1

Abstract--The calculation related with power distribution

systems is traditionally supported by approximations due to the
difficulty of obtaining reliable data and the simplifications that
are made. The representation of each element of these systems, in
order to obtain the most accurate results in their study, is
explained in this article. A visual analyzer for power distribution
systems (DistributionSys) had been developed based on the fact
of minimizing the simplifications. This analyzer guaranties, with
minimum simplifications, the accuracy of the results related to
the most common problems in these systems, it also has
additional facilities for the analysis of real problems
Index Terms -- Capacitors, distribution systems, energy losses
power losses.
I. INTRODUCTION
Engineering calculations, particularly in distribution
systems, are exposed to inaccuracies or errors that appear
because of two main reasons: the accuracy of the represented
model and the precision of the data used.
A certain error margin, which is difficult and in most cases
impossible to establish, had been traditionally accepted,
however, the quality of the studies and analysis is highly
needed nowadays, in particular when sophisticated
equipments, that allow obtaining real time information, are
used; as occur in primary and secondary distribution systems
and sub-transmission systems. The simplification of complex
calculations associated with power systems was traditionally
used to carry out these studies, this fact became irrelevant with
the introduction of computers, however, some criteria based
on simplifications and assumptions is still in use.
Martnez del Sol, Alexis works in the Department of Electrical
Engineering, in the Guadalajara University, Mexico and Arteche MyT SA de
CV. (e-mail: alexismds@hotmail.com).
Mier Garca, Jorge works in the Department of Electrical Engineering, in
the Guadalajara University, Mexico, (e-mail: jmiergarcia@tutopia.com).
Snchez Jimenez Juan Jos works in the Department of Electrical
Engineering, in the Guadalajara University, Mexico, (e-mail:
cheosj@hotmail.com).
Zerquera Izquierdo, Mariano David works in the Department of Electrical
Engineering, in the Guadalajara University, Mexico, (e-mail:
mariano_zerquera_izquierdo@yahoo.com.mx).
Garca Martnez, Juan Marcos works in the Department of Electrical
Engineering, in the Guadalajara University, Mexico, (e-mail:
jmargarmtz@yahoo.com).
The main approximations associated with the calculation in
the distribution systems as well as the way they are corrected
in the DistributionSys program are evaluated in this article.
The analyses are focused in the behavior of the main elements
of these systems: loads, transformers banks, lines, capacitors
and the calculation methods for voltages, power and energy
losses.
II. ELEMENTS MODELING
A synthesis of the main aspects related to the modeling of
the elements that compose a power distribution system
follows:
A. Loads
The loads of the primary circuits are directly related with
consumers and are characterized with the following
parameters:
- Active and reactive power demand with a representative
hourly behavior based on the service they provide. [1]
- Demand behavior based on the following expression:
e
n
o
V
V
jQ jQ P
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + * ) (P
o
(1)
where:
jQ P + : active and reactive power demand.
o o
jQ P + : nominal voltage demand.

n
V : nominal voltaje.
V : actual voltage.
e : exponent for load representation:
0: for constant power,
1: for constant current,
2: for constant impedance.
The effect of this representation is shown in Fig. 1 [2]. The
nodes where electric motors (industrial load) are predominant,
are best represented by constant power (e=0); nodes which
provide residential services highly influenced by heat
equipments (cookers, heaters, etc) are approximately
Visual Analyzer for Power Distribution Systems
Alexis Martnez del Sol, Member, IEEE, Jorge Javier Mier Garca, Juan Jos Snchez Jimnez
Mariano David Zerquera Izquierdo and Juan Marcos Garca Martnez, Member, IEEE
1-4244-0288-3/06/$20.00 2006 IEEE
2006 IEEE PES Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition Latin America, Venezuela
2
considered as constant impedance (e=2) and as an
intermediate approach between them is the representation of
constant current (e=1).
The results of these representations are considered
analogous if the circuit operates with slight voltage drops, but
a significant difference will appear in losses calculation for
lines and transformers in the case of critical voltage situations.
- Single-phase and three-phase loads, which generally
operate with different power factor values, connected to
the same transformer bank with a typical distribution
between transformers and phases. This fact is the main
cause of unbalanced primary circuits
B. Transformers
The evaluation of transformers banks associated with the
loads is often omitted by some methods of distribution
systems calculation and it is considered symmetrical by others
methods. Actually, transformers banks are composed by one,
two or three single-phase units properly connected in order to
provide different services.
