Are Neanderthals Human?

By Carl Zimmer
Posted 09.20.12
NOVA scienceNO
!n Au"ust 1#$%& in the 'erman (alley o) Neander*Neanderthal in 'erman*men cuttin" limestone
)or the Prussian construction industry stum+led u,on some +ones in a ca(e. -oo.in" (a"uely human&
the +ones*a ,iece o) a s.ull& ,ortions o) lim+s& and )ra"ments o) shoulder +lades and ri+s*
e(entually made their /ay to an anatomist in Bonn named Hermann 0chaa)hausen.
1o Neanderthals +elon" /ithin Homo sapiens? Paleoanthro,olo"ists cannot a"ree. Here& a s.ull cast o) the -a
Cha,elle2au320aints Neanderthal disco(ered in 190#. 4nlar"ePhoto credit5 6 0te)ano Bianchetti7Cor+is
0chaa)hausen ,ored o(er the )ossils& o+ser(in" their crests and .no+s. He noticed that the +ones had
the o(erall sha,e you8d e3,ect )rom a human s.eleton. But some +ones had stran"e )eatures& too.
9he s.ullca,& )or e3am,le& s,orted a hea(y +ro/ rid"e& han"in" o(er the eyes li.e a +oney ,air o)
"o""les. !t /as& at once& human and not.
9he Neanderthal :an challen"ed 0chaa)hausen /ith a sim,le yet ,ro)ound ;uestion5 as it a
human& or did it +elon" to another s,ecies?
!t8s +een o(er 1$0 years since the +ones )irst emer"ed )rom the Neander Valley*a time durin" /hich
/e8(e learned a (ast amount a+out human e(olution. 9oday& scientists can e(en scan the "enomes o)
Neanderthals /ho died $0&000 years a"o. And yet the de+ate still ra"es. !t8s a de+ate that e3tends
+eyond Neanderthals& )orcin" us to as. /hat it means to +e a s,ecies at all.
VARIATIONS ON A THEME
9he Neander Valley +ones /ere a sensation as soon as 0chaa)hausen ,u+lished his re,ort on them
in 1#$<& +ecause nothin" li.e them had +een seen +e)ore. 4arlier in the 1#00s& ca(e e3,lorers had
)ound ancient human +ones& sometimes lyin" ne3t to )ossils o) ca(e +ears and other e3tinct animals.
Naturalists had a ha=y sense )rom such +ones that humanity had +een around )or ;uite a lon" time.
But the idea that humans*or any other s,ecies*had e(ol(ed /as scandalous. 1ar/in /ould not
,u+lish The Origin of Species )or another t/o years. !nstead& naturalists sa/ humans as a s,ecies
distinct )rom chim,an=ees& "orillas& and all other ,rimate s,ecies. e /ere distinct today& and /e had
+een distinct since creation.
The youngest Neanderthal fossils date to 28,000 years ago.
ithin the human s,ecies& 4uro,ean anatomists di(ided ,eo,le into races. 9hey o)ten ran.ed
4uro,eans as the no+lest race& considerin" the others +arely +etter than a,es. 9o >usti)y this racist
(ie/ o) humanity& anatomists searched )or clear2cut di))erences +et/een the s.eletons o) di))erent
races*the si=e o) s.ulls& the slo,es o) +ro/s& the /idth o) noses. ?et their attem,ts to neatly sort
,eo,le into "rou,s /ere +ede(iled +y the +lurry (ariations in our s,ecies. ithin a sin"le so2called
race& ,eo,le (aried in color& hei"ht& and )acial )eatures. 0chaa)hausen .ne/& )or e3am,le& a+out a
s.ull du" u, )rom an ancient "ra(e in 'ermany that @resem+led that o) a Ne"ro&@ as he /rote.
