Paper Insulation Based on the Repetition Frequency
of Transients
T.L. Koltunowicz, G. Bajracharya, D. Djairam and J.J. Smit Delft University of Technology Mekelweg 4 2628 CD, Delft, the Netherlands
Abstract- Fast transients have become a considerable addition to the electric grid, especially on locations where DC generated current needs to be converted into AC. The full impact of fast transients on high voltage equipment is still unknown and the scope of this contribution is to show that fast repetition frequencies of fast transients decrease the life expectancy of paper insulation. An aging waveform has been applied to paper samples and two frequencies for the transients are analyzed, 5 kHz and 8 kHz. The times to failure are then compared against a pure sinusoid at 50 Hz. The results show that fast transients have a very clear effect on shortening the life time of oil impregnated cellulose by factors of 6 and 4 respectively.
I. INTRODUCTION
The transformer is affected by many aging factors; some of them are caused by the electric grid itself whereas others are caused by external agents such as the surrounding environment. The scope of the power utilities is to categorize and quantify each of them in such way that an estimated life time for the transformer can be produced. This way, the utilization of this component can be extended and, therefore, costs can be cut down.
Fig.1 shows the division of the various aging factors that influence the life time of the transformer. The environmental conditions are the external influences that act on the transformer as it is placed outside for cooling purposes. Rain, changing temperatures and wind have a corrosive effect especially on the external body of the device. Rust tends to eat through to the interior causing leaks and also allowing moisture to enter the insulation and starting premature breakdowns [1].
Electrical factors tend to have more internal destructive consequences. High current loads cause the transformers core to heat up and release moisture from the paper insulation to the oil. Due to heat fluctuations in the transformer during the day, bubbles are generated in the paper oil insulation. This causes non-uniformity in the dielectric insulation allowing partial discharges (PD) to occur. Fast transients can cause vibrations and partial discharges in the windings insulation and tap changer.
Fig.1. Various aging factors affecting the main components of a transformer. Load and temperature are the biggest enemies of the transformer as they affect most of the components at least two fold.
The electric grid, however, has been changing very rapidly especially in the last 10 years. This is due to the fact that power electronic devices are becoming more affordable and the quality of their operation is regarded to be very high. However, some extra problems arise as well. Power electronic component such as IGBT inverters, for example, use the principle of fast switching to convert DC generated currents into AC form. These fast switching methods produce spikes with very high frequencies and fast rise times [2].
The effects of these transients are relatively unknown to the high voltage environment. Loose estimations can be produced based on the research that is carried out on AC motor drives. AC motors are controlled by adjustable speed drives (ASD) that also implement fast switching through MOSFET or similar electronic devices. The structure of a motor is very similar to the one of a transformer as both devices have windings wound on a core.
Some models have been produced for motors that show the relation of the frequency of the transients and the respective time to failure. This contribution will describe how this knowledge will be applied to paper impregnated samples.
Transformer Components
Insulation Bubble formation Particle formation Dielectric and tensile losses
Core Vibration Noise Cores insulation failure Tap Changer Corrosion Sparking Sticking Jamming of contacts
Windings High inter-disk stress
Moisture Air Temperature Hydrolysis Oxidation Pyrolisis Environmental VFT Lightnin g/Light Surges E l e c t r i c a l
Load 978-1-4244-6301-5/10/$26.00 @2010 IEEE
II. AGING CAUSED BY FAST TRANSIENTS
AC/DC inverters use fast switches, such as IGBTs, to convert a DC waveform to AC. There are many techniques used for this process, some of them being pulse width modulation (PWM) and amplitude modulation. Two techniques are described in Fig.2 on how a sinusoidal signal is achieved.