The behavior of transformers (secondary power losses and
voltages) and phase currents, which also have influence in line
balance, is determined by connection type and load connected.
Actually there are distribution transformers with line or
phase voltages as primary voltage; this situation derives in a
great variety of connections with different behaviors.
Among common connections are:
- Isolated transformers connected between phase and
neutral or between phases.
- Two-transformers bank with open wye or open delta
(V-Connection) primary connection and open delta
secondary connection.
- Three-transformers bank with the following
frequently-used connections: wye-delta, delta-delta
and wye-wye.
C. Lines
Conductors in primary distribution systems rest over
horizontal cross beams or are placed in the corners of irregular
triangles resulting in asymmetrical conditions which has
influence over the phase voltages.
This asymmetrical condition does not have great
significance due to the small length of these circuits, so the
representation of the lines as similar impedance per phase is
often used. For a frequency of 60 Hz it is given by:
jX R Z + = (2)
where:
X = 0.1738 log Deq/ r O/ km (3)
However, considering unbalanced phase currents for
voltage calculations allows the inclusion of the constructive
asymmetry of the lines using the following equation:
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(

A
A
A
A
n
c
b
a
nn nc nb na
cn cc cb ca
bn bc bb ba
an ac ab aa
n
c
b
a
I
I
I
I
Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z
V
V
V
V
(4)
simplifying:

| | | | | | I Z V * = A
evaluating the influence of the line asymmetries as well as the
unbalanced line currents.
D. Capacitors
Searching for an optimal location in order to reduce power
losses during maximum demand has been a common practice
in capacitors installation, this is accomplished by:
0 =
c
A c
c
l
P
(5)
| | | | dl l i dl I l i P
L
lc
lc
cap
2 2
0
) ( ) (
) )
+ = A (6)
where:
: P A
power losses because of the circulation of
reactive current.
) (l i
: distribution of reactive current in the circuit.
cap
I : capacitor current.
c
l
: capacitor location
U (p.u
kW (p.u)
0.95
1.0
1.05
0.84
0.88
0.92
0.96
1
1.04
1.08
1.12
Z
I
kV.A
1.16
Fig. 1. Demand behavior vs. load representation
3
Although equation (6) is formulated considering a
continuous distribution of current and lines with uniform
conductor diameter, the results obtained are valid for the
actual conditions of the circuit. [3]
The evaluation of energy savings due to the circulation of
capacitive current is calculated using the following
equation|4|:
( )
2
max
1
* * * 2 * *
c i cap
n
i
i
I FC I I R T Savings =
_
=
(7)
where:
T
: time for which energy losses are evaluated.
i
R
: line resistance for
i
section
i
I
max
: maximum reactive current for
i
section.
FC : load factor from the reactive power chart.
n
: number of sections in the line from substation to lc
If capacitor location was determined using equations (5)
and (6), the energy saving corresponds with location in which
power losses are minimum [5].
In order to obtain maximum energy savings capacitor
location shuld be determined using the following equations:
0
.
.
=
c
A c
lc
E
(8)
| | | | dtd t l i dtdl I t l i E
L
lc
T lc T
cap
2
0
2
0 0
) , ( ) , (
) ) ) )
+ = A (9)
where:
E A
: energy losses for time T .
) , ( t l i
: distribution of reactive current in the circuit
for time
T
.
Using equation (7) is now relevant, with the only difference
that the value of lc is less than the case where the optimal
location is determined in order to minimize power losses.
When using equation (7), the value of FC corresponds with
each circuit section and not with a general value for the whole
circuit, this increase the accuracy of the results [6].
Capacitors are represented by constant impedances in all cases
III. MEASUREMENTS
An algorithm for distribution of total load measured in
substation (load plus losses) is used to deal with the problem
of not knowing the actual condition of the circuit. This
algorithm is based on the previous definition of each load
using its chart and maximum demand.
The fundamentals of this algorithm are summarized as
follows:
1. Carefully characterization of the service provided by
each transformer bank (chart and maximum demand).