A +ar+arian A/ith s/ordB attac.in" a Coman le"ionary in a second2century relie). Neanderthals /ouldnDt ha(e
+een out o) ,lace amon"st such sa(a"e sorts& 0chaa)hausen +elie(ed. 4nlar"ePhoto credit5 6 9he 'allery
Collection7Cor+is
EUROPEAN SAVAGES
On this con)usin" landsca,e 0chaa)hausen tried )ind a ,lace )or the Neanderthal :an. He decided
that its hea(y +ro/ didn8t dis;uali)y it as a human. 9o +ac. u, this dia"nosis& he relied on stories o)
ancient 4uro,ean sa(a"ery. @4(en o) the 'ermans&@ 0chaa)hausen /rote in his 1#$< re,ort on the
Neander Valley +ones& @Caesar remar.s that the Coman soldiers /ere una+le to /ithstand their
as,ect and the )lashin" o) their eyes& and that a sudden ,anic sei=ed his army.@
0chaa)hausen searched historical records )or other clues o) 4uro,e8s monstrous ,ast. @9he !rish /ere
(oracious canni+als& and considered it ,raise/orthy to eat the +odies o) their ,arents&@ he /rote. !n
the 1200s& ancient tri+es in 0candina(ia still li(ed in the mountains and )orests& /earin" animal s.ins&
@utterin" sounds more li.e the cries o) /ild +easts than human s,eech.@
0urely& in such a sa(a"e ,lace& this hea(y2+ro/ed Neanderthal /ould ha(e )it ri"ht in.
A DISTINCTIVE CREATURE
hen 0chaa)hausen ,u+lished his re,ort& many other naturalists tried to ma.e sense o) the +ones )or
themsel(es. A)ter 1ar/in ,u+lished his theory o) e(olution in 1#$9& ne/ ,ossi+ilities arose5 Perha,s
humans e(ol(ed )rom Neanderthals& or ,erha,s they /ere +oth descended )rom a common ancestor.
9homas Hu3ley& 1ar/in8s "reat cham,ion in 4n"land& ar"ued that Neanderthals /ere human& ,ointin"
to the thic. )oreheads o) li(in" Australian A+ori"ines. illiam Ein"& an !rish "eolo"ist& disa"reed. !n an
1#%F ,a,er& @9he Ce,uted Gossil :an o) the Neanderthal&@ he ,ointed to a lon" list o) traits that
se,arated it )rom li(in" humans*)rom its ti"htly cur(ed ri+s to the massi(e sinuses in its s.ull. !ts
+raincase /as so a,e2li.e that it could not house a human2li.e +rain.
Australian A+ori"ines ha(e a ,rominent +ro/ rid"e& a )act that hel,ed lead 9homas Hu3ley to ar"ue that
Neanderthals /ere indeed human.4nlar"ePhoto credit5 6 Eerrie Eerr7i0toc.,hoto
@! )eel mysel) constrained to +elie(e that the thou"hts and desires /hich once d/elt /ithin it ne(er
soared +eyond those o) a +rute&@ Ein" /rote.
Grom all this e(idence& Ein" concluded that the Neanderthal :an /as not sim,ly an ancient
4uro,ean& as 0chaa)hausen had thou"ht. !t /as a se,arate s,ecies. He e(en "a(e that s,ecies a
name5 Homo neanderthalensis.
MOUNTING EVIDENCE
Ein" /as certainly ri"ht that Neanderthals /ere distinct )rom li(in" humans. 0u+se;uent "enerations
o) )ossil2hunters ha(e )ound remains o) Neanderthals )rom 0,ain to !srael to Cussia. 9he youn"est
Neanderthal )ossils date to 2#&000 years a"o. 9he oldest ones date +ac. o(er 200&000 years. -i.e the
ori"inal Neanderthal :an& they /ere stoc.y& /ith a hea(y +ro/ rid"e and other sin"ular traits. e
can8t .no/ e3actly /hat thou"hts and desires soared in their heads& +ut they certainly le)t +ehind
some tellin" clues*care)ully en"ineered s,ear +lades and stone .ni(esH ,ainted shells that mi"ht
ha(e +een used as >e/elry. Neanderthals endured the comin"s and "oin"s o) ice a"es in 4uro,e and
Asia& huntin" )or reindeer& rhinoceroses& and other +i" "ame.