Fig. 2: Different switching techniques used by converters [3]. a) Six level switching, b) PWM switching. Figure 2a shows a six level switching mechanism. This involves six voltage levels at which high frequency (HF) switching will occur. The frequency in this case is 450 Hz. For smoother output waveforms, more levels need to be introduced and even higher frequencies need to be applied. Figure 2b shows how with the help of PWM a DC signal is converted to a sine waveform. The goal waveform is indicated in red, a smooth sinusoidal waveform at 50 Hz. But due to the switching conversion, the output looks more like the blue waveform, rough and with small voltage dips at the location of the switching pulses coming from the converter. Power electronic inverters at wind farms tend to produce similar waveforms, depending which one is more suitable on the situation. In all cases however, 2 specific characteristics are identified: a high repetition frequency between 0.5 kHz and 10 kHz and fast slew rates in the vicinity of 1 kV/s. Each of these parameters has a specific influence on the windings insulation layer. A. Repetitive frequency and magnitude In [4], it was investigated how two twisted wires covered with enamel from a motors winding reacted to different applied frequencies. The conclusions of that report are shown in Fig. 3 below.
Fig. 3: Effect of frequency and magnitude on a motors insulation material [4]. The higher the frequency, the lower the time to failure. From Fig. 3 it can be seen that as the frequency increases, the time to failure decreases, hence indicating that the frequency of repetition of the pulses shortens the life span. The amplitude of the pulse also has an effect on the life time. A change in 1 kV in amplitude shifts the failure curve by the same amount throughout the tested frequency. Throughout the whole measured bandwidth, the time to failure is always inversely proportional to the frequency. In this research, it was also discovered that 5 kHz was a very interesting point. Below 5 kHz, the relating equation can be defined as: L=B/f (1) Where: L is the lifetime of the insulation (s) B is a model constant f is the applied frequency (Hz)
After the 5 kHz threshold, the degradation of the insulation increases by a factor of 2. The new relation can be written as: L=C/f 2 (2) a) Six-level and switching frequency of 450 b) PWM to achieve a sinusoidal waveform Where: L is the lifetime of the insulation (s) C is a constant of proportionality f is the frequency applied (Hz)
However, it should be kept in mind that the applied waveform was a bipolar square wave where the duration of the pulses is relatively much longer. Duty cycle is also an issue when square waveforms are researched. From Fig. 2 it is also interesting to see that amplitude has an effect on the time to failure of the test sample. Amplitude has a direct effect on the partial discharges (PD) generated in the insulation of the winding, hence a higher magnitude will increase the destructive effect of the PD. B. Slew Rate Fast slew rates (dV/dt) also have an effect on the accelerated degradation on the insulation layer to a certain extent [5]. Spikes, overvoltages and uneven potential distribution across winding turns are just some of the major consequences caused by fast rise times. Below in Fig. 4, a representation of rise time against time to failure is presented. The waveform applied was a 4 kV bipolar square wave at 20 kHz with a duty cycle of 50%.
Fig. 4: Effects of square wave rise time on the time to failure [5]. The faster the rise time of the front, the faster the time to failure The above tests were carried out on motor winding insulation. It was concluded that fast rise times cause dielectric heating due to capacitive peak currents. These peak currents tend to be very large and are dependant on the slew rate. The effects of fast slew rates and the influence of fast repetitive frequencies have been studied on motor winding insulation. No final research has been concluded yet on HV components. An attempt to prove the destructiveness of the repeating frequency of the transients will be presented in the following section of this paper.
III. AGING TESTS AND RESULTS
A. Aging waveform Designing a good aging waveform that could recreate the fast transients in laboratory conditions was a not trivial task because the fast switching required a current of at least 8 A, which only specialised DC power sources can supply. The waveform in Fig. 5 was proposed so that fast transient aging and AC aging can be studied.
Fig. 5: The applied aging waveform to study the effect of fast transients. Repetition frequency is set to 5 kHz, slew rate to 1 kV/s and the AC amplitude is 3 kV p-p.
The generation of the waveform is described in detail in [6]. The variable parameters are: amplitude of the sinusoidal carrier wave, magnitude of the transients and their repetition frequency. The slew rate of each transient will be kept constant at 1 kV/s.
