Thermal Equilibrium

Thermal Energy ad Heat

1. Thermal energy is a measure of the sum of
kinetic and potential energy in all the
molecules or atoms in an object.
2. Heat is the flow of thermal energy.

Temperature
1. Temperature is a measure of the average
kinetic energy which each molecule of an
object possesses.
2. One object is at a higher temperature than
another if the average kinetic energy of each
of its molecules is greater.
Differences between Thermal Energy and Temperature
Thermal Energy Temperature
A form of Energy Degree of hotness of an object.
Unit: Joule (J) Unit: Kelvin (K)/ Degree Celsius (
o
C)
Sum of the kinetic energy and potential
energy of the particles.
Average kinetic energy of the particles.
Derived quantity Base quantity

Thermal Equilibrium
1. Two objects are in thermal contact when heat
energy can be transferred between them.
2. Thermal equilibrium can be summarized as:

There is no net flow of heat between
two objects that are in thermal
equilibrium. Two objects in thermal
equilibrium have the same
temperature.


Before After






The rate of heat transfer is higher from higher
temperature to lower temperature. Therefore,
there is a net heat flow from object with higher
temperature to object with lower temperature.
Thermal Equilibrium Achieved
- Net Heat Flow = 0.
- Temperature become the same



Applications of Thermo Equilibrium

Oven

Refrigerator

Thermometer

Calibrating a Thermometer
Usually, we take the steam point of pure water as 100
o
C and the ice point of water as 0
o
C. After determining
the position of the ice point and steam point, the temperature of an object can be determined by using the
formula


Ice point: Temperature of melting ice. It
is taken to be 0
o
C.

Steam Point: Temperature of boiling
water. It is taken to be 100
o
C.
Absolute zero and the Kelvin temperature scale
1. Absolute temperature is the temperature measured in Kelvin scale, which it is a temperature reading made relative to
absolute zero.
2. We can convert a temperature in C to absolute temperature by adding 273 to the temperature.
For example:
25C = 273 + 25 = 298 K
100C = 273 + 100 = 373 K
3. Absolute zero is the temperature where thermal energy is at minimum. It is 0 on the Kelvin scale and -273 on the
Celsius scale.


Specific Heat Capacity
Heat Capacity
Heat capacity is the amount of heat
required to change the temperature
of an object by 1C.

Specific heat capacity
Specific heat capacity is the
amount of heat required to change
the temperature of 1 kg of a
substance by 1C.

Amount of heat change,
Q = mc
Gravitational Energy
Thermal Energy

Kinetic Energy Thermal
Energy

Electrical Energy Thermal
Energy

Mixing 2 Liquids


Applications of Specific Heat Capacity
1. Car engine
2. Thermal Radiator
3. Household Apparatus and Utensil
4. Sea Breeze
5. Land Breeze

Note:

Specific Latent Heat
Latent heat is the heat absorbed or given out at constant temperature during change of phase.

The specific latent heat of vaporization is the
heat needed to change 1 kg of a liquid at its
boiling point into vapour without a change in
temperature.
The specific latent heat of fusion is the heat
needed to change 1 kg of a solid at its melting
point into a liquid, or vice versa, without a change
in temperature.
Formula:
Q = ml

Measuring the specific latent heat of
fusion of ice

Electric energy supplied = Pt
Latent heat absorbed = ml
Pt = ml
Precaution Steps:
1. The heating element of the heater must fully
immerse in ice so that all the heat generated is
absorbed by the ice.
2. A control set is needed to estimate the amount
of mass of ice melted by the heat from the
surrounding.

Note:
1. The heat received by ice is less than the
calculated value Pt as some heat is lost to the
surrounding. This will result in the value of l
obtained from the calculation to be slightly
higher than the standard value.
2. If impurity is present in water, the melting
point of the water will be lower than normal.
Measuring the specific latent heat of
vaporization of water

Electric energy supplied = Pt
Latent heat absorbed = ml
Pt = ml

Note:
1. The boiling point of a liquid will increase as
the air pressure of the surrounding increases.
2. At high altitude, the atmospheric pressure is
lower. Therefore the boiling point of a liquid
will decrease at high altitude.

Evaporation
There are several ways of making a liquid
evaporate faster:
a) Increase its temperature
b) Increase its surface area
c) Pass air through it or across its surface
d) Make the liquid into a fine spray
A spray is made up of millions of tiny
liquid droplets with a very large total
surface area. The highly curved surfaces
make it easier for molecules to escape.

Cooling by evaporation
1. Blowing air into a liquid will cause the liquid
evaporate faster.
2. During evaporation, latent heat is absorbed
from the liquid (as a surrounding) causing the
temperature of the liquid decreases.

Note

Gas Laws
Boyle's law
Boyle's law states that the pressure of a gas with
constant mass is inversely proportional to its
volume provided the temperature of the gas is
kept constant.

Formula:


Explanation
1. When the volume of gas decreases, the
number of gas particles per unit volume
increases.
2. As a result, the frequency of collision between
the air particles and the wall of the container
increases.
3. As such, the pressure of the gas increases.
Pressure Law
Pressure law states that for a fixed mass of gas, the
pressure of the gas is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature of the gas provided the
volume of the gas is kept constant.

Formula:

Explanation
1. The kinetic energy of gas molecules increases
with temperature.
2. The air molecules collide with the wall of the
container at higher velocity and frequency.
3. The pressure in the gas increases, causing an
increase in volume.
Charles Law
Charles law states that for a fixed mass of gas, the
volume of the gas is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature of the gas provided the
pressure of the gas is kept constant.

Formula:

Explanation
1. When temperature increases, the average
kinetic energy of the gas particles will increase.
2. The air molecule move faster and collide with
the wall of the container more vigorously at
higher frequency.
3. As a result, the space between the gas particles
increases and the volume of the gas increases.
Universal Gas Law
When we combine the formula of the 3 gas law, we can deduce the following equation. We call it the
formula of universal gas law.

For a fixed mass of gas,
, or