As the )ossils ha(e emer"ed& ,aleoanthro,olo"ists ha(e re(isited the ;uestion o) /hether
Neanderthals are ,art o) our o/n s,ecies*call them Homo sapiens neanderthalensis*or a
se,arate Homo neanderthalensis. 0ome researchers ar"ued that Neanderthals +elon"ed to a sin"le
s,ecies o) humans stretchin" across the Old orld& one that e(ol(ed o(er the ,ast million years )rom
small2+rained hominids into our +i"2+rained )orm.
Europeans and Asians carry a small portion of NA inherited
from Neanderthals.
But some researchers challen"ed this (ie/. 9hey ,ointed out that )or thousands o) years& 4uro,e /as
home to the +urly Neanderthals as /ell as slender humans. Neanderthals didn8t "i(e rise to li(in"
4uro,eans& these scientists ar"uedH they /ere re,laced +y immi"rants e3,andin" out o) A)rica*
,erha,s e(en outcom,eted into e3tinction.
O(er the ,ast 1$ years& 0(ante PII+o& a "eneticist at the :a3 Planc. !nstitute o) 4(olutionary
Anthro,olo"y& and his collea"ues ha(e unco(ered an entirely ne/ source o) e(idence a+out the
nature o) Neanderthals5 their 1NA. 0tartin" /ith those )ossils )rom the Neander Valley& they e3tracted
+its o) "enetic material that had sur(i(ed tens o) thousands o) years. 4(entually& they /ere a+le to
assem+le the )ra"ments into the entire Neanderthal "enome.
Po,ulations o) the same s,ecies that a ri(er or other +arrier di(ides can +ecome una+le to +reed success)ully
/ith each other. 0uch an ina+ility ne(er occurred +et/een Neanderthals and humans& /ho +red success)ully at
least once. 4nlar"ePhoto credit5 6 tho+o7i0toc.,hoto
!t8s clearly di))erent )rom the "enome o) any human ali(e today& s,rin.led /ith many distincti(e
mutations. 9hese mutations accumulated in a cloc.2li.e /ay& and +y tallyin" them u,& PII+o and his
collea"ues estimate that Neanderthals and humans share a common ancestor that li(ed #00&000
years a"o. !t8s ,ossi+le that the ancestors o) Neanderthals e3,anded out o) A)rica then& /hile our o/n
ancestors stayed +ehind.
A QUESTION OF BREEDING
9hat8s a lon" time*lon" enou"h to reasona+ly as. i) humans and Neanderthals are indeed t/o
se,arate s,ecies. Old s,ecies s,lit into ne/ ones /hen some o) their mem+ers "et isolated )rom the
rest. !) a ri(er cuts the ran"e o) a s,ecies o) )ro" in t/o& )or e3am,le& the )ro"s on one side o) the ri(er
may only +e a+le to mate /ith one another. 4ach ,o,ulation /ill e(ol(e alon" its o/n ,ath. !) they are
isolated lon" enou"h& they /ill ha(e trou+le inter+reedin". 9hey may e(en +e una+le to inter+reed at
all.
Grom these )acts o) e(olution& the +iolo"ist 4rnst :ayr de(elo,ed /hat came to +e .no/n as the
Biolo"ical 0,ecies Conce,t in the 19F0s*namely& a s,ecies is made u, o) mem+ers o) ,o,ulations
that actually or ,otentially inter+reed in nature. 43,eriments on li(in" animals ha(e sho/n that
+arriers to this inter+reedin" can arise in tens o) thousands& or e(en >ust thousands& o) years.
Once the Neanderthal linea"e le)t A)rica #00&000 years a"o& did humans and Neanderthals ha(e
enou"h time to +ecome una+le to inter+reed? PII+o8s research ,ro(ides an ans/er5 no.