2. Initial values of power losses equal to cero.
0 = A = A
j j
Q P
where:
j: circuit section
3. Determination of estimated total power of the circuit
P
E
+ jQ
E
as the sum of the estimated power for each
node j at each hour i
( )
_
=
+ = +
k
j
ji ji Ei Ei
jQ P jQ P
1
where:
k: number of nodes
4. Difference calculation between power obtained by
actual measurement P
R
+ jQ
R
(minus losses) and
estimated power of the loads
| |
E j i R P
P P P Dif A =
| |
E j i R Q
Q Q Q Dif A =
5. Adjustment of the demand of each node j at each
time i proportionally to the difference detected
| |
_
=
+ =
k
j
ji
ji
P ji ji
P
P
Dif P P
1
'
| |
_
=
+ =
k
j
ji
ji
Q ji ji
Q
Q
Dif Q Q
1
'
6. Load flow is executed again to determine losses
7. The power of the load is determined as the
difference between measurement at substation and
the calculated losses. The difference between the
values of iterations is checked and if it is greater
than the established error return to step 3.
IV. THE DISTRIBUTIONSYS SOFTWARE
The accomplishment of accurate studies and analysis for the
evaluation of power distribution systems are supported by the
capabilities of personal computers. Powerful software has
been developed.
4
The Distibutionsys computer program |2,7| is a result of
an improvement of the calculation process where most of the
simplifications made by previous programs have been
excluded.
The program can exchange data with measurement in real
time. For it is necessary that that information stays in a
database, of where DistributionSys obtains and carries out the
load flow
The program, shown in Fig 2, can be used for the study of
radial circuits in primary or secondary distribution systems or
for the analysis of areas (multiple circuits) where load
interchange is carried out or where the power source is
modified.
This is accomplished by different calculation using the data
of the problem.
Program main features include:
A. Data
The basic information of the program is divided into three
main data groups: parameters data, operational data and circuit
data. Parameters data includes basic circuit information
(available in the libraries) which is presented by default and
can be modified by the user. Main data are:
- Aluminum or cupper conductors with all their
characteristics.
-Structures that hold the conductors and its dimensions.
-Single-phase and three-phase transformers with all their
characteristics
-Hourly charts for active and reactive power demand
(residential, industrial, etc)
Operational data includes nominal and operational voltage
of the system. Data from a line is shown in Fig. 3.
The program simulates a graphical editor, shown in Fig. 4,
which allows drawing the circuit configuration along with the
data of the problem under study:
- Lines or sections (number of phases, conductor type
and diameter, structure and length)
- Loads (connection type of transformers bank,
maximum demand of active and reactive power and
percent of single-phase and three-phase load when
needed).
- Capacitors
- Fuses and other disconnecting devices.
- Generators with hourly charts of active and reactive
power (for co-generation studies)
B. Calculations
The following calculations are performed by the program:
- Balanced-load flow analysis: considers that the entire
load is uniformly distributed in the three phases of the
circuit provoking equal voltage drops and losses per
phase. Hourly node voltages according to the given load
chart, power and energy transferences, currents and losses
on each circuit line as well as power and energy losses in
transformers are determined by this study.
- Unbalanced-load flow analysis: differentiates load per
phase knowing the details of the actual condition of the
circuits. Hourly phase and line voltages per node
Fig. 2. DistributionSys main window
Fig. 3. Dialog box with line data
Fig. 4 Graphical editor
5
according to the given load chart, power and energy
transferences per phase, currents and losses on each
circuit line as well as power and energy losses in
transformers are determined by this study. It can only be
applied to radial circuits.
- Possibilities of including constraints to load flow
analysis: allows the user to specify some constraints that
should be accomplished by the load flow algorithm to
guarantee a predetermined condition. Two restrictions are
enabled: voltage, which guarantees a minimum voltage in
a determined node and losses, which guarantees a losses
value below the predetermined one.
- Analysis of modifications for improving technical and
economic parameters of the circuits including caliber and
structure changing.
- Optimal compensation of reactive power: Allows the
optimal location of capacitors in order to minimize power
or energy losses.
- Selection and coordination of protections used in
distribution radial systems: includes fuses, reclosers and
relays
C. Execution example
A primary distribution circuit (23kV) and a secondary
distribution system (120V) which includes 14 nodes, 12 lines,
12 loads, 7 protection devices and two power sources, shown
in Fig. 2; are analyzed.
The voltages calculated for balanced flow are shown in
Table I.
