t t = + i j k

3 3 4
2

2
2 2 3
d t t t
t dt dt t dt
=
i j k
A r

5 4 5 3 4

(3 2 ) 4 (4 2 ) t t dt t dt t t dt = + + + i j k

1 1 1
5 4 5 3 4
0 0 0

(3 2 ) 4 (4 2 ) dr t t dt t dt t t dt = + + + +

A i j k

1 1
1
6 5 6
4 5
0
0 0
2

3 2 4
6 5 6 5
t t t
t t

= + + +

i j k

1 2 4 7

2 5 6 5

= + +

i j k

9 2 7

10 3 5
= + i j k
From the above example you must have observed that vector integration involving dot
product or cross product of vectors, essentially reduces to determining the integral of a
scalar with respect to scalar.
Recall that in a definite integral ( ) ,
b
a
f x dx
we integrate along x-axis from a to b and the

integral f is a function defined at each point between a and b. However, in many physical
problems, you may observe that a particle may not be moving along a line but along a
curve in space, e.g., if we wish to calculate the work done by a force in moving a particle
along the curve C from position A to position B, then the ordinary integration (indefinite
or definite) involving vectors will not provide the result. Such problems lead us to the
consideration of line integrals or curve integrals.
7.2.1 Line Integral
The concept of a line integral is a simple and natural generalization of the concept of a
definite integral
( )
b
a
f x dx
. . . (7.6)
In the line integral we do not integrate the integral along x-axis from a to b; instead, we
integrate along a curve in plane or in space and the integrand is a function defined at the
points of that curve. We can define a line integral in a way similar to that of a definite
integral.
Consider a curve C in space having A and B as the initial and terminal points. We may
represent C in parametric from as

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , s x s y s z s = + + r i j k ( ) a s b
where s is the arc length of C and A and B correspond to s = a and s = b respectively
(Figure 7.1).

120

Figure 7.1 : The Directed Curve C from A to B
We assume that ( ) s r is continuous and has a continuous first derivative different from
the zero vector for all s under consideration. The C has a unique tangent at each of its
point. Such a curve C is called a smooth curve.
Let ( , , ) w x y z be a scalar function which defined at each point of C, and is a
continuous function of s.
We divide the curve C, from A to B, in an arbitrary manner into n portions.
Let
0 1 1
( ), , , , ( )
n n
P A P P P B
= =
be the end points of these portions and let
0 1 2
( ) ( )
n
s a s s s b = < < < < =
be the corresponding values of s (Figure 7.2)
Let the length of each of these portion is
1 2 3
, , , . . . ,
n
s s s s
Then we evaluate w at each point ( , , )
k k k
x y z in
k
s and consider the sum
1
( , , )
n
k k k k
k
x y z s
=
w

Figure 7.2 : Sub-division of C
We define the integral of ( , , ) w x y z over curve C from A to B to be limit of the sum as
the subdivision of C is refined so that number of subdivisions becomes very large and the
largest
k
s approaches zero, i.e.,
1
( , , ) lim ( , , )
n
k k k k
n
k
C
w x y z ds w x y z s
=
=
. . . (7.7)
whenever the limit on the right-hand side in Eq. (7.7) exists, we call it line integral of
( , , ) w x y z along C form A to B and denote it as

121

Line and Surface
Integrals
( , , ) .
C
w x y z ds

Note that since w is continuous and C is smooth, the limit on the right hand side of
Eq. (7.7) exists and is independent of the choice of subdivision of C.
Moreover, if ( , , ) 1, w x y z w = is a constant function whose value is 1, then
( , , )
C
w x y z ds
gives the length of curve C from A to B.

The concept of the line integral can be extended to vector integration and we get different
types of line integrals depending upon.
(i) vector element , , . . . ,
1 2

n
s s s and performing vector addition, keeping
( , , ) w x y z as a scalar function.
(ii) taking function W (r) instead of scalar function and also taking vector
elements , , . . . ,
1 2

n
s s s . Then products of W with
k
s can be either dot
products or vector products and this in turn gives rise to two types of line
integrals.
We shall now take up various types of line integrals.
7.2.2 Types of Line Integral
The following types of line integrals exists :
(i) When ( , , ) w x y z is a scalar function defined at each point curve C from A
to B, which is divided into parts
, , . . . ,
1 2

n
s s s
along the curve, then
1
( , , ) lim ( , , )
n
k k k
n
k
C
x y z x y z
=
=

k
w ds w s
defines a line integral in ordinary calculus.
(ii) When ( , , ) w x y z is a scalar function defined at each point of the curve C
from A to B. which is divided into n parts of vector elements
, , . . . ,
1 2

n
s s s along the curve C and perform vector addition, then
1
( , , ) lim ( , , )
n
k k k k
n
k
C
x y z x y z s
=
=

w ds w
defines a line integral, where value is a vector.
(iii) When ( , , ) x y z W is a vector function defined at each point of the curve C
from A to B, which is divided into n parts of vector elements
, , . . . ,
1 2

n
s s s along the curve C and the product of ( , , )
k k k
x y z W in
k
s in dot product of vector, then
1
( , , ) . lim ( , , ) .
n
k k k
n
k
C
x y z x y z
=
=

k
W ds W s
defines a line integral, whose value is a scalar.
Moreover, if r is a position vector of a point on curve C, then ds ~ dr and
in the limit when each sub-interval tends to be zero, ds = dr ; therefore the
last three line integrals may also be written as

122
( , , ) , ( , , )
C C
x y z x y z

w dr W dr and ( , , )
C
x y z
W dr
respectively.

Figure 7.3 : Formula (c)
In all the above line integrals, it is assumed that the path of integration is
piecewise smooth.
For a line integral over a closed path C, the symbol
(instead of )
C C

is sometimes used in the literature.
From the definition of line integral, it follows that the following properties are valid for
line integrals :
(a)
C C
k wds k wds =

(k Constant)
(b) ( )
C C C
f g ds f ds g ds + = +

(orientation of C is the same in all the three integrals).
(c)
1 2
,
C C C
wds wds wds = +

where the path C is subdivided into two arcs
1
C
and
2
C , which have the same orientation as C.
Note that if the sense of integration along a curve C is reversed, the value of the line
integral is multiplied by 1.
The question is now arises is How is a line integral evaluated? We shall now answer
this question.
7.2.3 Evaluation of Line Integral
A line integral can be evaluated by reducing it to a definite integral. This reduction is
quite simple and is done by means of representation of the path of integration C as
follows :
If C is represented by

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , , t x s y s z s a s b = + + r i j k
where s is the arc length of C, then we can immediately write
( , , ) [ ( ), ( ), ( )] ,
b
a
f x y z ds f x s y s z s ds =

C
. . . (7.8)
the integral on the right being a definite integral. In applications, mostly representation of
C is the form

123

Line and Surface
Integrals

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , t x t y s z s = + + r i j k
0 1
, t t t
where t is any parameter, or may easily be converted to this form. In this case, we can use
[ ( )] ( ), s t t = r r
so that [ ( )] ( ) s t t = x x and so on.
Then we can use
1
0
( , , ) [ ( ), ( ), ( )] ,
t
t
ds
f x y z ds f x t y t z t dt
dt
=

C
. . . (7.9)
where
2 2 2
ds
y z
dt
= = + + r r x . . . (7.10)
Here we assume that ( ) t r and ( ) t r are continuous and ( ) 0, t r in agreement with the
assumption mentioned in Section 7.2.2.
We now illustrate the theory discussed so far with the help of a few examples.
Example 7.1
Evaluate
2 2 2 2
( ) ,
C
x y z ds + +
where C is the arc of circular helix

( ) cos sin 3 t t t t = + + r i j k,
from (1, 0, 0) A to (1, 0, 6 ). B
Solution
Here

( ) cos sin 3 t t t t = + + r i j k,

( ) sin cos 3 t t t = + + r i j k
Now
2 2
sin cos 9 10
ds
t t
dt
= = + + = r r
On C,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
( ) [cos sin 9 ] (1 9 ) x y z t t t t + + = + + = +
Also (1, 0, 0) A and (1, 0, 6 ) B on C correspond to 0 2 . t
Thus, we have
( ) ( )
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
0
1 9
C
ds
x y z t dt
dt
+ + = +

( )
2
4 2
0
10 1 81 18 t t dt
= + +

2
5 3
0
10 81 18
5 3
t t
t
= + +

3 5
81
10 2 6(2 ) (2 )
5

= + +

506400
Using the representative of C, sometimes it may be possible for us to eliminate two
of the three independent variables in the integrand of a line integral and then we
can evaluate the resulting definite integral in which the remaining independent
variable is the variable of integration.

124
We illustrate this by the following example.
Example 7.2
Evaluate the line integral
2
[ ( ) ]
C
x ydx x z dy xyz dz + +

where C is the arc of the parabola
2
y x = in the plane 2 z = from A (0, 0, 2) to
B (1, 1, 2).
Solution
Since on C,
2
y x = and 2 z = (constant),
on C, 2 dy x dx = and 0. dz =
It follows that on C, the integral of the last term in the given integrand is zero.

Figure 7.4 : Path in Example 7.2
Thus,
1
2 2 2
0
( ) ( 2) 2
C
x y dx x z dy xy z dz x x dx x x dx

+ + = +

2
( and 2 on ) y x z C = =
.
( )
1
5 3 2
1
4 2
0
0
2 4 2 4
5 3 2
x x x
x x x dx = + = +

1 2 17
2
5 3 15
= + =
Let us now take up an example in which we consider integration of a line integral over
different paths will the same end points.
Example 7.3
Let C be the line segment from A (0, 0, 1) to B (1, 1) and let
2
( , ) . f x y x y = +
Evaluate ( , )
C
f x y ds
when
(i) C is characterized by , , 0 1. x t y t t = =
(ii) C has parametric representation sin , sin , 0 .
2
x t y t t

= =

125

Line and Surface
Integrals
Solution
(i) If , , 0 1, x t y t t = = then

2 2
2
1
0
( , ) ( )
C
dx dy
f x y ds t t dt
dt dt

= + +

=
1
2 3
2
0
1
0
5 2
( ) 1 1 2
2 3 6
t t
t t dt + + = + =

(ii) If x = sin t, y = sin t,
0
2
t , then
2 2
2
( , ) ( )
C C
dx dy
f x y ds x y dt
dt dt

= + +

/ 2
2 2 2
0
(sin sin ) cos cos t t t t dt = + +

/ 2
2
0
2 (sin cos sin cos ) t t t t dt = +

/ 2
2 3
0
sin sin
2
2 3
t t
= +

5 2
6
=
In this case, you may notice that even though paths described by C were different,
the value of the line integral is the same. Is this always true?
Let us examine this by considering yet another example.
Example 7.4
Evaluate
2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
C
x y dx y z dy z x dz

+ +

where C is the curve from origin O to the point (1,1,1) A
(i) along the straight line OA
(ii) along the curve
2 3
, , , 0 1. x t y t z t t = = =
Solution
(i) Equation of line OA, joining O (0, 0, 0) and A (1, 1, 1) and . x y z = =
For path OA,
2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
C
x y dx y z dy z x dz

+ +

1
2 2 2
0
( ) ( ) ( ) , x x dx x x dx x x dx

= + +

( and , so that and ) y x z x dy dx dz dx = = = =
1
3 2
0
1
3
3 2 2
x x
= =

126
(ii) Along the curve
2 3
, , x t y t z t = = =
2
, 2 , 3 . dx dt dy t dt dz t dt = = =
We get
2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
C
x y dx y z dy z x dz + +

1
2 2 4 3 6 2
0
( ) ( ) 2 ( ) 3 t t dt t t t dt t t t dt

= + +

1 1
6 5 9 4
0 0
2 3
6 5 9 4
t t t t
= +
1 1 1 1
2 3
6 5 9 4

= +

29
60
=
In this example, the integrands and the end points of the paths of integration are the
same, but the values of the line integrals are different. This illustrates the important fact
that In general, the values of a line integrals of a given function depends not only on the
end points but also on the geometric shape of the path of integration.
In many applications, the integrands of the line integrals are of the form
( , , ) , ( , , ) or ( , , ) , f x y z f x y z f x y z
dx dy dz
ds ds ds

where ,
dx dy
ds ds
and
dz
ds
are the derivatives of the functions occurring in the parametric
representation of the path of integration. Then we simply write
( , , ) ( , , )
C C
f x y z ds f x y z ds =

dx
ds

and similar expressions in the other two cases.
For sums of these types of integrals along the same path C, we adopt the notation
( )
C C C C
f dx g dy h dz f dx g dy h dz + = + +

In many cases, the functions, f, g, h are components
1 2 3
, , f f f of a vector function
1 2 3

f f f = + + f i j k
Then
1 2 3 1 2 3
,
dx dy dz
f dx f dy f dz f f f ds
ds ds ds

+ + = + +

the expression in parenthesis on the right being the dot product of the vector f and the
unit tangent vector

,
d dx dy dz
ds ds ds ds
= + +
r
i j k
where r (s) represents the path of the integration of the line integral. Therefore,
1 2 3
( )
C C
d
f dx f dy f dz f ds
ds
+ + =

r
. . . (7.11)

127

Line and Surface
Integrals

C
f d =
r . . . (7.12)
where

. d dx dy dz = + + r i j k
Now if f represents a force whose point of application moves along a curve

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , t x t y t z t = + + r i j k a t b
from a point A to a point B in space, then
C
f d
r
represents the work done by the force f is moving a particle from point A to point B along
the curve C.
The representation in Eq. (7.11), i.e.,
C
d
ds
ds
r
f emphasizes the fact that the work
done by the force f is the value of the line integral along the curve of the tangential
component of the force field f.
Let us consider an example illustrating the work done by a force.
Example 7.5
A variable force p acts on a particle and the particle is displaced along path C in
space. Find the work done by force p in this displacement.
Solution
Let the given path C be characterized by the equation
0 1
( ), . t t t t r
Now the work done W by force p in any displacement along the path C is given by
the line integral
,
C
d =
W p r
the integration being taken in the sense of displacement.
Here
d
d dt dt
dt
= =
r
r v
where v is the velocity of the particle. Then work W becomes
1 1
0 0
,
t t
t t
dr
dt dt
dt
= =

W p p v
where
0
t and
1
t are the initial and final values of t.
Furthermore, by Newtons second law
, m m = = r p p v
where m is the mass of the particle. Substituting this value of p in the line integral
for W, we get
1 1
0 0
t t
t t
d m
W m dt dt
dt 2

= =

v v v v

1
1
0
0
2
2
| |
2
t
t
t
t
d m m
dt
dt 2

= =

v v
Work done = gain in kinetic energy in moving from initial point to the
final point.

128
Thus the basic law in mechanics has been reinforced through the line integral
concept.
You may now try the following exercises.
SAQ 1
(a) If
2 2

(3 6 ) 14 20 , x y yz xz = + + F i i k evaluate the line integral
d
F r from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1) along the following paths C :

(i)
2 3
, , , x t y t z r = = =
(ii) The straight line form (0, 0, 0) to (1, 0, 0); then to (1, 1, 0) and then to
(1, 1, 1), and
(iii) The straight line giving (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1).
(b) Find the work done in moving a particle once round the circle
2 2
9 x y + =
in the X O Y plane if the field of force, given by
2

(2 ) ( ) (3 2 4 ) . x y z x y z x y z = + + + + F i j k

In example 3 you have noticed that the value of the line integral between the same end
points A and B jointed by two different paths was the same, where as in Example 4, we
found that the value of line integral between the same end pints jointed by two different
paths was unequal. Let us now study the condition under which the value of the line
integral between two points A and B in independent if the path joining them.
7.2.4 Path Independence Conservative Fields
Let F be a vector field with components
1 2 3
, , F F F and
1 2 3
, , F F F be continuous
throughout some connected region D.
Consider two points A and B in D. Suppose that C is any piecewise smooth curve joining
A and B given by
( ), ( ), ( ), x x t y y t z z t = = =
1 2
. t t t
If there exists a differentiable function f such that

,
x y z

= = + +

f f f
F f i j k
then along C, [ ( ), ( ), ( )] f f x t y t z t = is a function of t and
df f dx f dy f dz
dt x dt y dt z dt

= + +

dx dy dz
f
dt dt dt

= + +

i j k

129

Line and Surface
Integrals
d
f
dt
=
r

We thus have
d f d = F r r

d
f dt
dt
=
r

df
dt
dt
=
Now integrating F . dr along C from A to B, we get

2
1
t
t
C
df
dr dt
dt
=

F
2
1
[ { ( ), ( ), ( )}]
t
t
d f x t y t z t =

2
1
( ( ), ( ), ( ))
t
t
f x t y t z t =

2 2 2 1 1 1
( ), ( ), ( ) ( ), ( ), ( ) f x t y t z t f x t y t z t =

( ) ( )
B
C A
d f d f B f A = =

F r r
The value of the integral [ ] ( ) ( ) f B f A does not depend on the path C at all. This result
is analogue of the First Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus (see Block 1), viz.,
( ) ( ) ( )
b
a
f x dx f b f a =

The only difference is that we have f d r in place of ( ) f x d r . This analogy suggests
that if we define a function f by the rule
( , , )
( , , )
x y z
A
f x y z d

=

F r . . . (7.13)
then it will also be true that
f = F . . . (7.14)
This result f = F is indeed true when the right-hand side of Eq. (7.13) is path
independent. Thus
A necessary and sufficient condition for the integral
B
A
d
F r to be independent of the
path joining the points A and B in some connected region D is that there exists a
differentiable function of such that

f f f
f
x y z

= = + +

F i j k
throughout D, where compounds
1 2 3
, , f f f of vector field F are continuous throughout
D and then
( ) ( )
B
A
d f B f A =
F r
When F is a force such that the work-integral from A to B is the same for all paths, the
field is said to be conservative. Using the above result, we can say that

130
A force field F is conservative if and only if is a gradient field, i.e., , f = F for some
differentiable function f.
A function ( , , ) f x y z that has the property that its gradient gives the force vector F is
called a potential function. Sometimes a minus sign is introduced, e.g., the electric
intensity of a field is the negative of the potential gradient in the field.
Let us consider the following example.
Example 7.6
Find the work done when a force
2 2

( ) (2 ) x y x xy y = + + F i j
moves a particle in the xy-plane from (0, 0) to (1, 1) along the parabola
2
. y x = Is
the work done different when the path is the straight line y =x?
Solution
The parabola
2
y x = has a parametric representation
2
, . y t x t = =
From (0, 0) to (1, 1), variation of t is 0 1. t
Work done along the parabola
2 2

( ) (2 ) ( )
C C
d x y x xy y dx dy

= = + + +

F r i j i j
2 2
[( ) (2 ) ]
C
x y x dx xy y dy = + +

1
4 2 2 2
0
[( ) 2 (2 ) ] t t t t dt t t t dt = + +

1
6 4 2
0
1 1 1 2
3 2 2 3
t t t = =
We can similarly find the work done when the particle move form (0, 0) to (1, 1)
along y = x. In this case also we find that the work done is

(1,1)
3 2 2 2
(0, 0)
1 1 1 1 1 1 2
1
3 2 2 3 2 2 3
x x xy y

= + = + =

as obtained earlier. This is because, we notice that
3 2 2 2
1 1 1
grad
3 2 2
x x xy y

= +

F
That is, the field F is conservative and the work done does not depend on the path
followed. You may now attempt the following exercise.
SAQ 2
(a) If
2 2
2 , xy z x y = + evaluate
grad ,
C
d
r
where C is the curve
2 3
, , x t y t z t = = = from 0 t = to 1. t =

131

Line and Surface
Integrals
(b) In
2

xy z x = + A i j k and C is the curve
2 3
, 2 , x t y t z t = = = from
0 t = to 1 t = , evaluate
C
d
A r.
(c) Suppose

( cos ) ( sin ) ( )
x x
e y yz xz e y xy z = + + + + F i j k
Is F conservative? If so, find f such that f = F .