Based on the investigation mentioned earlier in this contribution, the repetition frequency will be varied between 0.5 kHz and 10 kHz at a magnitude of 1 kV. The magnitude of the sinusoid will depends on the breakdown voltage of the sample and it will be set at 95% of the breakdown voltage.
B. Paper samples and their characteristics The paper samples were pre-impregnated with oil at the factory and sent in sealed jars. This paper insulation is used in distribution transformers and the samples have a diameter of 16 cm and the thickness is 0.6 mm. The average breakdown voltage was calculated by performing minute step-up increases of 200 volts until breakdown was achieved. This value turned out to be 3.1 kV, as shown in Fig. 6. It should be noted that the scattering of breakdown voltage was very low, hence providing a very accurate voltage level for this type of paper.
The electrode used for the breakdown experiments and also for the aging tests has a flat circular diameter of 12 cm and the edges are rounded off in such way not to have high electric field concentrations.
Fig. 6: Weibull distribution of breakdown voltages of the paper samples with the round electrode. = 41.2 and = 3.1. The scattering of the breakdown points is low which provides an accurate result for the breakdown voltage.
C. Aging Results Two frequencies were analyzed: 5 kHz and 8 kHz. The test procedure involved stressing the samples in two separate tanks filled with oil. The samples in the first tank were stressed with a clean sinusoid of magnitude 2.91 kV, whereas the second tank was stressed with the aging waveform presented in Fig. 5 with the AC component of 2.91 kV, 1 kV transient magnitude and 1 s rise time. More specific details of the test set up are described in [6].
Fig. 7 shows the aging times in hours for samples taken from Jar 1. The applied repetition frequency was 5 kHz.
Fig. 7: Aging times of paper samples with transients at 5 kHz. 2.91 kV (Blue line, circle points): = 1.94, = 57.2. 2.92 kV+ 5 kHz (Black line, cross points): = 1.33, = 10.4. The scattering of the breakdowns is considered high but consistent with both types of aging. The aging times differ by a factor of 6.
Fig. 8 shows the aging results for paper samples taken from Jar 2. The applied frequency in this case was 8kHz.
Fig. 8: Aging times of paper samples with transients at 8 kHz. 2.91 kV (Black line, dot points): = 9.84, = 168.7. 2.92 kV+ 8 kHz (Blue line, cross points): = 7.65, = 38.3. The spread of the results is more closely grouped showing that the paper samples were more consistent. The aging coefficient here is of a factor of 4.
D. Discussion In both cases, it can be noticed that samples that are stressed with transients tend to have a shorter life time. The times to failure cannot be compared directly because too many variables are present, for e.g. the oil humidity varied; the water content in the tanks was different and the paper samples were from 2 separate jars. All these factors have a defining effect on the dielectric strength of the paper.
The factor by which the transients shorten the life expectancy of the paper samples can be compared. A repetitive frequency of 5 kHz decreases the life time by a factor of 6, whilst 8 kHz decreases the life time by a factor of 4.
What can be noticed also in the Weilbull plots is that the scattering of the results are quite high. This phenomena however is acceptable as cellulose, at such low thickness is not uniform. This makes the weak spot of the paper a variable and does not always guarantee a breakdown in the same time frame.
E. The Feasibility and Initial Thoughts on an Aging Model The aging model needs to be designed in such way so that a fast and clear calculation can be made to assess the influence that transient have been having on the insulation material. The idea is to have a relation of the repetition frequency with respect to the aging coefficient.