TABLE I
VOLTAGES IN PRIMARY AND SECUNDARY NODES
Name Nom. Volt. Calc. Volt.
Percent
Regulacin
N 1 22.8 22.800 [0.000] 0
N 2 22.8 22.777 [-0.019] 0.102
N 3 22.8 22.777 [-0.009] 0.101
N 4 22.8 22.792 [-0.004] 0.035
N 5 22.8 22.783 [0.003] 0.076
N 6 22.8 22.774 [-0.012] 0.113
N 7 22.8 22.752 [-0.032] 0.212
N 8 22.8 22.746 [-0.038] 0.235
N 9 22.8 22.743 [-0.036] 0.251
N 10 22.8 22.738 [-0.038] 0.273
N 11 22.8 22.739 [-0.041] 0.269
n_1 0.238 0.234 [-0.801] 1.805
n_2 0.238 0.216 [-0.186] 9.262
n_3 0.238 0.206 [-0.391] 13.327
Currents and losses in the lines are shown in Table II and
3. The result of protection adjustment and coordination (relay
and fuse) is shown in Fig. 5.
TABLE II
LINE CURRENT
Name Connection Current (A)
Line 1 Three phases 13.915[-30.355]
Line 2 Three phases 1.518[-122.605]
Line 3
Three phases
5.051[169.549]
Line 4
Three phases
4.006[-34.140]
Line 5
Three phases
1.756[-18.447]
Line 6
Three phases
4.876[-24.002]
Line 7
Three phases
5.129[-22.871]
Line 8
Three phases
2.451[-24.000]
Line 9 Single phase 7.277[-24.004]
Line 10 Three phases 11.412[-24.704]
Line 11 Two phases 184.899[-30.106]
Line 12 Two phases 84.803[-34.081]
TABLE III
LINE LOSSES
Name Phase caliber Neutral Caliber
Power
losses
Energy
losses
Line 1 ACSR 3/0 6/1 ACSR 1/0 6/1 0.391 4.112
Line 2 ACSR 1 6/1 ACSR 2 6/1 0.009 0.684
Line 3
Al-No.2 AWG-
XLP-25kV 0.126 3.979
Line 4
Al-No.2 AWG-
XLP-25kV 0.064 1.056
Line 5 ACSR 3/0 6/1 ACSR 1/0 6/1 0.006 0.158
Line 6 ACSR 3/0 6/1 ACSR 1/0 6/1 0.032 0.355
Line 7 ACSR 1 6/1 ACSR 2/0 6/1 0.068 0.865
Line 8 ACSR 1 6/1 ACSR 2/0 6/1 0.019 0.237
Line 9 ACSR 2 6/1 ACSR 1/0 6/1 0.088 0.851
Line 10 ACSR 1/0 6/1 ACSR 2 6/1 0.408 5.636
Line 11 ACSR 3/0 6/1 Sin Neutro 3.072 27.598
Line 12 ACSR 3/0 6/1 Sin Neutro 0.646 5.718
Fig. 5.Graphical coordination example
6
V. CONCLUSION
Accurate analyses for distribution systems have been
possible because of the great development of computer
techniques. These analyses reduce to minimum the
suppositions, simplifications and approximations used in
engineering calculations. Results obtained are more sensitive
to certain type of data; this influence can be relatively
evaluated.
The parameters of the lines and transformers are the less
significant data because the inductive reactance of a line is a
logarithmic function of the conductors separation (structure
type).
Transformers parameters are slightly different among
manufacturers. Averages values [6] have been used in this
case, which can be modified.
On the other side, most significant data are, at the same
time, the most difficult to obtain; specially in order to evaluate
energy losses. These data are: load hourly-charts, although the
typical curves can be used they are not adapted to all regions
to be studied.
VI. REFERENCES
[1] Bishop, M .T. and Lee, R.E.: Distribution system line losses
reduction through enhanced capacitor location techniques, IEEE
Transaction on Power Delivery, Vol -12, pp 190, April 1986.