So far we have performed integration along a line or a curve. But as we have mentioned
earlier, there are many physical situation where we are required to find integral for areas
and volumes. For example, determination of moment of inertia and coordinates of center
of gravity of a continuous matter. Solution of these problems involve integrals where we
have to do integration with respect to more than one variable. Such integrals are called
multiple integrals. We shall, in the next section, discuss only double integrals, in which
the integrals is a function of two variables.
7.3 DOUBLE INTEGRALS
Consider a function ( , ) f x y which is defined for all (x, y) in a closed bounded region R
of xyplane.
The definition of double integral can be given in quite in quite a similar manner as that
of a definite integral of a single variable.
We subdivide the region R into sub-regions (see Figure 7.5). These sub-regions can be
arbitrary or can be rectangles obtained by drawing lines parallel to x and y axes.

(a) Sub-division of R in Arbitrary Manner (b) Sub-division of R by Drawing Parallel to x and y axes
Figure 7.5
We number these sub-division, which are within R, from 1 to n. In each sub-region, we
choose a point, say ( , )
k k
x y in the
th
k sub-region, and then form the sum
1
( , ) ,
n
n k k k
k
F f x y A
=
=

where
k
A is the area of the
th
k sub-regions.
In a completely independent manner, we increase the number of sub-regions such that the
area of the largest sub-region tends to zero as n approaches infinity (In the case of

132
rectangles as sub-regions, we can say that the length of the maximum diagonal of the
rectangles approaches zero as n approaches infinity). In this way, we obtain a sequence
of real number
1 2 7
, , . . . , , . . . f f f We know that if ( , ) f x y is continuous in R and
region R is bounded by finitely many smooth curves, then this sequence converges and
its limit is independent of the choice of sub-divisions and corresponding points ( , ) f x y .
This limit is called the double integral of ( , ) f x y over the region R and is denoted by
the symbol
( , ) or ( , )
R R
f x y d f x y dx dy

A
Thus
1
( , ) = lim ( , )
n
k k k
n
k
R
f x y d f x y
A A
The continuity of the integrand is a sufficient condition for the existence of the double
integral, but not a necessary one, and the limit in question exists for many discontinuous
functions as well.
From the definition, it follows that double integrals enjoy properties which are quite
similar to these of definite integrals of functions of a single variable. These properties
hold for the sums from which integrals are defined. We shall state some of these
algebraic properties that are useful in computations and applications.
7.3.1 Properties of Double Integrals
Let f and g be the function of x and y, which are defined and are continuous in a region R,
then
(i) ( , ) ( , )
R R
k f x y d k f x y d =

A A (k is a constant)
(ii) [ ] ( , ) ( , ) = ( , ) ( , )
R R R
f x y g x y d f x y d g x y d

A A A
(iii) ( , ) 0
R
f x y d
A if ( , ) 0 f x y on R
(iv) ( , ) ( , )
R R
f x y dA g x y dA

if ( , ) ( , ) f x y g x y on R
(v)
1 2
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ,
R R R
f x y dA f x y dA f x y dA = +

Which hold when R is the union of two non overlapping regions
1
R and
2
R as shown in
Figure 7.6 and is called domain-activity property.

Figure 7.6
Furthermore, there exists at least one point
0 0
( , ) x y in R such that

133

Line and Surface
Integrals
(vi)
0 0
( , ) ( , ) ,
R
f x y dA f x y =
A
where A is area of R and this is called mean-value theorem for double integrals.
Let us now take up the evaluation of the double integrals.
7.3.2 Evaluation of Double Integrals
If ( , ) f x y is continuous on the rectangular region R given by
, a x b , c y d
then by drawing lines parallel to x and y axes, the double integrals over rectangles can
always be calculated as integrated (or reported) integrals and
( , ) ( , ) ( , )
d b b d
R y c x a x a y c
f x y dA f x y dx dy f x y dy dx
= = = =
= =

. . . (7.15)
This means that we can evaluate a double integral by integrating one variable at a time
(treating the other variable as constant), using the integration techniques we already
know for function of a single variable.
Further, we may calculate the double integral over a rectangle by integrating in either
order (as per our convenience)
Consider the following example.
Example 7.7
Calculate
( , ) ,
R
f x y dA

where
2
( , ) 1 6 f x y x y = and : 0 2, R x 1 1. y
Solution
Using Eq. (7.15), we can write
1 2
2
1 0
( , ) (1 6 )
y x
R
f x y d x y dx dy
= =
=

A

0
3
1
1
0
6
3
y
x
x
x y dy
=
=
=

1
1
(2 16 ) y dy

1
2
1
2 16
2
y
y
=
(2 8) ( 2 8) 4 = =
Reversing the order of integration gives the same answer (you may check it for yourself).
Let us now consider double integral for bounded non-rectangular regions.
In such regions R, the double integral may be evaluated by two successive integration
again, but the method will be as follows :
Suppose first we draw lines parallel to y-axis and the that R can be described by the
inequalities of the form
, a x b ( ) ( ) g x y h x (Figure 7.7(a)) . . . (7.16)

134

(a) (b)
Figure 7.7 : Evaluation of a Double Integral
so that ( ) y g x = and ( ) y h x = represent the boundary of R. Then
( )
( )
( , ) ( , )
b h x
x a y g x
R
f x y dA f x y dy dx
= =

=

. . . (7.17)
In this case, we first integrate the line integral
( )
( )
( , )
h x
y g x
f x y dy
=
,
keeping x fixed, i.e., treating x as a constant. The result of this integration will be a
function of x, say ( ). x F Integrating ( ) x F over x form a to b, we obtain the value of the
double integral in Eq. (7.17).
Next, if we draw lines parallel to x-axis and the region R can be described by the
inequalities of the form
, ( ) ( ) c y d p y x q y (Figure 7.7 (b)) . . . (7.18)
then we obtain
( )
( )
( , ) ( , )
d q y
y c x p y
R
f x y dx dy f x y dx dy
= =

=

. . . (7.19)
we now integrate first over x (treating y as a constant) and then integrate with respect to y
resulting the function of y from c to d.
If the region R cannot be represented by inequalities of the Eqs.(7.16) or (7.18), but can
be subdivided into finitely many portions which have that property, we may integrate
( , ) f x y over each position separately and add the results of these integrals, this will
give us the value of the double integral of ( , ) f x y over the region R.
In the equivalence of double into repeated or iterated integrals, we have assumed that
( , ) f x y is uniformly continuous and bounded over R and
( )
( )
( ) ( , )
h x
y g x
x f x y dy
=
=

F
is bounded and integrable from a to b with respect to x along with
( )
( )
( ) ( , )
g x
x p y
G y f x y dx
=
=

is bounded and integrable form c to d with respect to y.
In ( , ) f x y for discontinuities within R or on its boundary, it may happen that the two
integrals given by Eq. (7.17) and (7.19) are not equal.
Let us try to understand this point through the following example.
Example 7.8
Show that

135

Line and Surface
Integrals
1 1 1 1
3 3
0 0 0 0
( ) ( )
x y x y
dx dy dy dx
x y x y

+ +

Solution
L.H.S. =
1 1 1 1
3 3
0 0 0 0
2 ( )
( ) ( )
x y x x y
dx dy dx dy
x y x y
+
=
+ +

1
1 1 1
3 2 2
0 0 0
0
2 1 1
( ) ( ) ( )
y
x x
dx dy dx
x y
x y x y x y
=

= + = +

+
+ + +

1
1 1
2 2
0 0
0
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 2
(1 ) ( 1)
x
dx dx
x x x x
x x

= + + = = =

+ +
+ +

R.H.S.
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 2 3
0 0 0 0 0 0
( ) 2 1 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
x y x y y y
dy dx dy dx dy dx
x y x y x y x y

+
= = =

+ + + +

1
1 1 1
2 2 2 2
0 0 0
0
1 1 1 1
1
( ) (1 ) (1 )
y y y
dy dy dy
x y y y
x y y y y

= + = + + =

+ +
+ + +

1 1
1
2 2
= =
L.H.S R.H.S
Sometimes it may happen that we are required to change the order of integration in a
double integral for which limits are given. In such a case, first of all we ascertain from
the given limits of the region R of integration. Knowing the region of integration, we
then put the limits for integration in the reverse orders. We illustrate it through the
following example.
Example 7.9
Change the order of integration in the integral
2 2
cos
0 tan
( , )
a a x
x
f x y dy dx

Solution
The given limits show that the region R of integration is bounded by the curves
0; x = cos x a =
tan y x = and
2 2
y a x =
Now y = x tan is a line through the origin and
2 2
y a x = is a circle of
radius a and center at origin and they intersect at the point ( cos , sin ) a a .
Hence the region R is the shaded region OAB as shown in Figure 7.8.

136

Figure 7.8 : Region R
When we have to integrate with respect to x first, i.e., along a horizontal strip
parallel to x-axis, we see the starting point of all the strips is the same line. They all
start form the line 0, x = but some of the strips end at the line OA, While other
end on the circular arc AB. The line of division (or demarcation) is the line CA
given by
sin y a =
Hence region OAB must be subdivided into two sub-regions : OAC and CAB.
Now region OAC is bounded by the curves 0, x = cot , 0 x y y = = and
sin y a =
The region OAC is bounded by the curves
2 2
0, , sin , x x a y y a = = =
and . y a =
Hence on changing the order of integration, the given double integral becomes
2 2
sin cot
0 0 sin 0
( ) ( , )
a x y a a y
y x y a x
=
= = = =
+ + +

You may now try the following exercise.
SAQ 3
Describe the region of integration and evaluate the following integrals :
(i)
1 2
2 2
0 0
(1 )
x
x y dy dx + +

(ii)
2
1 2
0
(1 )
x
x
xy dy dx

Double integrals have various geometrical and physical applications. We take up these
application in the next sub-section.
7.3.3 Application of Double Integrals
The area A of a region R in the xy-plane is given by the double integral
R
A dx dy =

Recall that while defining the double integral, we had framed the sum
1
( , )
n
n k k k
k
F f x y A
=
=

137

Line and Surface
Integrals
In this sum, if we consider a rectangular parallelepiped with base
k
A and altitude
( , )
k k
f x y , then ( , )
k k k
f x y A represents the volume of the volume of the
parallelepiped and hence the volume V beneath the surface ( , ) ( 0) z f x y = > and above
a region R in the xy-plane, as shown in Figure 7.9, is
( , )
R
V f x y dx dy =

Figure 7.9 : Double Integral as a Volume
Further, if ( , ) f x y be the density (mass per unit area) of a distribution of mass in the
xy-plane, if M is the total mass in region R, then
( , )
R
M f x y dx dy =

From mechanics, we know that the coordinates , x y of the center of gravity of the mass
(of density ( , ) f x y in region R is given by
( , ) ( , )
and
( , ) ( , )
R R
R R
f x y dx dy y f x y dx dy
x y
= =

Thus, the coordinates of center of gravity of a mass is another application of double
integrals.
Similarly, the moments of inertia
x
I and
y
I of the mass in R about x and y axes,
respectively, are
2
( , )
x
R
I y f x y dx dy =

and
2
( , ) ,
y
R
I x f x y dx dy =

Which are again double integrals
Let us now take up a few examples.
Example 7.10
Find the volume of the prism whose base in the triangle in the xy-plane bounded
by x-axis and the lines y x = and 1 x = and whose top lies in the plane
( , ) 3 . z f x y x y = =
Solution
For any x between 0 and 1, the variable may vary from 0 y = to y x = (parallels
to y-axis yields these equalities), as shown in Figure 7.10.

138

(a) Prism with a Triangular Base in the xy-plane (b) Integration Limits of
( , )
=

=
1
=0 0
f x y dx dy
y x
x y

Figure 7.10
Hence
1
0 0
(3 )
x
x y
V x y dy dx
= =

=

2
1
0
0
(3
2
y x
y
y
y xy dx
=
=
=

1
2 2 3
1
0
0
3 3 3 1
3 3 1
2 2 2 3 2 2
x x x
x dx

= = = =

Similarly, parallels to x-axis yields that for any y between y = 0 and y = 1. The
variables x may vary from 0 x = to x y = (Figure 7.11)

Figure 7.11 : Integration of Limits of ( , )
=

=
1
=0 0
f x y dx dy
y x
x y

Thus, when the order of integration is reversed, the integral for volume is
1 1
0
(3 )
y x y
V x y dx dy
= =

=

1
2
1
0
3
2
y
x y
x
x yx dy
=
=
=

2
1
2
0
1
3 3
2 2
y
y
y y y dy
=

= + +

1
2
0
5 3
4
2 2
y
y y dy
=

= +

1
2 3
0
5 3
4
2 2 2 3
y y
y = +

139

Line and Surface
Integrals
5 4 1
1
2 2 2
= + =
Thus, the value V obtained in two ways is equal, as it should be.
We now determine the area of a given region R.
Example 7.11
Find the area of region R enclosed by the parabola
2
y x = and the line 2 y x = +
Solution
If we draw lines parallel to x- axis to determine the limits of integration; it is seen
that we must divide region R into the region
1
R and
2
R as shown in the
Figure 7.12(a) and then we may calculate the area as
1 2
1 4
0 1 2
y y
y x y y x y
R R
A dA dA dx dy dx dy
+
= = = =

= + = +

. . . (7.20)

(a) (b)
Figure 7.12 : Area in Example 7.11
On the other hand, reversing the order of integration (by drawing lines parallel to
y-axis), the required area is (see Figure 7.12(b)).
2
2
2 2
1
x
x y x
R
A dA dy dx
+
= =

= =

. . . (7.21)
Clearly the area given by Eq. (7.21) is simpler as it is easier to calculate. In
practice one would bother to write the integral only in this form. Evaluation of
integral (Eq. 7.21) yields
2
2
2 3
2 2
2
2
1 1
1
( 2 ) 2
2 3
x
x x x
x x
A y dx x x dx x
+
= =

= = + = +

4 8 1 1 9
4 2 .
2 3 2 3 2

= + + =

Let us take up a physical application in our next example.
Example 7.12
A thin plate of uniform (constant) thickness and density ( , ) x y is bounded by
, 2 y x y x = = and axis. x Find the center of mass of the plate if
( , ) 1 2 . x y x y = + +
Solution

140
The line 2 y x = cuts axis x at A (2, 0). The lines y x = 2 y x = intersect
at B (1, 1).
The given plate is OAB as shown in Figure 7.13.