Having identified only two frequencies, it is still too early to draw any concrete conclusions on the right shape of the curve but in principle, a model could be created as the aging factors 8 kHz Aging =9.831950, =168.662089, =0.973582 =7.652382, =38.319402, =0.974223 Time to Failure U n r e l i a b i l i t y ,
F ( t ) 10 1000 100 10.000 50.000 90.000 99.000 2.91 kV + 8 kHz Probability Line Top CB-I Bottom CB-I 2.91 kV Probability Line Top CB-I Bottom CB-I Comparison of AC aging @ 2,91 kV and 5kHz transients 2.91 kV + 5kHz: =1.3391, =10.3522, =0.7698 2.91 kV: =1.9397, =57.2658, =0.9085 Time, (t) U n r e l i a b i l i t y ,
F ( t ) 1 1000 10 100 10.000 50.000 90.000 99.000 Round Electrode, Step Up =41.2025, =3.1220, =0.8005 Breakdown Voltage (kV) U n r e l i a b i l i t y ,
F ( t ) 1 10 1.000 5.000 10.000 50.000 90.000 99.000 differs for the two investigated frequencies. The data obtained is summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: The identified aging coefficient for oil-impregnated paper samples relative to the applied frequency of transients. Frequency Aging Coefficient 5 kHz 6 8 kHz 4
By looking at Table 1, an inverse pattern can be noticed where the aging coefficient decreases with the rising frequency. This means that the time to failure will increase with the higher frequency, contrary to the findings shown in Fig.3.
This difference is attributed most likely to the different insulating material. Paper impregnated in oil has regenerative capabilities when partial discharges occur therefore making it last longer. This cannot be said for solid insulation such as epoxy where, once partial discharges are ignited, these partial discharges will increase in magnitude. IV. CONCLUSION
Improvements to the grid also have waveform side effects. Extra aging factors are introduced that cause faster deterioration of the high voltage components. Transients generated by power electronic inverters are still in the investigation stage when assessing the deterioration of the insulation of a transformer. This is due to the nature of the material used for insulation. In the case of slot insulation in motors, partial discharges are generated when a transient is applied because of the air gaps. However, in the case of paper insulation, air gaps can be created with heat fluctuations in the transformer that cause bubble to be created [1]. The nature of these air bubbles and their capability to start a partial discharge will be analyzed in future research projects.
Studies presented in this contribution have shown that when the same type of sample is stressed with an AC waveform with superimposed transients, the life time is shortened. It was additionally noted that the factor by which the time to failure is reduced varies with the applied frequency.
The results presented need to be analyzed further by stressing more samples at the above mentioned frequencies to obtain a wider population for better statistical analysis. It is also interesting to investigate whether breakdowns are generated due to the fact that the transient voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage of the paper sample.
The next stage of the research will focus on analyzing more transient frequencies generated in wind farms. The range identified in those locations is between 0.5 10 kHz, depending on the quality of the AC waveform needed. As magnitude also has an effect on the time to failure, the magnitude of the transients will be lowered to study their influence on the paper insulation.
To better understand the effects of high repetition frequency of transients, it is also important to understand what happens to the material on a molecular level. This involves to look at the material characteristics of cellulose while it is stressed with AC and fast repeating transients.
REFERENCES
[1] T. Koltunowicz, G. Bajracharya, S. Meijer, J.J. Smit, R.A. Jongen, Transformer Aging Models for Future Power System Decision support, IEEE Young Researcher, Feb. 2008. [2] L. Paulsson, B. Ekhov, S. Halen, T. Larsson, L. Palmqvist, A. A. Edris, D. Kidd, A. J. F. Keri and B. Mehraban, High-frequency impacts in a converter-based back-to-back tie; the Eagle Pass installation, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 1410-1415, 2003. [3] M. Madrigal and E. Acha, Harmonic Modelling of Voltage Source Converters for HVDC Stations, IEEE AC-DC Power Transmission conference publication No. 485, 2001 [4] W. Yin, K. Bultemeier, D. Barta and D. Floryan, Critical Factors for Early Failure of Magnet Wires in Inverter Fed Motors, IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine Vol. 13, n. 6, pp. 18-23, Nov. 1997 [5] W. Yin, Failure Mechanism of Winding Insulation in Inverter-Fed Motors, IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, 1997.. [6] T.L. Koltunowicz, G. Bajracharya, D. Djairam, J.J. Smit, Investigation of the Effects of Fast Transients on a Transformers Paper Insulation, to be published in International Symposium on Electrical Insulation, San Diego 2010.