[2] Martnez, D.A:Software para el anlisis integral de redes de
distribucin primaria Memorias del VII Simposio Iberoamericano
sobre Proteccin de Sistemas Elctricos de Potencia, Monterrey,
Mxico, Nov. 2004
[3] Casas, L. y Caso, G.: Criterios sobre la instalacin de condensadores
en circuitos de distribucin radiales, Centro, revista cientfica de la
Universidad Central de Las Villas (UCLV). Suplemento especial
Energtica, p 143, 1979
[4] Cook, R.F.: Calculating loss reduction offered by shunt capacitors
application, IEEE Transaction on Power Apparatus and Systems,
Vol 83, p 1127, 1964.
[5] Flaten, D.: Distribution system losses calculated on Power System,
Vol 3, p 1263, 1988.
[6] Gonen, T.: Electric power distribution system engineering, Mc
Graw Hill Book Co, USA. 1986.
[7] Martnez, D.A: Programa para el anlisis de redes de distribucin
de energa elctrica. Parte I y II. XVII Reunin de Verano de
Potencia y Aplicaciones Industriales RVP AI 2004, IEEE Seccin
Mxico, Julio 2004
VII. BIOGRAPHIES
Cuba. He studied in the Central University of Las
Villas, Cuba, where obtained the title of Doctor in
Technical Sciences on 1997. From 1987, he
worked in the Department of Electric Engineering
in the Central University of Las Villas as assistant
professor and he was its chief from 1997 to 1999.
From 1999 he works as investigator professor in the Electrical and Mechanical
Engineering Department of the Guadalajara University and the Arteche MyT
SA company. His investigation area is related with modelation and studied of
the Power Electrical Systems and Desygn, Control and Protection of the
electric motor
Placetas, Cuba. He studied in the Central
University of Las Villas, Cuba, where obtained
some titles as Electrical Engineering, Industrial
Engineering and accountant publishes. He obtained
the tiltle of Doctor in Technical Sciences on the
Central University of Las Villas on 2002.
From 1969 to 2005, he worked in the Department of Electric Engineering in
the Central University of Las Villas as titular professor. From 2000, he works
as investigator professor in the Electrical and Mechanical Engineering
Department of the Guadalajara University. His investigation area is related
with Industrial Power Systems, Software Design, and the modelation and
studied of the Power Electrical Systems.
Cuba. He studied in the Central University of Las
Villas, Cuba, where obtained some titles as
Electrical Engineering, Industrial Engineering and
accountant publishes. He obtained the tiltle of
Doctor in Technical Sciences on the Central
University of Las Villas on 1992.
From 1969 to 2000, he worked in the Department of Electric Engineering in
the Central University of Las Villas as titular professor. From 2000, he works
as investigator professor in the Electrical and Mechanical Engineering
Department of the Guadalajara University. His investigation area is related
with Industrial Power Systems, Energy Saving, and the modelation and
studied of the Power Electrical Systems.
Trinidad, Cuba. He studied in the Central
University of Las Villas, Cuba, where obtained
some titles as Electrical Engineering, Industrial
Engineering and accountant publishes. He
obtained the tiltle of Doctor in Technical Sciences
on the Central University of Las Villas on 1990.
From 1971 to 1999, he worked in the Department of Electric Engineering in
the Central University of Las Villas as titular professor. From 2000, he works
as investigator professor in the Electrical and Mechanical Engineering
Department of the Guadalajara University. His investigation area is related
with Industrial Power Systems, Energy Saving, and the modelation and
studied of the Power Electrical Systems.
Alexis Martnez del Sol was born in Cienfuegos,
Jorge Javier Mier Garca was born in Bez,
Juan Jose Sanchez Jimenez was born in Placetas,
Mariano David Zerquera Izquierdo was born in
7
University of Guadalajara (UdeG), Mxico.
Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Depar-
tment. Interest areas: Modelling, simulation and
analysis of electrical power system, three-phase
and harmonic studies, active and reactive
compensation, energy quality studies,
development of digital simulators.
Mechanical and electrical engineering (1986), M. Sc.in electrical engineering
(1990), Ph. D. in electrical engineering (1995) all of them from The
Autonomus University of Nuevo Len (UANL), Mxico. Posdoctoral stay at
the University of British Columbia, Canada, (1998-1999). Since 1995 he is a
research professor at the UdeG, he has lectured three bachelor and 50 master
courses at UdeG and UANL. He has been involved in 15 research proyects
supported by internal and external institutes. He is co-author of two registered
patent. He has presented 40 technical paper in several international events.
Juan Marcos Garca Research Professor.