Figure 7.13 : Given Plate
By drawing lines parallel to x-axis, the whole plate is-characterized by
: 0 2 R x and 2 x y x
Now,
Mass of the plate ( , )
R
M x y dx dy = =

2 2
0
(1 2 )
x
x y x
x y dy dx
= =

= + +

2
2
2
0
2
2
x
x
y x
y
y xy dx
=
=
= + +

2 2
2
2
0
(2 )
2 2 (2 ) 2
2 2
x
x x
x x x x x dx
=

= + +

2
2
2 2 2
0
1
2 4 2 (4 4 ) 2
2 2
x
x
x x x x x x x dx
=

= + + +

2
2
0
(4 4 )
x
x dx
=
=

2
2
0
4.8 8
4 4 8 0
3 3 3
x
x = = =
First Moment,

2 2
0 0
( , ) (1 2 )
x
x
x y
R
M y x y dx dy y x y dy dx
= =

= = + +

2
2 2 3
2
0
2
2 2 3
x
x
y x
y y y
x dx
=
=
= + +

2 2 3
2
2 3 3
0
(2 ) 1
(2 ) (2 )
2 3 2 3
x
x x x
x x x x dx
=

= + +

141

Line and Surface
Integrals
2 3
2
2 2 3 2 3
0
1 1
(4 4 ) (4 4 ) (8 12 6 )
2 3 2 3
x
x x
x x x x x x x x x dx
=

= + + + + +

2
2 2
0
14 2
2 2
3 3
x x x dx

=

2
2 4
2
0
14 2 2
3 3 3 4
x x
x x =

28 16 8 8
4
3 3 3 3
= =
First Moment,
2 2
0
( , ) (1 2 )
x
y
x y x
R
M x x y dx dy x x y dy dx
= =

= = + +

2
2
2
2
0
( 2 )
2
x
x
y x
y
x x y x dx
=
=
= + +

3
2
2 2 2
0
( 2 ) (2 ) (4 4 ) ( 2 )
2 2
x
x x
x x x x x x x x dx
=

= + + + +

3 3
2
2 2 3 2 2 3
0
2 4 2 2 2 2
2 2
x
x x
x x x x x x x x dx
=

= + + +

2
2 4
2
3
0
0
4 4
(4 4 )
2 4
x
x x
x x dx
=
= =

2 4 16 8 = =
Hence, the center of mass is ( , ) x y where

8
3
1,
8
3
x
M
x
M

= = =

( 8)
3
8
3
y
M
y
M
= = =

Example 7.13
Let ( , ) 1 f x y = be the density of mass in the region
2
: 0 1 , y x R 0 1 x
Find the center of gravity and the moments of
0
, , .
x y
I I I
Solution
The given region is a circle
2 3
1 x y + = in the first quadrant (Figure 7.14).
Total Mass in
R
dx dy =

R

2
1 1
0 0
x
dy dx

=

142

1
2
0
1 x dx =

/ 2
2
0

cos
4
d = =

Figure 7.14 : Unit Circle in the 1
st
Quadrant
Now
2
1 1 1
2
0 0 0
1 4 4
1

x
R
x x dx dy x dy dx x x dx
M

= = =

Let
2 2 2
1 1 x z x z = = 2 2 x dx z dz =

0
3
0
2
1
1
4 4 4
( )
3 3
z
x z dz = = =

Since the area R is symmetrical about both the axes,

4
3
x y = =
The coordinates of center of gravity are
4 4
( , ) ,
3 3
x y

=

Now, Moment of Inertia,
2
1 1
2 2
0 0
x
x
R
I y dx dy y dy dx

= =

1
2 3/ 2
0
1
(1 )
3
x dx =
(let sin x = cos dx d = )

/ 2
4
0
1
cos .
3 16
d = =

By symmetry,
.
16
x y
I I = =
Also
0

0.3927.
16 16 8
x y
I I I = + = + =
You may now try the following exercise.
SAQ 4
Prove that the area in the positive quadrant, bounded by the curve
2
4 , y ax =
2 2
4 , y bx xy c = = and
2
xy d = is

143

Line and Surface
Integrals
2 2
1
( ) log .
3
b
d c
a

You may recall that in the case of a definite integral ( ) ,
b
a
f x dx
sometimes we have to
introduce a new variable of integration u in order to simplify the integration by setting
( ) x x u =
where function ( ) x u is continuous and has a continuous derivative in some interval
u such that () x a = and () x b = [or () , () ] x b x a = = . Then
( ) [ ( )] .
b
a
dx
f x dx f x u du
du
=

In the same manner we often simplify the evaluation of double integral by the
introduction of a new variable. In next sub-section we shall show how this new variable
is introduced.
7.3.4 Change of Variables in Double Integrals
Let a region R in xy-plane be transformed into a region G (Figure 7.15) in the uv-plane by
differentiable functions of the form
( , ), x f u v = ( , ) y g u v =
so that each point
0 0
( , ) u v in the region G corresponds to a point
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
( , ) ( , ), ( , ) ( , ) x u v f u v y u v g u v = =

in the region R and conversely; then a function , x y ( ) defined in R can be thought of as
a function
[ ] , , , f u v g u v ( ) ( )
defined on G.

Figure 7.15 : Transformation of Region R in xy-plane to Region G in uv-plane
From the calculus of two variables, we have the result that if all the functions involved
are continuous and have continuous first derivatives, then the integrand , x y ( ) , of the
double integral ( , )
R
x y dx dy
, can be expressed in terms of u and v, and dx dy

144
replaced by du dv times the absolute value of the Jacobain of the coordinate
transformation x = f (u,v), ( , ) y g u v = given by
( , )
( , )
x x
u v
x y
y y u v
u v

= =

J
(which is either positive through out G or negative G ). Here the integral , x y ( ) over R
and the integral of [ ] , , , f u v g u v ( ) ( ) over G are related by the equation
( , )
, ( , , ( , )]
( , )
R R
x y
x y dx dy f u v g u v du dv
u v
( ) = [ )

We now take up an example to illustrate how the change of variables simplifies the
evaluation of a double integral.
Example 7.14
Evaluate the double integral
2 2
R
x + y dx dy ( )

where R is the square bounded by lines , , 2, 2 y x y x x y x y = = = + =
Solution
Shape of the square R of the problem is as shown in Figure 7.16.

Figure 7.16 : Region R
The shape of region R suggests the transformation
, x y u + = x y v =
Then
1
( ),
2
x u v = +
1
( )
2
y u v =
The Jacobian of transformation of coordinates is
1 1
( , ) 1 1 1
2 2
1 1 ( , ) 4 4 2
2 2
x y
J
u v
= = = =

Absolute value of
1
.
2
J J = =
Now, region R in xy-plane corresponds to the square 0 2, u 0 2 v (see
Figure 7.17)

145

Line and Surface
Integrals

Figure 7.17
Thus,

2 2
2 2 2 2
0 0
1 1 1
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
u v
R
x y dx dy u v u v du dv
= =

+ = + +

2
3
2 2 2
2 2 2
0 0 0
0
1 1
( )
4 4 3
u v u
v
u v du dv u v du
= = =

= + = +

2
3
2
2
0
0
1 8 1 2 4 4 8
2
4 3 2 3 3 2 3 3
u
u
u du u
=

= + = + = + =

Notice that had we not changed the variable, evaluation of R would have to be
carried out by first dividing R into two regions
1
R and
2
R and then finding the
range of integrations for the two regions R
1
and R
2
which are different as is evident
from the Figures 7.18(a) and (b) given below.

(a) When Lines Parallel to x-axis are Drawn (b) When Lines Parallel to y-axis are Drawn
Figure 7.18
Let us consider anther example.
Example 7.15
Find the mass of the plate bounded by the four parabolas
2 2 2 2
4 , 4 , 4 and 4 y ax y bx x cy x dy = = = =
if the density of the plate is , kxy = where k is a constant.
Solution

146
In this case, the mass of the plate ( ) ,
A
k xy dx dy =

where region A is shown in
Figure 7.19(a). It is quite clear from Figure 7.19(a), that if we wish to evaluate this
integral, we shall have to subdivide the region A in many sub-regions

(a) Region A in xy-plane (b) Region A Transformed in uv-plane
Figure 7.19
However, if we assume
2 2
, ,
x y
u v
y x
= =
then in uv-plane the region A is transformed to
4 , 4 , 4 , 4 , v a v b u c u d = = = =
which is rectangle A having sides parallel to u and v axes.
2/ 3 1/ 3
x u v =
1/ 3 2/ 3
y u v =

1/ 3 1/ 3 2/ 3 2/ 3
2/ 3 2/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3
2 / 3 1/ 3
( , ) 4 1 1
( , ) 9 9 3
1/ 3 2 / 3
u v u v
x y
J
u v
u v u v

= = = =

Also
2/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 2/ 3
k xy ku v u v k uv = = =
Mass of plate
4 4
4 4
1
3
d b
v c u a
k uv du dv
= =
=

2 2 2 2
64
( ) ( )
3
k
b a d c =
We know that double integration is integration over an area in plane. So far we
have used Cartesian coordinates ( , ) x y for a plane area. However, in some
practical problems, it is convenient to use polar coordinates ( , ) r representing a
plane. You might already be knowing the relation between cartesian coordinates
( , ) x y and polar coordinates ( , ) r . We write
cos , sin x r y r = = (Figure 7.20)
Then
cos sin
( , )
sin cos ( , )
r
x y
J r
r r
= = =

and ( , ) ( cos , sin )
R G
f x y dx dy f r r r dr d =

Where G is the region in r-plane corresponding region R in xy-plane.

147

Line and Surface
Integrals

Figure 7.20
How the change of the cartesian coordinates to polar coordinates helps in solving
problems, is illustrated in the next example.
Example 7.16
Find the polar moment of inertia about the origin of a thin plane of density = 1
bounded by the quarter circle
2 2
1 x y + = in the first quadrant.
Solution
By definition, the polar moment of inertia about the origin is given by
2 2
0
( ) ,
R
I x y dx dy = +

where R is the quarter circle in the first quadrant (Figure 7.21).

Figure 7.21 : Region in XY-plane
Now, if we take
cos , sin , x r y r = =
the quarter circle in first quadrant is transformed to a rectangle G in r-plane as
shown in Figure 7.22, where 0 1, r
0 .
2

Figure 7.22 : Region in r-plane
Here
( , )
( , )
x y
J r
r
= =

148
Also
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
cos sin x y r r r + = + =

2 2 2
0
( )
R G
I x y dx dy r r dr d = + =

1
4
/ 2 1 / 2 / 2
3
0 0 0 0
0
1

4 4 8
r
r
r dr d d d
= =
= = = =

SAQ 5
(a) Find the volume under the plane 6 x y z + + = and above the triangle in
the xy-plane bounded by 2 3 , 0 x y y = = and x = 3.
(b) Find the mass of the plate between
3
y x = and
2
, x y = if density of plate is
2 2
( ). K x y = +

7.4 TRANSFORMATION OF DOUBLE INTEGRALS INTO
LINE INTEGRIALS GREENS THEOREM
We may transform double integrals over a plane region, under suitable condition, into
line integrals over the boundary of a region and conversely. This transformation is of
practical interest because it makes the evaluation of an integral easier. It also helps in the
theory whenever we want to switch from one type of integral to other.
This transformation can be done by means of a theorem known as Greens Theorem
which is due to English mathematician, George Green (1793-1841). We shall now state
this theorem.
Greens Theorem in a Plane
Let R be a closed bounded region in the xy- plane, where boundary C consists of
finitely many smooth curves. Let M (x, y) and N (x, y) be functions which are
continuous and have continuous partial derivatives
y
M
and
x
N
every where in
some domain containing R.
Then
( )
C
R
dx dy dx dy
x y

+ =

N M
M N . . . (7.22)
the integration being taken along the entire boundary C of R such that R is on the
left as one advances in the direction of integration.
We shall not be proving this theorem here as it is beyond the scope of this course.
Learner interested in knowing its proof may see Appendix-I. However, we shall
explain what this theorem means and illustrate it through examples, But, before
that we state the theorem in vector form.
Greens Theorem in Vector Form

149

Line and Surface
Integrals
Let

M N P = + + F i j k and

, x y = + r i j then
d M dr N dy = + F r
Also Curl

y z
M N P

= =

i j k
F F
x

y z z x x y

= + +

P N M P N M
i j k
The component of Curi F which is normal to a region R in the xy-plane is
( )
x y

N M
F k
Here, Greens Theorem in the plane can be written in the vector form as
(Curl ) ( )
C R R
d dx dy d = =

F r F k F A . . . (7.23)
where dA =

d dx dy A k = k is the vector normal to the region R in xy-plane and
is of magnitude . d dx dy = A
Greens Theorem states that the integral around C of the tangential component
of F is equal to the integral, over the region R bounded by C, of the component
of Curl F that is normal to R.
The integral over R is the flux of curl F through R.
We shall later, in Section 7.6, extend this result to more general curves and
surfaces in the form of a theorem known as Stokes Theorem.
There is second vector form of Greens theorem as follows :
Let

N M = F i j and let
= n Unit outward vector normal curve C

cos cos (90 ) = + +
i j

cos sin = i j

dy dx
ds ds
= i j
Thus

( )
dy dx
ds N M ds
ds ds

=

F n i j i j

dy dx
ds ds
ds ds
= + N M
. dx dy = + M N
Also
in plane in plane

(dis ) ( ) ( )
xy xy
M
x y

= = +

F F i j Ni j
=
x y

N M

Hence, Greens Theorem, which says

150
( )
C R
M dx N dy dx dy
x y

+ =

N M

gives us
C R
ds dx dy =

F n F . . . (7.24)
In other words, Greens theorem also states that the normal component of any
vector field F around the boundary of a region R, in which F is continuous
and has continuous partial derivatives, is equal to the double integral of
divergence of F over R.
In next section, we shall extend result (7.24) of three-dimensional vector fields and
call it a divergence theorem. We can thus say that Greens theorem in the plane is a
two dimensional from of the divergence theorem.
We now take up a few applications of Greens theorem and illustrate its importance.
Area of a Plane Region as a Line Integral Over the Boundary
From the Greens theorem, we have
+
R C
dx dy dx dy
x x

=

N M
M N . . . (7.25)
Let 0 = M and = x, N then, from Eq. (7.25), we get
R C
dx dy x dy =

. . . (7.26)
The integral on the left is the area A of the region R.
Next, let M = y, N = 0, then, from Eq. (7.25), we get

R C
A dx dy y dx = =

. . . (7.27)
Adding Eqs. (7.26) and (7.27), we get
1
( )
2
C
A x dy ydx =

where A is the area of region R enclosed by boundary C. Thus we have been able
to express the area of region R in terms of a line integral over the boundary. This
interesting formula has various applications, for example, the theory of certain plan
meters (instruments measuring area) is based upon this formula.
Area of a Plane Region in Polar Coordinates
Let r and be the polar coordinates. We define
cos , sin . x r y r = =
Then cos sin dx dr r d =
and sin cos dy dr r d = +
Eq. (7.28) reduces to
1
[ cos (sin cos ) sin sin ]
2
C
A r dr r d r dr r d = +

151

Line and Surface
Integrals
2
1
,
2
C
r d =

a formula which is well known in Calculus.
As an application of this formula (7.29), we consider the cordiod
(1 cos ) r a = where 0 2 (Figure 7.23)

Figure 7.23 : Cordiod r = a (1 cos )
We find
2 2
2 2
2 2
0 0
(1 cos ) (1 2cos cos )
2 2
a a
A d d = = +

2
2
0
1
1 2cos (cos 2 1)
2 2
a
d

= + +

2
3
2
a =
We now take up a few example to illustrate the use of Greens Theorem.
Example 7.17
Using Greens Theorem, evaluate the integral ( ),
C
y dx x dy +

where C is the
circumference of the circle
2 2
1 x y + = .
Solution
Here, , y = M x = N

2 2 2 2
Circle Circle
1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) (1 1)
C
x y x y
y dx x dy x y dx dy dx dy
x y
+ = + =

+ = = +

2 2
Circle
1
2 2 Area of Circle
x y
dx dy =
+ =
=

2
2 1 =
2 . =
Example 7.18
Use Greens Theorem in a plane to evaluate the integral
2 2 2 2
(2 ) ( ) ,
C
x y dx x y dy

+ + +

where C is the boundary of the surface in xy-plane enclosed by the x-axis and the
semicircle
2
1 . y x =

152
Solution
Here
2 2
2 , x y = + M
2 2
x y = + N
Using Greens Theorem
2 2 2 2
(2 ) ( )
C
x y dx x y dy

+ + +

R
dx dy
x y

=

N M

where R is semi-circle
2 2
1 x y + = bounded by a axis.
(2 2 )
R
x y dx dy =

2
1 1
1 0
(2 2 )
x
x y
x y dy dx
= =

=

Figure 7.24
(because semi-circle
2
1 y x = bounded by x-axis is given by
2
1 1, 0 1 x y x )
2
1 1 1
2 2 2
1 1 0
2 2 1 (1 )
x
x y
xy y dx x x x dx
= =

= = +

1
2 3/ 2 3
1
(1 ) 1 1 4
1 1
3
3 3 3 3
2
x x
x
= + = + + =
4
3
= in magnitude
SAQ 6
(a) Use Greens Theorem to evaluate
2 2 2
( ) ( ) ,
C
x xy dx x y dy

+ + +

where C is the boundary of the square 1, y = 1 x =

153

Line and Surface
Integrals
(b) Evaluate
2 2
( 2 ) ( 3)
C
x xy dx x y dy

+ +
around the boundary C of the

region
2
8 , 2. y x x = =

In Sections 7.3 and 7.4, we have been discussing integrals over plane areas. However,
there are many situations in which we may have to consider the areas, which may not lie
in a plane. For example, potential due to changes distributed on surfaces, center of
gravity of a curved lamina, area of the surface out form the bottom of the paraboloid
2 2
z x y = + by the plane 1, z = etc. This gives rise to the concept of surface integrals,
which we shall take up in the next section.
7.5 SURFACE INTEGRALS
The concept of a surface integral is a natural generalization of the concept of a double
integral considered is Section 7.3. There we integrate over a region in a plane and here
we integrate over a piecewise smooth surface in space.
The definition of a surface integral is parallel to that of a double integral. Here we
consider a portion S of a surface. We assume that S has finite area and is simple, i.e., S
has no points at which it intersects or touches itself. Let ( , , ) f x y z be a function which
is defined and continuous on S. We sub-divide S into n parts
1 2
, ,
n
S S S of areas
1 2
, , ,
n
A A A respectively. Let ( , , )
k k k
P x y z be an arbitrary point in each part
k
S .
Let us form the sum
1
( , , )
n
n k k k k
x
J f x y z A
=
=
. . . (7.30)
Now we let n tend to infinity in such a way that the largest part out of
1 2
, , ,
n
S S S
shrinks to a point. Then the infinite sequence
1 2
, , ,
n
J J J has a limit which is
independent of the choice of subdivisions and points .
k
P This limit is called the Surface
Integral of ( , , ) F x y z over S and is denoted by
( , , ) .
S
F x y z dS

Thus
1
( , , ) lim ( , , ) ,
n
k k k k
n
k
S
F x y z dS f x y z A
=
=
. . . (7.31)
provided the limit exists.
Evaluation of Surface Integral
To evaluate the surface integral
( , , ) ,
S
f x y z dS

we may reduce it to a double integral as follows :

154
A surface S can be represented in the parametric form as

( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) , u v x u v y u v z u v = + + r i j k . . . (7.32)
where u and v are two independent real variables, called parameters of the
representation.
Hence ( , ) u v r is the position vector of the points of S and its tip ranges over S as
( , ) u v varies in some region R in uv-plane (Figure 7.25).
To each
0 0
( , ) u v in R there corresponds a point of S with position vector
0 0
( , ) u v r . Hence, region R is the image of S in uv-plane. In order that surface
have certain geometric properties, we assume that ( , ) u v r is continuous and has
continuous first partial derivatives
u
u

=

r
r and
v
v

=

r
r in a domain of
uv-plane which includes the region R and R is simply connected and bounded.
From Eq. (7.32), we have = .
u v
d du dv + r r r

Figure 7.25 : Parametric Representation of a Surface
Thus, linear element of surface S is given by
2
ds = d d r r
( ) . ( )
u v u v
= du dv du dv + + r r r r

2 2
2 . ,
u u u v v v
= du du dv dv + + r r r r r r
=
2 2
2 , E du F du dv Gdv + + . . . (7.33)
which is quadratic differential from and is called the First Fundamental form of
S. Here ,
u u u v
E = r r F r r = and .
v v
G = r r
In the definition of surface integral, we are sub-dividing S into parts
1 2
, , . . . , ,
n
S S S Let A be the area corresponding to one of the parts in uv
plane. Then the smallest parallelogram in Figure 7.26 has area; (by the definition
of vector product).
,
u v u v
A u v u v = = r r r r . . . (7.34)
and it is called the element of area.