1oes the late 4rnst :ayrDs notion o) /hat constitutes a s,ecies& /hich held s/ay )or many decades& need to +e
scra,,ed or su+stantially re(ised? :any +iolo"ists +elie(e so. 4nlar"ePhoto credit5 6 Cic. Griedman7Cor+is
4uro,eans and Asians carry /ith them a small ,ortion o) 1NA inherited )rom Neanderthals*/hile
A)ricans do not. 9he +est e3,lanation )or our mi3ed "enomes is that a)ter humans e3,anded out o)
A)rica& they encountered Neanderthals and inter+red. Com,arin" the di))erent Neanderthal2deri(ed
"enes in di))erent ,eo,le& PII+o and his collea"ues estimate that this encounter occurred around
F0&000 years a"o. 9he tiny amount o) Neanderthal 1NA has +een inter,reted +y some scientists as
e(idence that Neanderthals rarely mated /ith humans*,erha,s >ust once& in )act. But as scientists
se;uence more "enomes )rom more human ,o,ulations& they8re e3,lorin" the ,ossi+ility that our
ancestors mated /ith Neanderthals se(eral di))erent times.
A MATTER OF SURVIVAL
9he ,resence o) 1NA )rom Neanderthals in human "enomes is com,ellin" e(idence that humans and
Neanderthals could mate and ,roduce )ertile o))s,rin". !) /e stic. to the Biolo"ical 0,ecies Conce,t&
then /e are a sin"le s,ecies& as 0chaa)hausen ori"inally thou"ht. But some scientists re>ect this
ar"ument. 9hey thin. that :ayr8s Biolo"ical 0,ecies Conce,t has /orn out its use)ulness.
Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sa,iens endured!at least
until the Neanderthals "ecame e#tinct.
ith the ad(ent o) "ene se;uencin"& scientists ha(e )ound that many animal s,ecies re"ularly
inter+reed. !t8s easy )or any sa)ari tourist to tell the di))erence +et/een oli(e +a+oons and yello/
+a+oons that li(e in Eenya& )or e3am,le. And yet the t/o s,ecies re"ularly ,roduce hy+rids in the
,laces /here their s,ecies o(erla,& and they8(e +een doin" it )or a lon" time.
hat /ill it ta.e )or e3,erts to a"ree on /hether Neanderthals A)ore"roundB and modern humans are one and the
same s,ecies? 4nlar"ePhoto credit5 6 Gran. Gran.lin !!7AP7Cor+is
0o /hy ha(en8t the t/o +a+oon s,ecies mer"ed into a sin"le hy+rid oli(e2yello/ s,ecies? 9he
+a+oons ,roduced +y inter+reedin" may not sur(i(e as /ell as ,ure+red ones. 9hey ,roduce )e/er
o))s,rin" o) their o/n& and so the "enes )rom one s,ecies don8t s,read easily in the other. 9hus&
des,ite inter+reedin"*+rea.in" 4rnst :ayr8s rule& in other /ords*the oli(e and yello/ +a+oons
endure as se,arate s,ecies.
Perha,s humans and Neanderthals /ere the same5 9hey only inter+red rarely& and /hen they did& the
hy+rid children couldn8t )use the t/o .inds o) humans to"ether. 9hat may +e /hy human and
Neanderthal )ossils remained so di))erent.
illiam Ein" /ould ,ro+a+ly ha(e +een horri)ied at the notion o) human +ein"s ha(in" se3 /ith
Neanderthal @+rutes.@ But des,ite this intermin"lin"& Homo neanderthalensis and Homo
sapiens endured*at least until the Neanderthals +ecame e3tinct& and /e sur(i(ed.
Carl Zimmer /rites a+out e(olution in the Ne$ %or& Times& a num+er o) ma"a=ines& and his a/ard2/innin"
+lo"& 9he -oom. His latest +oo.& E'olution( )a&ing Sense of *ife& coauthored /ith +iolo"ist 1ou"las
4mlen& /as ,u+lished +y Co+erts and Co. in Au"ust 2012.
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