155

Line and Surface
Integrals

Figure 7.26 : Area
Hence, if R is the region corresponding to S in uv-plane, then
[ ] ( , , ) ( , ), ( , ), ( , )
S R
F x y z ds f x u v y u v z u v dA =

[ ] ( , , ) ( , ), ( , ), ( , )
u v
S R
F x y z ds f x u v y u v z u v du dv =

r r . . . (7.35)
where the right-hand side is now double integral over a plane area.
We know that

2
2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
u v u u v v u v
EG F + = r r r r r r r r . . . (7.36)
Thus we may also write
[ ]
2
( , , ) ( , ), ( , ), ( , )
S R
f x y z dS f x u v y u v z u v EG F du dv =

. . . (7.37)
If a surface S is given by
( , ), z g x y =
We may set , x u y v = = and then parametric representation of S can be written as

( , ) ( , ) u v u v g u v = + + r i j k
Thus

u u
g = + r i k and

v v
g = + r j k

2
1 ,
u
E g = + ,
u v
F g g =
2
1
v
G g = +
Hence
2 2 2
1
u v u v
EG F g g = = + + r r
Thus, if S is represented by ( , ), z g x y = then we have
[ ]
2
2
( , , ) , , ( , ) 1 ,
S R
g g
f x y z dS f x y g x y dx dy
x y

= + +

. . . (7.38)
where R is now the image of S in xy-plane.
We can also write the surface integral (7.38) in terms of the normal to the surface,
S as follows.
Suppose that F represents normal to the surface , ( , , ) S x y z C = F (constant).
Let region area A be the projection of surface S on a plane. Let n be a normal to
the region A and be the angle between the normal to the surface ( ) F and
normal to its projection ( ) n .
Then cos = F n F n

156
or
1
cos

= =

F n F
F n F n

Also if S is an element of surface S surrounding arbitrary point on S and A is
its projection on the planes, then
cos S A =

1
cos
S A =

A
S

=

F
F n

Hence the surface integral can be written in terms of double integral as
[ ] ( , , ) ( , ), ( , ), ( , )
S S
f x y z dS f x u v y u v z u v dA
= =

F
F n

Let us now take up example from various physical situations to illustrate the evaluation
of surface integrals.
Example 7.19
Find the moment of inertia I of a homogeneous spherical lamina
2 2 2 2
: S x y z a + + =
of mass M and z-axis.
Solution
Let a mass of density ( , , ) x y z be distributed over the surface S, then moment of
inertia I. of the mass with respect to a given axis L is defined by the surface
integral
2
,
S
I D ds =

where D is the distance of the point ( , , ) x y z from axis L.
Since in our case, spherical lamina is homogeneous, thus is constant. Also area
of sphere
2
4 . S a =
Here = mass per Unit Area

2
4 a
=
M

The parametric representation of the sphere
2 2 2 2
x y z a + + = is
( , )

cos cos cos sin sin
u v
a u v a u v a u = + + r i j k

sin cos sin sin sin
u
a u v a u v a u = + r i j k

cos sin cos cos
v
a u v a u v = + r i j

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
sin cos sin sin cos
u v
= a u v a u v a u a = + + = E r r
2 2
sin cos sin sin sin cos cos 0
u v
= a u v v a u v u v = = F r r

157

Line and Surface
Integrals
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
cos sin cos cos cos
v v
= a u v a u v a u = + = G r r
If area A is the image of surface S in uv-plane, then
u v
dA du dv = r r

2
EG F du dv =
2 2 2
cos 0 a u a du dv =

2
cos a u du dv =
Further, the square of the distance of a point ( , , ) x y z from z-axis is
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
cos cos cos sin cos D x y a u v a u v a u = + = + =
Hence, we obtain
2 2 2
2
( , ) ( , )
4
S r
M
D ds x u v y u v dA
a

= +

/ 2 2
2 2 2
2
/ 2 0
( cos ) cos
4
u u
M
a u a u du dv
a
= =
=

4 2
/ 2 / 2
2
3 3
0 2
/ 2 0
cos 2 cos
2
4
M a M a
u v du u du
a
= =

2 2
2 2
2
2 3 3
M a M a
= =
Let us now take up an example from geometry.
Example 7.20
Find the area of the surface out from the bottom of the paraboloid
2 2
z x y = + by
the plane 1 z = .

Figure 7.27 : Area of Parabolic Surface
Solution
The projection of the area of the surface of paraboloid
2 2
z x y = + out from the
bottom by the plane 1 z = on xy-plane is the disk
2 2
1 x y +
Now surface area

158
S
dS =

2 2
1
xy
x y
R
g g dx dy = + +

2 2
2 2
1
4 4 1
x y
x y dx dy
+
= + +

2 2
Hence, ( , ) z g x y
x y
=

= +

Let cos , x = r cos y = r
Then for
2 2
1, 0 1 x y r + and 0 2
Required surface area
2 1
2
0 0
4 1 r r dr d

= +

1
2 3/ 2 3/ 2
2 2
0 0
0
1 (4 1) (5 1)

3
8 12
2
r
r
d d
=
+
= =

(5 5 1)
6
=
SAQ 7
(a) The electrostatic potential at (0, 0, ) a of a charge of constant density
on hemisphere
2 2 2 2
: , S x y z a + + = 0 z is
2 2 2
( )
dS
x y z a
=
+ + +

U
Evaluate U .
(b) Find the area of the upper cap cut from the sphere
2 2 2
2 x y z + + = by the
cylinder
2 2
1 x y + = (Figure 7.28)
(Hint : Take surface as
2 2
2 , z x y = its projection on xy-plane as
disk :
2 2
1 x y + and use polar coordinates to evaluate double
integral.)

Figure 7.28

159

Line and Surface
Integrals
In Section 7.4, we had shown that double integrals over a plane region can be
transformed into line integrals over the boundary curve of the region. We shall generalize
this result and we shall now also consider the corresponding problem in the case of a
surface integral in the next section.
7.6 TRANSFORMATION OF SURFACE INTEGRAL INTO
LINE INTEGRALS STOKES THEORM
Transformation of surface integrals into line integrals and conversely is done with the
help of a theorem known as Stokes theorem, given by Gorge Gabriel Stokes
(1819-1903), an Irish mathematician and physicist, who made important contribution to
the theory of infinite series and several branches of theoretical physics. Stokes theorem is
an extension of Greens theorem in vector from to surfaces and curves in three
dimensions. Under suitable restrictions
(i) on the vector F,
(ii) on the boundary curve C, and
(iii) on the surface S boundary by C.
Stokes theorem connects line integral to a surface integral.
Stokes Theorem, we require that the surface S is orientable. By orient able, we mean
that it is possible to consistently assign a unique direction, called positive, at each point
of S, and that there exists a unit normal n pointing in this direction. As we move about
over the surface S without touching its boundary, the direction cosines of the unit vector
n should vary continuously and when we return to the straight position, n should return
to its initial direction.
We now state stokes theorem.
Stokes Theorem
Let S be a piecewise smooth oriented surface in space and let the boundary of S be
a piecewise smooth simple closed curve C. Let ( , , ) x y z F be a continuous vector
function which has continuous first partial derivatives in a domain in space which
contains S. Then
(Curl )
S C
dS d =

F F r
,
C
d =
t
F r . . . (7.39)
where , dS dS = n where n is a unit normal vector of S, so that (Curl F). n is the
component of Curl F in the direction of n ; the integration around C is taken in the
direction of integration on S and
t
F is the component of F in the direction of the
tangent vector of C.
If we represent curve C in the form ( ), s = r r where the arc-lengths increases in the
direction of the direction of integration, then unit tangent vector is

,
dr dx dy dz
ds ds ds ds
= + + i j k
and, therefore, if
1 2 3

, F F F = + + F i J k
then
1 3 3
dr dx dy dz
F F F
ds ds ds ds
= = + +
t
F F

160
Thus
1 3 3
d dx dy dz
ds F F F
ds ds ds ds
= = + +
t
r
F F
Let

cos cos cos = + + n i j k be the outward unit normal vector of S.
If we use the representation of Curl in terms of right-handed Cartesian coordinates,
then formula (7.39) in Stokes Theorem may be written as
3 3 2 1 2 1
cos cos cos
S
F F F F F F
dS
y z z x x y

+ +

1 2 3
,
C
F dx F dy F dz = + +

. . . (7.40)
where , , are direction cosines of unit normal n to surface S.
We shall not prove this theorem here. Learner interested in knowing the proof of
the theorem may refer to Appendix-II.
There are many consequences and applications of Stokes theorem. We shall,
however, take up a few of these consequences and applications.
Consequences and Applications of Stokes Theorem
(a) Greens Theorem in the Plane as a Special Case of Stokes Theorem
Let

M N = + F i j be a vector function, which is continuously
differentiable in a domain in the xy-plane. Let xy-plane contain a simply
connected closed region S whose bounding C is a piece-wise simple smooth
curve. Then
k is the direction of unit outward normal to S.
(Curl ) (Curl ) (Curl ) =

n

= =

N M
F F n F k
x y

Further more, .
t
F ds dx dy = + M N
Now formula (7.39) of Stokes theorem yields
(Curl )
n t
S C
ds ds =

F F
Using above values in this case, we get
( ),
S C
dx dy dx dy
y

= +

N M
M N
x

which is in agreement with the result of the Greens theorem in the plane
(refer Section 7.4).
This shows that Greens theorem in the plane is a special case of Stokes
theorem.
(b) Physical Interpretation of the Curl
Stokes theorem provides a physical interpretation of the Curl.
Let us first define the term Circulation.
Let ( , , ) x y z V be a continuous differentiable vector function in a domain
containing a surface S, bounded by a closed curve C. If V be the velocity
field of a moving fluid of density , then the integral
C
d
ds
ds

r
V or
C
ds

t
V

161

Line and Surface
Integrals
measures the extent to which the corresponding fluid motion is a rotation
around the contour C and is called the circulation.
By Stokes theorem, circulation is also equal to the flux of curl ( ) V
through a surface S spanning C. Thus
( ) ( ) Curl ( )
C C
S
d
ds ds ds
ds
= =

t
r
V V V n . . . (7.41)
Next, let us fix a point P and a direction u at P. Let C be a circle of radius ,
with center at P, whose plane is normal to u. If curl ( ) V is continuous at
P, then (by mean value theorem for surface and double integrals) the
average value of u component of curl ( ) V at P as 0,
i.e., [ ]
2
0
1
Curl ( ) lim Curl ( )
P
S
ds
=

V u V u . . . (7.42)

Figure 7.29 : Intercept of Curl
Now in our case, the plane of curve C is normal to u, area of
2
, S A = =
say so that . dS dA = Let . = F V
Thus, form Eqs. (7.41) and (7.42), we get
[ ]
0
1
Curl ( ) lim Curl
n
S
P dA
A
=

F F n

0
1
lim
t
C
ds
A
=

F
i.e., the component of the curl in the positive normal direction can be
regarded as the specific circulation (circulation per unit area) of the flow in
the surface at the corresponding point.
(c) Evaluation of Line Integral by Stokes Theorem
You may notice that evaluation of line integral by Stokes theorem leads to a
lot of simplification in many problems.
Let us evaluate ,
t
C
ds
F where C is the circle

2 2
4, 3 x y z + = =
oriented in the counterclockwise sense as viewed from the origin and with
respect to right-handed coordinates, and
3 3

. y xz zy = + F i j k
We can take the plane circular disk
2 2
4 x y + in the plane 3 z = as a
surface S bounded by C. Then n in the Stokes theorem point in the positive
z-direction, so that
n = k.
Hence, (Curl )
n
F is simply the component of Curl F in the
k direction.
Now F with 3 z = has the components
1 2
, 27 F y F x = = and
3
3
3 . F y = Thus,

162
2 1
(Curl ) (Curl ) 27 1 28
n k
F F
x y

= = = =

F F
Hence, integral over S in Stokes theorem equals 28 times the area of the
disk S, which is 4.
Thus, 28 4 112 352
t
C
F ds = =

You will appreciate the simplification due to Stokes theorem in this case.
The computations will be long and difficult if you evaluate the given line
integral directly, starting from parametric representation of C, calculating
unit tangent vector
t of curve C in the direction of integration, finding
t
F = F t and then integrating will respect to arc length s of C.
It should be remembered that for Stokes theorem, the surface S is
assumed to be an open surface. The significance of the statement will
become clear from the following result.
(d) Curl
C
dS

F will be Zero Over any Closed Surface S
Since is any closed surface, we cut open the surface S by a plane and let
1
S and
2
S denote the lower and upper positions of S. Let C denote the
common bounding curve for both these positions. Then,
1 2
Curl Curl Curl
C S S
dS dS dS = +

F F F . . . (7.43)
It may be noted that the normal to lower portion
1
S and the normal to upper
portion
2
S will be in opposite senses so that the direction of integration
about
1
S is reverse of the direction of integration about
2
S .
Using Stokes theorem and result (7.43) above, we get
Curl 0
C C
S
d d d = + =

F S F S F r
1
(due to surface ) S
2
(due to surface ) S
which proves the required result.
Let now we take up some example to illustrate the use of Stokes theorem in numerical
problems.
Example 7.21
Let S be the portion of the paraboloid
2 2
4 z x y = that lies above the plane
0. z =
Let C be their bounding curve of intersection. If

( ) ( ) ( ) , z y z x x y = + + + F i j k
verify Stokes theorem.
Solution
The curve C is the circle
2 2
4 x y + = in the xy-plane C, where 0 z = and

dr dx dy = + i j, we have
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 d z y dx z x dy x y = + + + F r

163

Line and Surface
Integrals
, y dx x dy = + on C
Now, ( )
C C
dr ydx xdy = +

F
on C, 2cos , 2sin , 0 2 x y = =
2
0
[ 2sin ( 2sin ) (2cos ) (2cos )]
C
dr d d = +

F

2
0
4 8 d = =

Now for surface integral, we have

Curl 2 2 2
( )
x y z
y z x x y

= = + +

+ +
i j k
F i j k
z

For the positive unit normal on the surface
2 2
: ( , , ) 4 0 S f x y z z x y = + + =
we take
2 2

2 2
4 4y 1
gradf x y
gradf
+ +
= =
+ +
i j k
n
x

The projection on S on xy-plane is the region
2 2
4 x y + and for the element of
surface area dS, we take
2
2
2 2
1 4 4 1
z z
dS dx dy x y dx dy
x y

= + + = + +

Thus, Curl
S
F ndS
2 2
2 2
2 2
4

2 2

( 2 2 2 ) 4 4y 1
4 4y 1
.
x y
x x
dx dy
+

+ +

= + + + +

+ +

i j k
i j k x
x

2 2
4
( 4 4 2)
x y
x y dx dy
+
= + +

2 2
4
2
x y
dx dy
+
=

(Since odd power of x or y integrate to zero over the interior of the circle)

2 2
4
2
x y
dx dy
+
=

= 2 area of circle
2 2
4 x y +

2
2 2 8 = =
Hence, Stokes theorem in verified.

164
You may now attempt a few exercises.
SAQ 8
(a) Verify Stokes theorem for the function
2

x xy = F i j
integrated round the square in the plane 0 z = and bounded by the lines
0, 0, x y x a = = = and . y a =
(b) A fluid of constant density rotates round the zaxis with velocity

( ), w x y = V j i where w is a positive constant. If , = F V find curl F
and show its relation to specific circulation.
(c) Let n be the outer normal of the elliptical shell
2 2 2
: 4 9 36 36, 0 S x y z z + + =
and let
2 2 2 3/ 2

( ) sin ( ) .
xyz
y x x y e = + + + F i j k
Use Stokes theorem to find the value of
(Curl )
S
ds
F n
(d) Let S be the region bounded by the ellipse
2 2
: 4 4 C x y + = in the plane z =1
and let
= n k and
2 2

2 . x x z = + + F i j k
Use Stokes theorem to find the value of .
C
d

F r

7.7 TRIPLE INTEGRALS
In section 7.1, the concept of a line integral was introduced. Section 7.2 was devoted to
the properties and evaluation of double integrals, in which the integrand is a function of
two variables. A natural generalization of double integrals was provided in Section 7.5 in
terms of surface integrals, where though the integrand may be a function of three
variable, but it is defined on a surface only and it is still evaluated as a double integral.
However, there are many physical and geometrical situations, where the integrand may
be a function defined in a region in space and integration may have to be carried out with
respect to all the three variables involved. This gives rise to triple integrals. A triple
integral is again a generalization of double integral (introduced in Section 7.2).
7.7.1 Definition
For defining a triple integral, consider a function ( , , ) f x y z defined on a bounded region
R in space (such as a solid cube, a ball, a truncated cone or the space between two
concentric spheres). We subdivide the region R into rectangular cells by planes parallel to
the three coordinate planes. The parallelopiped cells may have the dimensions of , x
y and . z We number the cells inside R in same order
1 2
, , . . . ,
n
V V V

165

Line and Surface
Integrals

Figure 7.30 : Partitioning a Solid with Rectangular Cells of Volume V
In each such parallelopiped cell, we choose an arbitrary point, say, ( , , )
k k k
x y z in the
th
k parallelopiped cell, and form the sum
1
( , , ) ,
n
n k k k k
k
S f x y z V
=
=
. . . (7.43)
where
k
V is the volume of
th
k cell.
We now arbitrarily do this for larger and larger positive integer n so that the lengths of
the edges of the largest parallelopiped of subdivision approaches zero as n approaches
infinity. In this way, we obtain a sequence of real numbers
1 2
, , . . .
n n
S S If we assume
that ( , , ) f x y z is continuous in a domain containing R and R is bounded by finitely
many smooth curves, then as , , x y z all approach zero with n approaching infinity,
the sum
n
S will approach a limit [independent of choice of subdivisions corresponding
points ( , , )
k k k
x y z ]
Lt ( , , ) ,
n
n
R
S f x y z dV
=

. . . (7.44)
which is called the triple integral of ( , , ) f x y z over the region R.
It may be mentioned that the limit in Eq. (7.44) may exist for some discontinuous
functions also.
7.7.2 Properties of Triple Integrals
Triple integrals share may algebric properties with double and single integrals. Writing F
for ( , , ) F x y z and G for ( , , ), G x y z some of the properties of triple integrals are
(i)
R R
K F dV K F dV =

(any constant)
(ii) ( )
R R R
F G dV F dV GdV =

(iii) 0
R
F dV

if 0 F in R
(iv)
R R
F dV GdV

if F G in R
The triple integrals have the above properties because the sums that approximate them
have these properties.
Triple integrals also have a domain additivity property that proves useful in physics,
mathematics as well as in engineering. If the domain R of a continuous function F be
partitioned by smooth surfaces into a finite number of regions
1 2
, , . . . ,
n
R R R in space,
then
1 2
. . .
n
R R R R
F dV F dV F dV F dV = + + +

166
7.7.3 Volume
If ( , , ) 1 f x y z = is the constant function whose value is one, then the sums in Eq. (7.43)
reduce to
1 1
1
n n
n k k
k k
S V V
= =
= =

. . . (7.45)
As , x y and z all approach zero, the cells
k
V become smaller and smaller and
more numerous and fill up more of R. We, therefore, define the volume of R to the triple
integral of constant function ( , , ) 1 f x y z = over R. Hence,
Volume of
8
1
n
k
n
k
R
R Lt V dV
=
= =

. . . (7.46)
The triple integral is seldom evaluated directly from its definition as the limit of a sum.
Instead, one applies a three-dimensional version to evaluate the integral by repeated
single integrations. This method is explained below.
7.7.4 Evaluation of Triple Integrals
To express the triple integral as a repeated integral we divide the region R into
elementary cuboids by planes parallel to the three coordinate planes. The Volume R may
then be considered as the sum of vertical columns extending from the lower surface of R,
say
1
( , ) z z x y = to its upper surface
2
( , ) z z x y = The bases of these columns are the
elementary area ,
r
A which cover a certain region A in the xy-plane when all the
columns in R are taken.

Figure 7.31 : Evaluation of Triple Integral
Thus, if we take the sum over the elementary cuboids in the same vertical column first,
and then take the sum for all the columns in R, we can write Eq. (7.43) as
( , , )
k k k r
r k
f x y z z A

where ( , , )
k k k
x y z is a point in the
th
k cuboid above the
th
r elementary area .
r
A
Taking the limit when the dimensions of
r
A and z tend to zero, the above sum yields
2
1
( , )
( , )
( , , )
z x y
z x y
R
f x y z dz dA

. . . (7.47)

167

Line and Surface
Integrals
Now integration with respect to z is performed first, keeping x and y constant. The
remaining integration is performed as for the double integral. Therefore, if A is bounded
by the curves
1 2
( ), ( ), , , y y x y y x x a x b = = = =
then triple integral in equation (7.5) may be written as
2 2
1 1
( ) ( , )
( ) ( , )
( , , ) ,
b y x z x y
a y x z x y
f x y z dz dy dx

where the three integrations are performed in order from the innermost to be outermost. It
should, however, be noted that the region A is the projection in the xy-plane of the
bounding surface of the volume bounded by R.
In case the lateral surface of the system reduces to zero, as in Figure 7.32, we may find
the boundary of A by eliminating z between the two equations
1
( , ) z f x y = and
2
( , ). z f x y =

Figure 7.32 : Lateral Surface Reduces to Zero
This gives
1 2
( , ) ( , ) f x y f x y =
an equation that contains no z and that defines the boundary of A in the xy-plane.
To obtain the z-limits of integration in any particular instance, we may use a procedures
as follows :
We imagine a line L through a point (x, y) in area A and parellel to z-axis. As z increase,
the line enters R at
1
( , ) z f x y = and leaves R at
2
( , ). z f x y = These give the lower and
upper limits of the integration with respect to z. The result of this integration is a function
of x and y alone, which we can integrate supplying the limits as in double integrals.
Let us take up an example to illustrate the evaluation of triple integrals.
Example 7.22
Find the volume enclosed between the two surface
2 2
3 z x y = + and
2 2
8 z x y =
Solution
The given two surfaces intersect on the elliptic cylinder
2 2 2 2
3 8 x y x y + =

2 2
2 4 x y + =
The volume projects into the area A (in the xy-plane) that is enclosed by the ellipse
having the same equation. In the double integrals with respect to y and x over. A, if

168
we integrate with respect to y, holding x fixed, then y varies from
2
(4 )
2
x
to
2
(4 )
2
x
+ .
Then x varies form 2 to 2. Thus, we have
2
2 2
2 2 2
(4 )
2 8
2
2 3 (4 )
2
x
x y
x z x y x
y
V dz dy dx
+

= = +
=
=

2
2
(4 )
2
2 2
2
2 (4 )
2
(8 2 4 )
x
x x
y
x y dy dx
+
=
=
=

3/ 2
2
2 2
2
2
4 8
4
2(8 2 )
2 3
2
x
x
x
dx
x
=

2
2 3/ 2
2
4 2
(4 ) 8 2
3
x dx
= =

You will recall that there are sometimes two different orders in which the single
integrations, that evaluate a double integrals, may be worked (refer
Sub-section 7.3.4). For triple integrals there are sometimes (but not always) as
many as six workable orders of integration. We consider an extreme case in which
all six orders are possible.
The volume of solid shown in Figure 7.33 (a prism) is given by each of the
following six integrals :
(a)
1 1 2
0 0 0
x
dx dy dz

(b)
2 1 2
0 0 0
y
dx dz dy

(c)
1 1 1
0 0 0
z
dy dz dx

(d)
1 2 1
0 0 0
z
dy dx dz

(e)
1 2 1
0 0 0
y
dz dxdy

(f)
2 1 1
0 0 0
y
dz dy dz

Figure 7.33 : Volume of Prism

169

Line and Surface
Integrals
7.7.5 Physical Applications in Three Dimensions
The triple integrals find various physical applications in three dimensions. It can be used
to find the mass of any object having variable density, its first moments about the
coordinate planes, the center of mass, the moments of inertia, the radius of gyration about
any line, etc.
If ( , , ) ( , , ) f x y z x y z = is the density of an object occupying a region R in space, then
some useful formulae are summarized as follows :
Mass .
R
m dV =

( = density)
First moments about coordinate planes :
,
yz
R
M x dV =

,
zx
R
M y dV =

xy
R
M z dV =

Centre of mass :

, ,
x dV y dV z dV
x y z
m m m
= = =

Moments of Inertia (second moments) :
2 2
( ) ,
x
I y z dV = +

2 2
( ) ,
y
I z x dV = +

2 2
( ) ,
z
I x y dV = +

2
,
L
I r dV =

where ( , , ) r x y z = distance from point (x, y, z) to line L.
Radius of gyration about a line : .
L
I
L R
m

=

We now take up an example to illustrate the physical applications of triple integrals.
Example 7.23
Find the center of gravity of a solid of uniform density bounded below by the
disc
2 2
: 4 R x y + in the plane 0 z = and above by the paraboloid
2 2
4 . z x y =
Solution
The solid is shown in Figure 7.34.

170

Figure 7.34
By symmetry 0 . x y = = To Find z we calculate
2 2
4
0

z x y
xy
z
R
M z dz dy dx
=
=
=

2 2
4
2
0

2
x y
R
z
dy dx

=

2 2 2
(4 )
2
R
x y dy dx =

2 2
2 2
0 0
(4 )
2
r
r r dr d
= =
=

(in polar coordinates)
2
2
2 3
0
0
1
(4 )
2 6
r
d r
=
=
=

2
0
16

3
d =

32
3
=
A similar calculation gives
2 2
4
0
8
x y
z
R
m dz dy dx

=
= =

4
3
xy
M
z
m
= =
Thus, the center of gravity of the given solid is
4
( , , ) (0, 0, )
3
x y z =
You may now attempt the following exercises.
SAQ 9
(a) Find the center of gravity of the volume cut off from the cylinder
2 2
2 0 x y ax + = by the planes z mx = and . z nx =

171

Line and Surface
Integrals
(b) Evaluate
0 0 0
a x x y
x y z
e dz dy dx
+
+ +

and state precisely what is the region
of integration.
(c) Find the mass of a solid in the form of the positive octant of the sphere
2 2 2 2
, x y z a + + = if the density at any point is k xyz.

We shall now show that the triple integral of the divergence of a vector function u over a
region R in space, under certain conditions, can be transformed into a surface integral of
the normal component of u over the boundry S of R. This can be done by means of the
Divergence Theorem, which is the three dimensional analog of the Greens
Theorem in the plane considered in Section 7.4. The divergence theorem is of basic
importance in various theoretical and practical considerations.
7.8 TRANSFORMATION OF VOLUME INTEGRALS INTO
SURFACE INTEGRALS AND CONVERSELY
7.8.1 Gauss Divergence Theorem
Statement
Let R be a closed bounded region in space whose boundary is a piece-wise smooth
orient able surface S. Let u (x, y, z) be a vector function, which is continuous and
has continuous first partial derivatives in some domain containing R. Then
div .
n
R R
dV u dS =

u . . . (7.48)
where
n
u = u n is the component of u is the direction of the outward normal of S
with respect of R and n is the outer unit normal vector of S.
If we write u and n in terms of components, say,
1 2 3

u u u + + u = i j k and

cos cos cos = + + n i j k
where , and are the angles between n and the positive directions of x, y and z axes,
respectively, then Eq. (7.48) takes the form

3 1 2
1 2 3
( cos cos cos )
R S
u u u
dxdy dz u u u dS
x y z

+ + + +

. . . (7.49)
Since S is an orient able surface, then, by definition, this means
1 1
cos
S S
u dS u dy dz =

. . . (7.49a)
2 2
cos
S S
u dS u dz dx =

. . . (7.49b)
3 3
cos
S S
u dS u dx dy =

. . . (7.49c)
Then relation (7.48), with the help of relations (7.49a, b, c), may be written as

172
3 1 2
1 2 3
( )
R S
u u u
dx dy dz u dy dz u dz dx u dx dy
x dy dz

+ + = + +

. . . (7.50)
It is clear that relation (7.48) is true, if the following three relations hold simultaneously :
1
1
R S
u
dx dy dz u dy dz
x

. . . (7.51)
2
2
R S
u
dx dy dz u dz dx
y

. . . (7.52)
3
3
R S
u
dx dy dz u dx dy
z

. . . (7.53)
For Divergence Theorem, either the either the region R in space is some convex region
with no holes (such as the interior of a sphere, or a cube, or an ellipsoid) or R is bounded
by a piecewise smooth orient able surface S. In the later case, region R has the property
that any straight line parallel to any one of the coordinate axes and intersecting R has at
most one segment (or a single point) in common with R. This implies that R can be
represented in the form
( , ) ( , ), f x y z h x y
where (x, y) varies in the orthogonal projection of R in the xy-plane.
It may be added that the divergence theorem is also true for region R which can be
subdivided into finitely many regions of the type discussed above by means of auxiliary
surfaces. It will be seen that the surface integral over the auxiliary surfaces cancel in
pairs, and the sum of the remaining surface integrals is the surface integral over the
whole boundary S of R.
The proof of Divergence Theorem is given in Appendix-III and those interested in proof
may look up the Appendix-III.
We shall now take an example to evaluate a surface integral by the divergence theorem.
Example 7.24
Evaluate
3 2 2
( )
S
I x dy dz x y dz dx x z dx dy = + +

Where S is the closed surface consisting of the cylinder
2 2 2
(0 ) x y a z b + =
and the circular disks 0 z = and
2 2 2
( ). z x y a = +
Solution
If we compare the given surface integral with the right-hand side of relation (7.50)
above for divergence theorem,
3 2 2
1 2 3
, , u x u x y u x z = = =
Hence, if we use the symmetry of the region R bounded by S, the volume integral
in relation (7.50) assumes the form
2 2
2 2 2 2
0 0 0
(3 ) 4.5
b a a y
z y x
R
x x x dx dy dz x dx dy dz
= = =
+ + =

173

Line and Surface
Integrals
Thus
2 2
2
0 0 0
20
b a a y
z y x
I x dxdy dz
= = =
=

2 2 3/ 2
0 0
( )
20
3
b a
z y
a y
dy dz
= =

=

Let cos y a t =
sin dy a t dt =
where 0,
2
y t

= =
Where , 0 y a t = =
2 2 2 2
sin a y a t =

0
2 2 3/ 2 3 3 4
0 / 2
3
( ) sin . sin
16
a
a y dy a t a t dt a = =

4 4
0
5
20
16 4
b
I a dz a b = =

We take up another example wherein we shall verify the divergence theorem.
Example 7.25
Verify divergence theorem for the region
2 2 2
1 4 x y z + +
if
2 2 2

,
x y z
F x y z
+ +
= = + +
i j k

Solution
Here
x
x

And
2
3 3 4
3 5
1 3
( ) 3

x
x x
x x

= =

The given region can be expressed as 1 2, (annular region between two
spheres).
Thus, throughout the region 1 2, all functions considered are continuous.
Also
2 2 2
3 5 3 3
3 3 3 3
div ( ) 0

F x y z = + + + = + =
Thus div 0
R
F dV =

. . . (7.54)
On the outer sphere ( 2), = the unit normal is

x y z + +
=
i j k
n

2 2 2
4 2
1

x y z
dS dS dS
+ +
= = F n
Hence
2
2
2
2 2 2
1 1 1
4 |
4 4
dS dS dS
=
= = =
= = =

F n
2
2
| 4
=
= = . . . (7.55)
On the inner sphere ( 1), = the positive unit normal points towards the origin and
it is given by

174

( )
x y z + +
=
i j k
n
Hence
2 2 2
4 2
1

x y z
dS dS
+ +
= = F n
Thus
2
1
2
1 1
1
4 | 4
dS dS
=
= =
= = =

F n . . . (7.56)
The sum of Eqs. (7.55) and (7.56) is the surface integral over the complete
boundary of the given region, which is
4 4 0, + =
which agrees with Eq. (7.54) and this verifies the divergence theorem.
You may now attempt the following exercises.
SAQ 10
(a) Verify divergence theorem for the sphere
2 2 2 2
x y z a + + =
if

x y z = + + F i j k
(b) Use divergence theorem to evaluate the surface integral ,
S
dS

F where
2 2

4 2 x y z = + F i j k and S is the surface bounding of the region
2 2
4, 0 x y z + = = and 3. z =

There is many important consequences and various applications of divergence theorem,
some of which we shall take up next.
7.8.2 Consequences and Applications of Divergence Theorem
The Gausss Divergence Theorem enables us to express a normal surface integral as a
volume integral. We shall now see that with the help of this theorem, we are able to
express the other two types of surface integral as volume integral, i.e., we shall show that
Curl
S S R
n dS dS dV = =

F F F . . . (7.57)
and ,
S S R
dS dS dV = =

n . . . (7.58)
where S is the surface bounding a region R in space, satisfying the conditions of
divergence theorem. We write
, f a F =
Where a is a constant vector and apply divergence theorem to the vector function f. Thus,
we have

175

Line and Surface
Integrals
( ) div ( )
S R
dS dV =

a F n a F . . . (7.59)
But ( ) = a F n a F n . . . (7.60)
And div ( ) ( ) a = = a F a F F . . . (7.61)
From Equs. (7.59), (7.60) and (7.61), we get
.
S R
dS dV =

a F n a F

S R
dS dV =

a F n a F
0
S R
dS dV

+ =

a F n F . . . (7.62)
Since a is an arbitrary vector, thus Eq. (7.62) yields
0
S R
dS dV + =

F n F
Curl
S S
dS dV =

F n F
Thus we have proved Eq. (7.57)
To prove Eq. (7.58), let us write
= f a
where a is a constant vector and is a scalar function. Applying Gausss theorem to f,
we have
div
S S
dS dV =

f n f
div ( ) . ( )
S R R
dS dV dV = =

a n a a
. .
S R
dS dV =

a n a
. 0
S R
dS dV

=

a n
Since vector a is arbitrary, thus we obtain
0
S R
dS dV =

n
,
S R
dS dV =

n
which is Eq. (7.58).
7.8.3 Integral Definitions of Gradient, Divergence and Curl
With the help of the results obtained above, we can state the following integral
expressions for group , div F and Curl F. Let S be closed surface bounding a volume V

176
in space, be a scalar function and F be a vector function defined at every point of V.
Then we have
0
grad ,
S
V
dS
Lt
V
=

0
div ,
S
V
dS
Lt
V
=

F
F
and
0
Curl
S
V
dS
Lt
V
=

F
F
These expressions are often adopted as definitions of the differential operations. It
becomes particularly simple to prove the divergence and Stokes theorem starting from
these definitions.
7.8.4 Physical Interpretation of Divergence Theorem
We consider the steady flow of an incompressible fluid of constant density 1. = Such a
flow is determined by the field of its velocity vector q. Let S be any closed surface drawn
in the fluid, which is enclosing a volume V. By Gausss Divergence Theorem,
div
S V
dS dV =

q n q . . . (7.63)
Now q n is the component of the velocity at any point of S in the direction of the
outward drawn normal. Thus q n dS denotes the amount of the fluid that flows out in
unit time through the element . S Hence, the left hand side of Eq. (7.63) denotes the
amount of fluid flowing across the surface S in unit time from the inside to the outside.
This amount may be positive, negative of zero.
Now the total amount flowing outwards must be continuously supplied so that inside the
region we must have sources producing fluid. We know that div q at any point denotes
the amount of fluid per unit time per unit volume that goes through any point. Thus, div q
may be through of as the source-intensity of the incompressible fluid at any point. P.
Hence, the right-hand side of Eq. (7.63) denotes the amount of fluid per unit time
supplied by the source within S. Thus the equality in Eq. (7.63) appears intuitively
evident.
We know that in body heat flows in the direction of decreasing temperature. Physical
experiments show that the rate of flow is proportional to the gradient of the temperature.
This means that the velocity q of the heat flow in a body is of the form
grad q k U = . . . (7.64)
where U (x, y, z) is the temperature, t is the time and k is called the thermal conductivity
of the body in ordinary physical circumstances k is a constant. Using this information
and Gausss divergence theorem, we now set up the mathematical model of heat flow, the
so called heat-equation.
7.8.5 Modeling of Heat Flow
Let R be a region in the body and let S be its bounding surface. Then the heat leaving R
per unit time is
,
n
S
q dS

177

Line and Surface
Integrals
where,
n
q = q n is the component of q in the direction of the outward unit normal
vector of S. From the Eq. (7.64) and the divergence theorem, we obtain
2
div (grad )
n
S R R
q dS k U dx dy dz k U dx dy dz = =

. . . (7.65)
On the other hand, the total amount of heat H in R is
.
R
U
H dxdy dz
t

=

where the constant is the specific heat of the material of the body and is the density
(mass per unit volume) of the material. Hence, the time rate of decrease of H is
.
R
H U
dx dy dz
t t

=

This rate of decrease of total heat must be equal to the above amount of heat leaving R.
Thus from equation (7.65) we have
2
.
R R
U
dx dy dz k U dx dy dz
t

2
0.
R
U
dx dy dz k U
t

=

Since this holds for any region R in the body, thus the integrand (if continuous) must be
zero everywhere, i.e.,
2
0
U
k U
t

2 2
,
U
c U
t
where
2
k
c =
The above partial differential equation is called the heat-equation and it is fundamental
for heat conduction.
We next take up a basic consequence of divergence theorem, known as Greens theorem.
7.8.6 Greens Theorem and Greens Formula
Let f and g be scalar functions such that u = f grad g satisfies the assumptions of the
divergence theorem in some region R. Then
2
div div( grad ) grad grad . f g f g f g = = + u
Also ( grad ) ( grad ) f g f g = = u n n n
The expression grad g n is the directional derivative of g in the direction of outward
normal vector n of the surface S in the divergence theorem. If we denote this derivative
by ,
g
n
then the formula in the divergence theorem becomes
2
( gard grad )
R S
g
f g f g dV f dS
n
+ =

. . . (7.66)
which is called Greens First Formula or the first form of Greens Theorem.
Interchanging f and g, we can obtain a similar formula. Substracting the two Green first
Formulae, we shall obtain,

178
2 2
( ) ,
R S
g f
f g g f dV dS f g
n n

=

. . . (7.67)
which is called Greens Second Formula or the second form of Greens Theorem. In
Greens Theorem, we have assumed that f and g are two continuously differentiable
scalar point function such that f and g are also continuously differentiable. In
particular, if we take
1
, g
r
=
where r is the position vector of any point relative to a fixed point O, within the region R,
then g is twice continuously differentiable scalar function except at O.

Figure 7.35
We surround O by small sphere of radius . Let
1
S be the surface of this sphere and
1
R
be the region bounded by S and
1
. S
We apply Greens Theorem to the region
1
, R enclosed by surface S and
1
S and taking the
limit as 0, we can obtain
2
1 1 1
4 (0)
S S
f dS f dV f f
R r r

=

This result is known as Greens Formula.
Another important application of divergence theorem is in terms of a basic property of
solutions of Laplaces Equation, which we take up next.
7.8.7 A Basic Property of Solutions of Laplaces Equation
Consider the formula in the divergence theorem, namely,
div .
n
R S
f dV f dS =

. . . (7.68)
Let us assume that f is the gradient of a scalar function, say, grad . f = Then
2
div div(grad ) f = =
Further, grad .
n
f f = = n n
Since the right hand side of
n
f represents the directional derivative of in the outward
direction of S, it may be denoted as
n
Then Eq. (7.68) becomes

2
R S
dV dS
n

Taking into account the assumptions under which the divergence theorem holds, we
immediately obtain, form above, the following result :

179

Line and Surface
Integrals
Theorem 1
Let ( , , ) x y z be a solution of Laplces Equation
x y z
= + +
2 2 2
2
2 2 2

= 0
in some domain D, and suppose that the second partial derivation of are
continuous in D. Then the integral of the normal derivative of the function
over any piecewise smooth closed orientable surface S in D is zero.
Now if we suppose that the assumptions in above result are satisfied by and is zero
everywhere one piece wise smooth closed orientable surface S in D, then putting
f g = = in formula (7.66) in the first form of Greens Theorem (Section 7.8) and
denoting the interior of S by R, we get
2
(grad ) (grad ) | grad | 0
R R
dV dV = =

Since by assumption | grad | is continuous in R and on S and in non-negative, it must
be zero every where in R. Hence, 0
x y z

= = =

and is constant in R and,
because of continuity, equal to its value O on S. Thus,
Theorem 2
If a function ( , , ) x y z satisfies the assumptions of Theorem 1 and is zero at
all points of a piecewise smooth orient able surface S in D, then it vanishes
identically in region R bounded by S.
Theorem 2 has an important consequence in that it gives the uniqueness theorem for
Laplaces Equation, which can be stated as below :
Theorem 3
Let be a solutionof Laplaces Equations which has continuous second
partial derivatives in a domain D, and let R be a region in D which satisfies
the assumption of the divergence theorem. Then is uniquely determined in
R by its value on the bounding surface S of R.
Let us consider the following example.
Example 7.26
Show hat two functions which are harmonic in a region enclosed by a surface and
take on the same values at any point of the surface are identical.
Solution
Let and be two harmonic functions in a region bounded by a surface S and
let = at every point S.
On applying Greens divergence theorem to the function , we obtain
2

V V S
dV dV dS + =

Let us = so that
2 2
0 = = at ever point of V and 0 = at every
point of S.

2
( ) 0
V
dV =

180
0 =
is constant.
As is zero at every point of S, thus is zero everywhere.
Let us take another example.
Example 7.27
If grad = F and
2
4, = prove that
4 ,
S V
F dS dV =

n
where the symbols have their usual meaning and assumptions of divergence
theorem are satisfied.
Solution
From divergence theorem, we have
div
S V
dS dV =

F n F
div(grad )
V
dV =

2
V
dV =

( 4)
V
dV =

4 .
V
dV =

SAQ 11
(a) Let

( , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ) x y z N x y z P x y z = + + F M i j k be a vector field whose
components M, N and P are continuous and have continuous second partial
derivatives of all kinds. Show that
(curl ) 0
S
dS =

F n
for any surface to which the divergence theorem applies.
[Hint : By direct computation, show that div (Curl F) = 0 and then apply
divergence theorem to (Curl F).]
(b) Let S be the spherical cap
2 2 2 2
2 , x y z a z a + + = together with its base
2 2 2
, x y a + . z a = Find the flux of
2

xz yz y = + F i j k outward
through S by applying the divergence theorem.
[Hint : Flux
S
ds =

F n .]

181

Line and Surface
Integrals
(c) If ( , , ) x y z q is the velocity vector of a differentiable fluid flow through a
region D in space, ( , , , ) x y z t is the density of the fluid element at each
point (x, y, z) at time t, then taking F q = and using divergence theorem
obtain the continuity equation of hydrodynamics in the form
div( ) 0. q
t
+ =

In Unit 6, Section 6. 6 and Sub-section 6.7.3, we had defined solenoidal and irrotational
vector fields as divergence free and crul free vectors respectively. We shall revisit the
concepts of solenoidal and irrotational vector fields in the next section and express the
conditions for such vector fields in terms of integrals of vector fields and show that the
two approaches are equivalent.
7.9 SOLENOIDAL AND IRROTATIONAL VECTOR FIELDS
REVISITED
In Section 6.6, we had defined a solenoidal vector F in a region if for all points in that
region
div F = 0
In Section 7.8, we had given an integral definition of divergence of a vector field F as
0
div
S
V
F dS
Lt
V
=

F
At any point in region of volume V bounded by surface S.
Now if div F = 0, then
0
S
dS =

F
Also from divergence theorem, we have
div
S V
dS dV =

F F
Now if div F = 0, then above result yields
0
S
dS =

F
across every closed surface S.
Also
S
dS

F represents flux of vector point function F in a simply connected region
V bounded by S.
Thus we can define Solenoidal Vector Field as

182
A vector point function F is said to be solenoidal in a region of its flux across every
closed surface S on that region is zero, i.e., 0
S
dS =

F
If F is a soenoidal vector, then there exists a vector point function f such that
F = curl f.
In Section 6.6.2, we had defined a vector point function F to be irritation when curl
= 0 F or there exists a scalar function such that
= F
By Stockes theorem, we have
(curl )
S
C
F d d =
r F S
Thus, when curl F is zero, we get
0
C
d =

F r
The above relation provides another definition of an irrotational vector. We may now
define an irrotational vector as
A continuous vector point function F is said to be irrotational if its circulation along
every closed contour C in the region is zero.
This above definition can be useful indetermining the scalar point function such that
, = F
F being a given irrotational vector function. In this regard we have to remember that
( ) ,
P
A
P d =
F r
A being any fixed point.
Let us take some examples to illustrate the above theory.
Example 7.28
Show that the vector point function
2

( sin sin ) ( sin 2 ) ( cos ) y z x x z yz xy z y = + + + + F i j k
is irrotational and find the corresponding scalar function such that . = F
Solution
We may verify that curl . = 0 F
Here
2

curl
sin sin sin 2 cos
x y z
y z x x z yz xy z y

=

+ +
i j k
F

( cos 2 cos 2 ) ( cos cos ) (sin sin ) x z y x z y y z y z z z = + + i j k
= 0
To determine , we may take fixed point as O(0, 0, 0) and general point P as
(x, y, z). Then

183

Line and Surface
Integrals
, ,
0, 0, 0
x y z
d =
F r
( ,0,0) ( , ,0) ( , , )
2
(0,0,0) ( ,0,0) ( , ,0)
( sin sin ) ( sin 2 ) ( cos )
x x y x y z
x x y
y z x dx x z yz dy xy z y dz = + + + +

( , , 0) ( , , )
( , 0, 0)
2 2
(0, 0, 0)
( , 0, 0) ( , , 0)
sin cos
sin sin
x y x y z
x
x x y
xy z x
xy z y z xy z y z
= + + +
+ +

2
cos 1 sin x xy z y z = + +
If we omit the constant 1, then
2
(cos sin ). x xy z y z = + + F
Example 7.29
If

( ) ( ) ( ) x z z x x y = + + F i j k be a continuous vector point function,
verify that it is solenoidal and find the function f such that F = curl f.
Solution
Here,

( ) ( ) ( ) y z z x x y = + + F i j k
div ( ) ( ) ( ) y z z x x y
x y z

= + +

F
= 0 + 0 + 0 = 0
If F = curl f, let
1 2 3

. f f f = + + f i j k
We suppose that
1
0, f = then using expression of curl, we get
0 0
2 3 3 2
, ( , ),
x x
x x
f F dx f F dx y z = = +

where
0
1 0
( , ) ( , , )
x
y
y z F x y z dy =

Let us take
0 0
0, 0 x y = =
Now
2
2
0
1
( )
2
y
f x y dx x xy = =

2
3
0
1
( ) ( , ) ( , )
2
x
f z x dx y z x xz y z = + = +

and
2
0
1
( , ) ( )
2
y
y z y z dy y yz = =

Hence
1 2 3

f f f f = + + i j k

2 2 2
1 1

( ) ( )
2 2
x xy x y x y z

= + + +

j k
The general form of f, where = Curl, F, is
2 2 2
1 1

+ ( ) ( )
2 2
x xy x y x y z

= + + +

f j k g
where g is any scalar point function.
You may now try the following exercise to access your knowledge.

184
SAQ 12
(a) Show that the vector function

(sin cos ) ( cos sin ) ( cos sin ) y z x x y z y z x = + + + + F i j k
is irrotatinal and find the corresponding scalar such that . = F
(b) Show that the following vector function F are solenoidal and find the
function f such that F = curl f :
(i)

( ) ( ) ( ) x y z y z x z x y = + + F i j k
(ii)

yz zx xy = + + F i j k

We now end this unit by giving a summary of what we have covered in it.
7.10 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have covered the following points :
If (t) F is a vector function of a scalar variable t and ( ) ( ),
d
t f t
dt
= F then
( ) ( ) ,
d
t dt t C
dt
= + f F
where C is a constant vector.
If ( , , ) w x y z is a scalar or a vectro field
(i) defined at each point of a curve C, characterized by

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , t x t y t z t = + + r i j k , a t b
(ii) is continuous, and
(iii) ( ), ( ), ( ) x t y t z t are bounded and have only a finite number of
discontinuties on the interval , a t b then
1
lim ( , , )
k
n
k k k S
n
k
x y z

exists and is the line integral of ( , , ) w x y z along C from A to B
(corresponding to a t b ) and we denote it as ( , , ) ,
C
w x y z ds

where curve C is assumed to be piece-wise smooth.
Line integrals can occur in the following forms :
(i) ( , , ) ,
C
w x y z ds
where ( , , ) w x y z is a scalar field and it is scalar.

185

Line and Surface
Integrals
(ii) ( , , ) ,
C
w x y z ds
wrhere ( , , ) w x y z is a scalar field, cureve C is

divided into vector elements and it is a vector.
(iii) ( , , ) ,
C
x y z ds
W where ( , , ) x y z W is vector field, curve C is

divided into vector elements, ( , , ) x y z W and ds are multiplied using
dot product of vectors and it is a scalar.
(iv) ( , , ) ,
C
x y z
W ds where ( , , ) x y z W is a vector field, cross

product is used and it is a vector.
A line integral is evaluated by reducing it to a definite integral of single
variable, using parametric representation of the path of integration C.
If F represents a force moving along a curve C,

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , t x t y t z t = + + r i j k , a t b
form a point A to a point B in space, then
C
d
F r represents the work done

by the force F in moving a particle from point A to point B along the curve
C.
A force field is conservative if its work-integral is independent of path, but
depends only on the end points of the path.
A force field is conservative if and only if it is a gradient field.
If ( , ) f x y is defined and continuous for all ( , ) x y in a closed bounded
region R (bounded by finitely many smooth curves), then the limit
1
lim ( , ) ,
n
k k k
n
k
f x y A

where
k
A is the area of
th
k sub-region of R exists and is the double
integral of ( , ) f x y over the region R and is denoted by
( , )
R
f x y dA
or ( , ) .
R
f x y dx dy

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( , ) ( , ) ( , )
h x q y b d
x a y g x y c x p y R
f x y dy dx f x y dy dx f x y dx dy
= = = =

= =

if ( , ) f x y is uniformaly continuous and bounded over R and
( )
( )
( , )
h x
y g x
f x y dy
=
bounded and integrable form a to b with respect to x

along with
( )
( )
( , )
q y
x p y
f x y dx
=
being bounded and integrable from C to d

with respect to y.
Transformation of double integrals into line integrals is based on Greens
theorem is the plane.

186
If ( , , ) f x y z is defined and continuous on a surface S, then the limit
1
lim ( , , ) ,
n
k k k k
n
k
f x y z S

where
k
S is the area of
th
k sub-division of S, exists and is the Surface
Integral of ( , , ) f x y z over the surface S and is denote by
( , , ) .
S
f x y z dS

Transformation of surface integrals into line integrals is based on Stokes
Theorem.
If V be the velocity field of a moving fluid of density , then
.
C
dr
V ds
ds

is the circulation of fluid around curve C.
Component of the curl in the positive normal direction can be regarded as
the specific circulation (or circulation density) of the flow in the surface at
the corresponding point, i.e.,
1
[ ( )] lim ,
n t
C
Curl P F ds
A
=

F
where . F V =
If f (x, y, z) is continuous in a domain containing R and R is bounded by
finitely many smooth curves, then, as , , x y z all approach zero with n
approaching infinity, then limit of the sum
0
( , , )
n
n k k k k
k
S f x y z V
=
=
is
called the triple integral of f (x, y, z) over the region R and is denoted by
( , , )
R
f x y z dV

Properties of triple integral are
R R
k f dV k f dV =

( )
R R R
f g dV f dV g dV =

R R
F dV GdV

if F G in R.
1 2
. . .
n
R R R R
F dV F dV F dV F dV = + + +

The volume of a region R in 3-dimensions is given by
Volume of
1
, , 0
n
k
n
k
R
x y z
R Lt V dV
=

= =

187

Line and Surface
Integrals
To evaluate a triple integral, we divide the region R into elementary cuboids
by planes parallel to say z-coordinate plane and if
1
( , ) z z x y = and
2
( , ) z z x y = are the lower and upper surfaces and A is the base of these
columns and if A is bounded by the curves
1 2
( ), ( ), , , y y x y y x x a x b = = = =
then triple integral ( , , )
R
f x y z dV

may be written s repeated integrals
as
2 2
1( ) 1
( ) ( , )
( , )
( , , ) ( , , )
x
b y x z x y
a y y z z x y
R
f x y z dV f x y z dz dy dx
= =
=

The various physical quantities of any object in 3-dimensions having
variable density ( , , ) x y z which can be evaluated with the help of triple
integration are
Masss =
R
m dV =

First Moments about Coordinate Planes :
, ,
yz zx xy
R R R
M x dV M y dV M z dV = = =

Center of Mass :
, , ,
yz xy
zx
M M
M
x y z
m m m
= = =
Moments of Inertia (Second moments) :
2 2
( ) ,
x
R
I y z dV = +

2 2
( ) ,
y
R
I z x dV = +

2 2
( ) ,
z
R
I x y dV = +

and
2
,
L
R
I r dV =

where ( , , ) r x y z = distance of (x, y, z) to line L.
Radius of Gyration about a Line L :
L
I
R
m

=

Transformation of Volume Integrals into Surface Integrals and conversely is
based on Gauss Divergence Theorem, according to which
If R be a closed bounded region in space whose boundary is piecewise
smooth orientable surface S and if u (x, y, z) is a vector function, which is
continuous and has continuous first partial derivatives in some domain
containing R, then

188
div ,
R S
dV dS =

u u n
where n is the unit outward normal to the surface S bounding the
region R.
Under the conditions of divergence theorem,
curl
S R
dS dV =

F n F
and
S R
dS dV =

n
Integral definitions of gradient, divergence and curl are
0
grad =
S
V
dS
Lt
V

0
div =
S
V
dS
Lt
V

F
F
and curl
0
=
S
V
dS
Lt
V

F
F
We can physically interpret divergence theorem as
The amount of fluid flowing across the surface S in unit time from inside to
outside equals the amount of fluid per unit time supplied by the sources
within S.
If q k = grad U is the velocity of heat flow in a body, then using
divergence theorem, heat-flow equation is
2 2
,
U
c U
t

where
2
,
k
c = where is the specific heat of the material of the body
and is the density of the material.
Greens Theorem states
If f and g are two continuous functions, possessing continuous partial
derivative and S is the bounding surface of a region R satisfying conditions
of divergence theorem, then
2 2
( ) ( ) .
R
f g f dV f g g f dS =

If be a solution of Laplaces equation which has continuous second
partial derivatives in a domain D, and if R be a region in D satisfying the
assumptions of the divergence theorem, then is uniquely determined in R
by its values on the boundary surface S of R..

189

Line and Surface
Integrals
A vector point function F is said to solenoid in a region if its flux across
every closed surface S in that region is zero i.e., 0.
S
dS =

F
A continuous vector point function F is said to irrotational if its circulation
along every closed center C in the region is zero, i.e., . 0
C
ds =

F .
7.11 ANSWERS TO SAQs
SAQ 1
(a) (i) Along the curve C
2 3
, , x t y t z t = = =

2
, 2 , 3 dx dt dy t dt dz t dt = = =
Hence,
2 2
(3 6 ) 14 20
C C
dr x y dx yz dy xz dz

= + +

F

1
2 2 5 6 2
0
(3 6 ) 14 2 20 3 t t dt t t dt t t t dt

= + +

1
2 6 9
0
(9 28 60 ) t t t dt = +

1
3 7 10
0
9 28 60
3 7 10
t t t

= +

= 3 4 + 6 = 5
(ii) Here
2 2
(3 6 ) 14 20
C C
dr x y dx yz dy xz dz

= + +

F

(1,0,0)
2 2
(0,0,0)
(3 6 ) 14 20 x y dx yz dy xz dz

= + +

(1,1,0)
2 2
(1,0,0)
(3 6 ) 14 20 x y dx y z dy xz dz

+ + +

(1,1,1)
2 2
(1,1,0)
(3 6 ) 14 20 x y dx y z dy xz dz

+ + +

(1,0,0) (1,1,0)
3 2 3 3 2 3
(0,0,0) (1,0,0)
20 20
6 7 6 7
3 3
x yx y z xz x yz y z xz = + + + + +
(1,1,1)
3 2 3
(1,1,0)
20
6 7
3
x yz y z xz + + +

20
(1 0) (1 6 1) ()1 6 7 1 6)
3
= + + + + +
1 20
1 6
3 3
= + =

190
(b) Here
2

(2 ) ( ) (3 2 4 ) x y z x y z x y z = + + + + + F i j k
The parametric equation of circle
2 2
9 x y + = in XOYplane is given by
3cos , 3sin , 0 x y z = = =
Here 3sin , 3cos , 0 dx d dy d dz = = =
Now work done by force F in moving a particle once round the circle
2 2
9 x y + = in XOY-plane
2
(2 ) ( ) (3 2 4 )
C C
x y z dx x y z dy x y z dz = = + + + +

F dr
2
[(6cos 3sin ) ( 3sin ) (3cos 3sin ) 3cos ]
C
d d
= + +

2 2
2
0
9
(9 9cos sin ) 9 sin 18
2
C
d = = =

SAQ 2
(a) Here
2 2
2xy z x y = +

grad
x y z

= + +

i j k

2 2 2

(2 2 ) (4 ) 2 y z xy xyz x xy = + + + + i j k
and

d dx dy dz = + + r i j k

2 2 2
grad (2 2 ) 4 ) (2 )
C C
d y z xy dx xyz x dy xy dz

= + + + +

r
For curve C,
2 3
, , 0 1. x t y t z t t = = =

2
, 2 , 3 . dx dt dy t dt dz t dz = = =
Here
1
5 3 2 2 5 2
0
grad (2 2 ) (4 )2 2 3
C t
d t t dt t t t dt t t dt
=

= + + + +

r

1
7 5 3
0
(14 2 4 )
t
t t t dt
=
= + +

1
8 6 4
0
14 2 4
8 6 4
t t t
= + +
7 1 1
1 3 .
4 3 12
= + + =
(b) Here
2

xy z x = + A i j k

d dx dy dx = + + r i j k

2 2

( ) ( ) ( ) d zdz x dy x dx xy dz xy dy zdx = + + + + A r i j k

191

Line and Surface
Integrals
For curve C,
2 3
, 2 , , 0 1. x t y t z t t = = =

2
2 , 2 3 . dx t dt dy dt dz t dt = = =
Hence
5 5 5 5 3 4

(3 2 ) (2 6 ) (4 2 ) d t t dt t t dt t t dt = + + + + A r i j k

5 5 3 4

5 4 (4 2 ) t dt t dt t t dt = + + i j k

1
5 5 3 4
0

5 4 (4 2 )
C
d t dt t dt t t dt

= + +

A r i j k

1
6 6 4 5
0

5 4 4 2
6 6 4 5
t t t t

= + +

i j k

5 2 7

6 3 5
= + i j k.
(c) Here

( cos ) ( sin ) ( )
x x
e y yz xz e y xy z = + + + + F i j k
A force field F is conservative if and only if , f = F where f is some
differentiable scalar function.
i.e., if

f f f
x y z

= + +

F i j k
i.e., if cos ,
x
f
= e y yz
x
sin ,
x
f
= xz e y
y
f
= xy + z
z

i.e., if
f f f
df dy dz
x y z

= + +

( cos ) ( sin ) ( )
x x
e y yz dx xz e y dy xy z dz = + + + +

2
1
cos ,
2
x
d e y xyz z

= + +

which is true.
Here F is conservative and , f = F where
2
cos .
2
x
z
f e y xyz = + +
SAQ 3
(i) For
1 2
2 2
0 0
(1 ) ,
x
x y dy dx + +

the region of integration is
0, 2 , 0, y y x x = = = 1 x = which is shaded portion in the Figure

Figure

192
Now,
1 2
2 2
0 0
(1 )
x
x y dy dx + +

1
3 3
0
8
2 2
3
x x x dx

= + +

1
3 3
0
8
(2 2 )
3
x x x dx = + +

1
2 4
0
14
2
2 3 4
x x
= +
7 13
1
6 6
= + =
(ii) For
2
1
0
(1 ) ,
x
x y x
xy dy dx
= =

the region of integration is 0, 1, x x = = parabola
2
y x = and line y x = which is shaded portion in Figure.

Figure
Now
2
1
0
(1 ) ,
x
x y x
xy dy dx
= =

2
1
2
0
2
x
x
y
y x dx =

1
3 5
2
0
2 2
x x
x x dx

= +

1
2 3 4 6
0
1 1
2 3 2 4 2 6
x x x x
= +
1 1 1 1 12 8 3 2 1
2 3 8 12 24 8
+
= + = =
SAQ 4
(a) The base triangle in xy-plane is bounded by
2 3 , 0 x y y = = and 3. x =

193

Line and Surface
Integrals

Figure
The required volume is under the plane
2 6 x y + + =
6 z x y = .
Volume
2
3
3
0 0
(6 )
x
x y
x y dy dx
= =
=

2
3
2
3
0 0
6
2
x
y
y xy dx =

3
2
2
0
2 2
4
3 9
x
x x dx

=

3
2 3 3
0
2 2
4
2 3 3 9 3
x x x
=

2 2
2.9 27 27 10
9 27

= =

(b) Here density of plate
2 2
( ). x y = + K The plate lies between
3
y x = and
2
. x y = For the plate, range of integration is 0 x = to 1 x = and y x = to
2
. y x =
Hence, mass of the plate
3
1
2 3
0
( )
x
x y x
x y dy dx
= =
= +

K
3
1
3
2
0
3
x
x x
y
x y dx
=
= +
K
1
5 9 5/ 2 3/ 2
0
1 1
3 3
x x x x dx

= +

K
1
6 10 7 / 2 5/ 2
0
1 1
6 3 10 7 / 2 3 5/ 2
x x x x
= + K

194
1 1 2 2
6 30 7 15
= + K
35 7 60 28
210
+
= K
46 23
210 105
= = K K
SAQ 5
The required area is in the positive quadrant, bounded by the curves
2 2 2 2
4 , 4 , , . y ax y bx xy c xy d = = = =
Let this area be transformed to uv-plane, using the transformation
2
, ,
4
y
u v xy
x
= =
so that the transformed area is the rectangle A having sides parallel to u and v axes
given by
2
, , u a u b v c = = = and
2
. v d =

3 1/ 3
4 , (4 ) y uv y uv = = and
2/ 3
1/ 3 1/ 3
(4 ) (4 )
v v v
x
y
uv u
= = =

2/ 3
1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3
1/ 3 4/ 3
1/ 3 1/ 3 2/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 2/ 3
1 1 2
(4)
( , ) 3 3
(4)
( , )
1 1
(4) (4)
3 3
v
v u
x y
u
J
u v
v u u v

= =

1 1 2 1 1
9 9 3 u u u
= =
Required Area
2
2
1
3
a b
u a v c
du dv
u
= =
=

2
2
1
log
3
d
b
a
C
u dv =

2
2
1
log
3
d
C
b
dv
a

=

2 2
1
log ( )
3
b
d c
a

=

2 2
1
( ) log
3
b
d c
a

=

SAQ 6
(a) Curve C is boundary of the square ABCD in Figure. Using Greens theorem,

195

Line and Surface
Integrals

Figure
2 2 2
( ) ( )
C
x xy dx x y dy

+ + +

1 1
2 2 2
1 1
( ) ( )
x y
x y x xy dx dy
x y
+ +
= =

= + +

1 1
1 1
(2 )
x y
x x dx dy
+ +
= =
=

1
1
1
1 x
xy dx
=
=

1
1
2
1
1
[ ( )] 0 x x dx x
= = =

(b) The boundary C of the region
2
8 , 2 y x x = = is the curve OABO and area S
enclosed is shown as shaded in Figure.

Figure
Using Greens theorem
2 2
( 2 ) ( 3)
C
x xy dx x y dy

+ +

196
3 2
( 3) ( 2 )
S
x y x xy dx dy
x y

= + +

2 2 2
0 2 2
(2 2 )
x
x y x
xy x dy dx
+
= =

= +

2 2 2
2
0 2 2
2
x
x x
xy xy dx
=
= +

2
0
(2 2 2 2 2 2 )
x
x x x x dx
=
= +

2
5/ 2
0
8 2
5/ 2
x
=
16 2 128
4 2
5 5
= =
SAQ 7
(a) The surface
2 2 2 2
: , 0 S x y z a z + + = can be represented by

sin cos sin sin cos a u v a u v a u = + + r i j k

cos cos cos sin sin a u v a u v a u = + +
u
r i j k

sin sin sin cos a u v a u v = +
v
r i j

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
cos cos cos sin sin a u v a u v a u a = = + + =
u u
F r r
2 2
cos sin cos sin cos cos sin sin 0 a u u v v a u v v u = = + =
u v
F r r

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
sin sin sin cos sin a u v a u v a u = = + =
u v
G r r
If area A is the image of surface S in uv-plane, then
u v
dA du dv = r r

2
EG F du dv =

2 2 2
sin 0 a a u du dv =

2
sin a u du dv =
Further,
2 2 2 2 2 2
(2 ) ( sin cos ) ( sin sin ) ( cos ) x y a a u v a u v a u a + + + = + + +
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
sin cos sin sin cos 2 cos a u v a u v a u a a u = + + + +
2 2 2 2
2 2 cos 4 cos
2
u
a a u a = + =

2 2
( )
S
U dA
x y z a
=
+ + +

2
sin
2 cos / 2
S
a u du dv
a u
=

197

Line and Surface
Integrals
2sinh/ 2cos / 2
2 cos / 2
S
u
a du dv
a u
=

/ 2 2
0 0
sin
2
u v
u
a du dv
= =
=

(S is a hemi-sphere).
/ 2
0
sin 2
2
u
u
a
=
=

/ 2
0
cos / 2
2
1/ 2
u
a =
2 (2 2). a =
(b) Surface area
S
dS =

2 2
1 ,
x y
S
g g dx dy = + +

where
2 2
( , ) 2 z g x y x y = = is the surface of cylinder and R is its
projection on xy-plane taken
2 2
1. x y +

2 2
2 2
1
2
2
x y
dx dy
x y
+
=

Let cos , sin , x r y r = =
then
2 2
1 x y + 0 1 r and 0 2
Required surface area
2 1
2
0 0
2
2
r
r dr d
r
= =
=

1
2
2 1/ 2
0 0
2 (2 )
2 1/ 2
r
d
=

2
0
( 2 2 2) d = +

2 (2 2). =
SAQ 8
(a) Here
2

x xy = F i j
The curve C is the boundary of the square in the plane 0 z = and bounded
by the lines 0, 0, , . x y x a y a = = = =
Here

dr dx dy = + i j

2
x dx xy dy = F dr
Now
2
( )
C C
x dx xy dy =

F dr

198

2 2
0 , 0
( ) ( )
y a x a
x at x a y
x dx xy dy x dx xy dy
= =
= = =
= +

0 0
2 2
0
, 0
( ) ( )
x y a
at y a at x a y
x dx xy dy x dx xy dy
= =
= = =
+ +

0 0 0
2 2
0 0
(0 0 )
a
x y x a y a
x dx a y dy x dx dx dy
= = = =
= + +

0
3 3 3
0 0
0
3 2 3
a a
a
x y x
= + +
2 2 3 3
.
3 2 3 2
a a a a
a = =

Figure
For surface integral,

2

Curl ( 0)
0
y y
x y z
x xy

= = =

i j k
F k k
Now positive unit normal to the plane 0 z = is
n = k .
Also element of area . dS dx dy =
Thus
0 0
Curl
a a
S x y
dS y dx dy
= =
=

F n
2
0
0
2
a
a
x
y
dx
=
=

2
0
2
a
dx =

a

2 3
0
.
2 2
a a a
x = =
Hence
3
Curl ,
2
C S
a
dr ds = =

F F n
which verifies Stokes Theorem.

199

Line and Surface
Integrals
(b) Here

( ) V w x y = = F j i
and

Curl ( ) 2
0
w w w
y z
wy wx

= = + =

i j k
F k k
x

The work done by a force equal to F is .
C
dr

F
If C lies in a plane parallel to the xy-plane, then Stokes theorem gives

Curl 2
C
S S
dr dS w dx dy = =
F F n k k
2
S
w dx dy =

Here S is the area enclosed by C, which is a circle of radius a

2
(2 ) (2 ) ( )
C
S
dr w dx dy w a = =
F
Thus
2
1
(Curl ) 2 circulation density

C
w dr= .
a
= =

F k F
Thus component of Curl F in the direction normal to the plane of V is equal
to circulation density.
(c) The elliptic shell S is
2 2 2
4 9 36 36, 0 x y z z + + =
One parametric representative of the ellips C at the base of the shell is
3cos , 2sin , 0 2 . x t y t t = =
Here
2 2 2 3/ 2

( ) sin ( )
xyz
y x x y e = + + + F i j k
By Stokes theorem
Curl
C
S
ds dr =

F n F
2 2
xyz 2 2 2 3/ 2
ellipse
4 9 36

( ) sin ( ) ( )
x y
y x x y e dx dy dz
+

= + + + + +

i j k i j k
xyz 2 2 2 3/ 2
ellipse
( ) sin ( ) y dx x dy x y e dz

= + + +

2
2
0
2sin ( 3sin ) 9cos (2cos )
t
t t dt r t dt
=
= +

2
2 3
0
( 6sin 18cos )
t
t t dt
=
= +

2
3
0
18
0 3(cos 2 1) (cos 3cos )
4
t
t t t dt
=

= + +

2
0
sin 2 9 sin 3
3 3sin
2 2 3
t t
t t = + + +
2 =

200
(d) Here
2 2

2 x x x = + + F i j k
2 2

Curl 2
2
y z
x x z

= =

i j k
F k
x

For region S bounded by ellips
2 2
: 4 4 C x y + = in plane
1, z = = n k .
By Stokes Theorem
Curl
C
S
dr dS =
F F n

( , , )
(0, 0, 0)
x y z
d =
F r
2
S
dS =

2 2 = ( area of given ellipse 1.2 2 = = )
4 =
SAQ 9
(a) The given volume is symmetrical about the plane XOZ (y = 0). Therefore
0. y = To find , x we may consider only half the volume standing over the
semicircle enclosed by
2
0, 2 , 0, 2 . y y ax x x x a = = = =
2
2
2 2
0 0
2 2
0 0
a ax x nx
x y z mx
a ax x nx
x y z mx
x dz dy dz
x
dz dy dz
= = =
= = =
=

2
2
2 2
0 0
2 2
0 0
( )
( )
a ax x
x y
a ax x
x y
x nx mx dy dx
nx mx dy dx
= =
= =

2
2 2
0
2
2
0
( ) 2
( ) 2
a
x
a
x
n m x ax x dx
n m x ax x dx
=
=

=

/ 2
4 6 2
0
/ 2
3 4 2
0
2(2 ) sin cos
2(2 ) sin cos
a d
a d
=

, on putting
2
2 sin x a =

5 4
2 .
8 4
a a = =
2
2
2 2
0 0
2 2
0 0
a ax x nx
x y z mx
a ax x nx
x y z mx
z dz dy dx
z
dz dy dz
= = =
= = =
=

201

Line and Surface
Integrals

2
2
2 2
2 2 2 2
0 0
2 2
0 0
1
( )
2
( )
a ax x
x y
a ax x
x y
n x m x dy dz
nx mx dy dx
= =
= =

1
( ) expressin of
2
n m x = +

1 5 5
( ) ( ).
2 4 8
n m a a n m = + = +
(b) Region is the volume enclosed by the planes
0, , 0, , 0 x x a y y x z = = = = = and . z x y = +
Here
0 0 0
a x x y
x y z
x y x
e dz dy dx
+
+ +
= = =

0 0 0
a x x y
x y z
x y z
e e e dz dy dx
+
= = =
=

0
0 0
( )
a x
x y x v
x y
e e e e dy dx
+
= =
=

2
2
0
0
2
x
x
a
x x y
x
e
dx
e e e
=
=

2
2 2
0
1
2 2
x
a
x x x x x
x
e
dx
e e e e e
=

=
+

0
4 2
0
1 3
2 4 2 2
x x
x
e e
e
=
+

4 2
1 3 3
8 4 8
a a a
e e e = +
(c) For the positive octant of the sphere
2 2 2 2
, x y z a + + = the limits of
integration are 0 x = to , 0 x a y = = to , 0 y a z = = to . z a =
Required mass
0 0 0
a a a
x y z
k xyz dz dy dx
= = =
=

2
0 0
2
a a
x y
a
k xy dy dx
= =
=

2 2 2 6
.
2 2 2 8
a a a a
k k = =
SAQ 10
(a) Here

x y z = + + F i j k
div 3.
x y z
F
x y z

= + + =

Also volume of sphere
2 2 2 2
x y z a + + = is
3
4
.
3
a

202

3
3 4
div 3 3 4
3
R R
a
dV dV a

= = =

F . . . (1)
Here
2 2 2 2
( , , ) f x y z x y z a = + +
Outward unit normal to S, calculated from gradient of ( , , ) f x y z is
2 2 2

2( )
4( )
x y z x y z
x y z
+ + + +
= =
+ +
i j k i j k
n
a

and

( )
x y z
dS x y z dS
a
+ +
= + +
i j k
F n i j k

2 2 2
x y z
dS
a
+ +
=

2
,
a
dS
a
= since on the surface of
2 2 2 2
: S x y z a + + =
adS =

2 3
(4 ) 4
S S
dS a dS a a a = = =

F n . . . (2)
From (1) and (2), divergence theorem is verified.
(b) By divergence theorem,
div
S R
dS dV =

F n F
Here
2 2

4 2 x y z = + F i j k
div
2 2
(4 ) ( 2 ) ( ) x y z
x y z

= + +

F
4 4 2 y z = +
Here region of integration is
2 2
4, 0 x y z + = = and
2 x = to
2
2, 4 x y x = = to
2
4 y x = + and 0 z = to 3 z =
Now div
S V
dS dV =

F n F

2
2
2 4 3
2 4 0
(4 4 2 )
x
x y x z
y z dz dy dx
= = =
= +

2
2
2 4
3
2
0
2 4
4 4
x
x y x
dy dx
z yz z
= =
=
+

2
2
2 4
2 4
(21 12 )
x
x y x
y dy dx
= =
=

2
2 2
2
21 4 21 4
x
x z sz
=

= +

2 2
1 2
2 2
42 84 2sin 4
2 2
x x
x

= = +

203

Line and Surface
Integrals
SAQ 11
(a)

N P = + + F M i j k

Curl
x y z
M N P

=

i j k
F

P N N M
M P
y z x y
z x

= + +

i j k
and
div (Curl F)
P N N M
M P
y z x y x y x z x

= + +

2 2 2 2 2 2
0
P N M P N M
x y x y y z x y x z y z

= + + =

. . . (1)
BY divergence theorem
(Curl ) div(Curl ) 0
S R
dS dV = =

F n F (using result (1) above)
Hence the result.
(b) Flux of F outward through
S
S dS =

F n
By divergence theorem,
div
S S
dS dV =

F n F
Here
2

xz yz y = + F i j k

2
div ( ) ( ) ( ) xz yz y
x y z

= + +

F
0 z z = +
= 0.
Hence Flux = div 0 0.
R R
F dV dV = =

(c) Consider a volume V contained in a simply connected surface S. Let
( , , ) x y z be the fluid density at any point ( , , ) P x y z of the fluid in V at
time t.
Let n be unit outward normal at element S of S at P.
Let ( ) S S = n
Let q be the fluid velocity at element S at P.
The equation of continuity represents the conservation of mass, i.e., mass of
fluid flowing out of S per unit time equals the decrease of mass within S per
unit time in the absence of sources and sinks within V.

204
Now mass of fluid flowing out of S per unit time.
S
dS =

q
and decrease of mass within S per unit time
V
dV dV
t t

= =

Continuity equation yields
=
S R
dV
t

q dS

div( )
V V
dV dV
t

q (using divergence theorem)

0 div( )
V
dV
t

= +

q
This result is true for all volumes V. Thus at any point of the fluid, we have
div( ) 0.
t
+ =
q
SAQ 12
(a) Here

(sin cos ) (cos sin ) ( cos sin ) y z x y z y z x = + + + + + F i j k
Curl

(sin cos ) ( cos sin ) ( cos sin )
x y z
y z x x y z y z x

=

+ + +
i j k
F

(cos cos ) (cos cos ) (cos cos) z z x x y = + + = 0 i j k
Hence F is an irrotatinal vector point function.
To find such that = F , we may take fixed point as O (0, 0, 0) and
general point P as ( , , ). x y z Then
( , , )
(0, 0, 0)
x y z
d =
F r

( , 0, 0) ( , , 0)
(0, 0, 0) ( , 0, 0)
(sin cos ) ( cos sin )
x x y
x
y z x dx x y z dy = + + +

( , , )
( , , 0)
( cos sin )
x y z
x y
y z x dz + +

( , 0, 0) ( , , 0)
(0, 0, 0) ( , 0, 0)
sin sin sin sin
x x y
x
x y z x x y y z = + + +
( , , )
( , , 0)
sin sin
x y z
x y
y z z x + +
(0 0) ( sin 0) ( sin sin 0) x y y z z x = + + +
sin sin sin . x y y z z x = + +
Hence ( sin sin sin ) x y y z z x = + + F

205

Line and Surface
Integrals
(b) (i) Here

( ) ( ) ( ) x y z y z x z x y = + + F i j k
div [ ( )] [ ( )] [ ( )] x y z y z x z x y
x y z

= + +

F
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 y z z x x y = + + =
Hence vector function F is solenoidal.
If Curl , f = F let
1 2 3

f f f f = + + i j k
Suppose that
1
0, f = then using expression for curl, we get

0 0
2 3 3 2
, ( , ),
x x
x x
f F dx f F dx y z = = +

where
0
1 0 1
( , ) ( , )
y
y
y z F x y z dy =

Let us take
0 0
0, 0 x y = =
Now
2
2
2
0
0
1
( ) .
2
2
x
x
x
f z x y dx z zx xy
yx

= =

2
3
0
1
( ) ( , ) ( , )
2
x
f y z x dx y z xy x y y z = + = +

and
0
( , ) 0 0.
y
y z dy = =

Hence
1 2 3

f f f f = + + i j k

2 2
1 1

2 2
zx xy x y xyz

= +

j k
The general form of f, where F = curl f, is
2 2
1 1

,
2 2
f g zx xy x y xyz

= + +

j k
where g is any scalar point function.
(ii) Answer :
2 2 2
1 1

( ) .
2 2
f x y y z x z g = + + j k

206
APPENDIXI : PROOF OF GREENS THEOREM
We first prove the theorem when C is a simple closed curve in the xy-plane such that a
line parallel to either axis cuts C in at most two points. The special R can be represented
in the form of
, a x b ( ) ( ) u x y v x
or , e y b ( ) ( ) p y x q y
Thus curve C consists of lower portions ( ) y u x = and upper portion ( ) y v x = and both
the portions extend from x a = to x b = (Figure 1(a)).

(a) (b)
Figure 1 : Special Region for Greens Theorem
Hence, (using relation 17 of section 7.3.2), we get
( )
( )
v x b
R x a y u x
M M
dx dy dy dx
y y
= =

=

. . . (1)
Now integrating the inner integral, we get
( )
( )
( )
( )
( , ) [ , ( )] [ , ( )]
y v x
v x
y u x
y u x
M
dy M x y M x v x M x u x
y
=
=
=
= =

Substituting this into Eq. (1), we get
[ , ( ) [ , ( )
b b
R a a
M
dx dy M x v x dx M x u x dx
y

Since ( ) ( )
b a
a b
f x dx f x dx =

[ , ( ) [ , ( )
a b
b a
M x v x dx M x u x dx =

. . . (2)
Since ( ) y u x = represents the oriented curve
1
C from x a = to x b = and ( ) y v x =
represents the oriented curve
2
C from x b = to , x a = thus the integrals on the right
may be written as line integrals over
1
C and
2
C and therefore,
1
[ , ( )] ( , )
b
a
C
M x u x dx M x y dx =

. . . (3)

207

Line and Surface
Integrals
and
2
[ , ( )] ( , )
b
a
C
M x v x dx M x y dx =

. . . (4)
From Eqs. (2), (3) and (4), we get

1 2 1 2
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , )
R C C C C C
M
dx dy M x y dx M x y dx M x y dx M x y dx
y
+

. . . (5)
Similarly by taking strips parallel to x-axis, we obtain
( )
( )
d q y
y c x p y
R
N N
dx dy dx dy
x x
= =

=

{ } [ ( ), ] [ ( ), ]
d
C
N q y y y N p y y dy =

[ ( ), ] [ ( ), ]
d d
C d
N q y y dy N p y y dy = +

( , )
C
N x y dy =

From Eqs. (5) and (6), we obtain
( )
R C
N M
dx dy M dx N dy
x y

= +

which complete the proof of Greens Theorem in the plane form special regions which
are enclosed by simple smooth curves.
Next we consider that the region R itself is not a special region, but can be subdivided
into finitely many special regions (see Figure 2).

Figure 2 : Multiply-connected Region R
In this case, we apply the theorem to each sub-region and then add the results. the left-
hand members add up to the integral over R, which the right-hand members add up to the
line integral over C (which now consists of outer boundary
1
C and inner boundary
2
C )
plus integrals over the curves introduced for sub-dividing R. Each of these later integrals
occurs twice, one taken in each direction. Hence these two integrals along curves
introduced cancel each other and we are left with the line integral over C. Hence the
theorem, we must approximate R by a region of the type just considered and then use a
limiting process.

208
APPENDIX-II : PROOF OF STOKES THEOREM
We shall first prove that in formula given by Eq. (7.38), the integrals over the terms
involving
1
F are equal , i.e.,
1 1
1
cos cos
S
F F
dS F dx
z y

=

. . . (1)
Let ( , ) z f x y = be the equation of the surface S and let the region R be the projection of
S in the xy-plane. Then the projection of C in xy-plane is the curve bounding the
region R (see Figure 3).

Figure 3 : Surface S and its Projection on xy-plane
Then we may integral over C as a line integral over as
1 1
( , , ) [ , , ( , )]
C
F x y z dx F x y f x y dx
=

1
,
R
F
dx dy
y

applying Greens theorem in plane to the function
1
[ , , ( , )] F x y f x y and O [instead of M
and N in Section 7.4].
1 1
R
F F
f
dx dy
y z y

= +

. . . (2)
In the integral on the right,
1
1 1
[ , , ( , )] ( , , ) ( , , ) as ( , )
F
f
x y f x y F x y z F x y z z f x y
y y z y

= + =

The direction consines of normal to the surface S, given by ( , ), z f x y = are
cos cos cos
1
f f
x y
= =

. . . (3)
Also dx dy = projection of dS on xy-plane = dS cos

209

Line and Surface
Integrals
Thus
1 1
cos cos
S
F F
dS
z y

1 1
cos cos
cos
R
F F
dx dy
z y

1 1
cos
= cos
cos
R
F F
dx dy
z y

1 1
= ,
R
F F
F
dx dy
z y y

by virtue of Eq. (3)
1
= ( , , )
C
F x y z dx
by virtue of Eq. (2).

Thus we have proved Eq. (1).
Using the representation of surfaces S as = ( , ) y g x z and ( , ), x h y z and reasoning
exactly as above, we obtain
2 2
2
cos cos =
S C
F F
dS F dy
z z

. . . (4)
3 3
3
cos cos =
S C
F F
dS F dy
y z

. . . (5)
By adding Eqs. (1), (4) and (5), we obtain the formula given by Eq. (7.38).
This proves Stokes Theorem for a surface S which can be represented simultaneously in
explicit forms ( , ), ( , ) ( , ) z f x y y x z x h x y = = =
We may immediately extend our results to a surface S which can be decomposed into
finitely many pieces, each of which is of the type considered above.
It should be noted that a person moving on C, with his head in the positive direction of
the normal to surface S, should keep the surface on the left.

210
APPENDIX-III : PROOF OF GAUSS DIVERGENCE
THEOREM
Let S be such a surface that a line parallel to z-axis meets it in two points only. Denote
the lower and upper positions of S by S
1
and S
2
and let their equations be z = f
1
(x, y) and
z = f
2
(x, y) respectively.

Figure 4
We denote the projection of S on xy-plane by A.
Then
3
,
R
u
dx dy dz
z

3
( , )
2
( , )
1
=
A
f x y
f x y
u
dz dx dy
z

2
1
3
= ( , , ) ,
f
f
A
u x y z dx dy

3 2 3 1
= [ ( , , ) ( , , ) ,
A
u x y f u x y f dx dy

. . . (1)
Now for the upper position S
2

2 2 2
cos dx dy dS dS = = k . n
and for the lower position S
1

1 2 2
cos dx dy dS dS = = k . n
a negative sign being taken as the normal to dS
1
makes an obtuse angle
1
with
k .
Therefore,
2
3 2 3 2
( , , )
A S
u x y f dx dy u dS =

k . n
and
1
3 1 3 1
( , , )
A S
u x y f dx dy u dS =

k . n
Substituting in Eq. (1), we get

2 1
3
3 2 3 1

R S S
u
dx dy dz u dS u dS
z
= +

k . n k . n

211

Line and Surface
Integrals

3
S
u dS =

k . n
This proves Eq. (7.44) of Section 7.7. Similarly, we can prove Eq. (7.42) and (7.43) of
Section 7.7.
This completes the proof of Eq. (7.50) and Gauss Divergence Theorem.

FURTHER READING
Ervin Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematic, Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Shanti Narain, Vector Algebra, S. Chand and Company.
Chandrika Prasad, Mathematics for Engineers, Prasad Mudranalaya, Allahabad.
G. B. Thomas and R. L. Finney, Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Narosa Publishing
House.

212
NOTATIONS AND SYMBOLS
bold face letters, e.g. a : vector a.
| a | : magnitude of vector a.

, , i j k : unit vectors parallel to the axes of x, y, z
respectively.
0 : null or zero vector.
m a : multiplication of vector a by scalar m.
a . b : scalar or dot or inner product of vector a and b.
a b : vector or cross product of vectors a and b.
[a, b, c] or a . (b c) : scalar triple product of vectors a, b and c.
a (b c) : vector triple product of vectors a, b and c.
f (p) : vector function.
f (x) : vector field.
1 2 3

a a a = + + a i j k : a
1
, a
2
, a
3
are components of vector a w.r. to
co-ordinate system.
f
s
: directional derivative of f in the direction of s.

grad f or f : gradient of f.
div F or . F : divergence of F.
curl F or F : Curl of F.
r : unit vector in the direction of
r .
or . or
C C C
w ds w ds w ds

: line integrals.
( , )
R
f x y d A

: double integral in plane region R.
( , , ) f x y z d

: surface integral over surface .
( , )
( , )
x y
x y
u u
J
x y u v
v v

= =

: Jacobian function.
.
C
V d r

: integration round a closed contour C.
(Curl F)
n
: normal component of Curl F.
( , , )
V
f x y z d V

: triple or volume integral.

213

Line and Surface
Integrals VECTOR CALCULUS
The widespread application of computers to the engineering problems and the increasing
use of linear analysis in handling large problems in systems analysis have affected the
development of engineering mathematics during the past three decades. The usefulness of
vector calculus in engineering mathematics results from the fact that many physical
quantities for example, forces and velocities may be represented by vectors, and in
several respects the rules of vector calculations are as simple as the rules governing the
system of real numbers. However, vector analysis is a shorthand which simplifies many
calculations considerably. Furthermore, it is a way of visualizing physical and
geometrical quantities and relations between them. For all these reasons, extensive use is
made of vector notation in modern engineering literature. This has motivated this block
on vector calculus.
This block is divided into three units, numbering 5 to 7. In Unit 5, we have presented the
basic concepts : operation on vectors, vector products and methods of vector algebra and
its applications to physical and geometrical problems. Unit 6 contains vector differential
calculus, wherein scalar and vector fields have been defined along with limit, continuity
and differentiability of vectors. The concepts of direction derivative, gradient, continuity
and curl of vector fields and their applications have been developed in logical fashion in
this unit. Unit 7 devoted to vector integral calculus. In particular, integration of a vector,
double integrals, transformation of double integrals into line integrals (Greens
Theorem), surface integral and transformation of surface integrals into line integrals
(Stokes Theorem) have been considered in Unit 7. Triple integrals, transformation of
volume integrals into surface integrals (Divergence Theorem), irrotational and solenoidal
vector fields form the subject matter of Unit 7.

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115

Line and Surface

. If E is the electric permitivity and is magnetic permeability

we integrate along x-axis from a to b and the

gives the length of curve C from A to B.

where C is the arc of circular helix

F r from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1) along the following paths C :

(let sin x = cos dx d = )

, can be expressed in terms of u and v, and dx dy

around the boundary C of the

k is the direction of unit outward normal to S.

(Curl ) (Curl ) (Curl ) =

F where C is the circle

t of curve C in the direction of integration, finding

Then Eq. (7.68) becomes

where ( , , ) w x y z is a scalar field and it is scalar.

wrhere ( , , ) w x y z is a scalar field, cureve C is

W where ( , , ) x y z W is vector field, curve C is

W ds where ( , , ) x y z W is a vector field, cross

F r represents the work done

bounded and integrable form a to b with respect to x

being bounded and integrable from C to d

(Curl ) 2 circulation density

by virtue of Eq. (2).

: directional derivative of f in the direction of s.

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