Unit 1

Leadership: Concept, Introduction, meaning, defnition,

Management is doing things right; leadership is doing the right things.Peter F.
ruc!er,,
I"#$%UC#I%" :
Leadership can &e 'ie(ed as a d)namic process, (hich in'ol'es a num&er o*
com&ined *actors and phenomena, and the outcomes o* e+ecti'e leadership are
&eha'iours and achie'ements that are in line (ith the 'ision and strategies o* the
organisation .
1) According to Prof.George terry, Leadership denotes the relationship in
which a person i.e. the leader influences others to work together willingly
on related tasks to attain that which the leader desires.
Leaders Managers
Innoate Ad!inister
"eelop #aintain
Inspire $ontrol
Long%ter! iew &hort%ter! iew
Ask what and why Ask how and when
'riginate Initiate
$hallenge the status (uo Accept the status (uo
"o the right things "o things right
)) According to *.&hukla, Leadership is the process of e+ercising an
authority and decision !aking.
,) According to Prof .-..oont/ and '0"onnell, !anage!ent leadership is the
a1ility of !anager to induce su1ordinates to work with confidence and
/eal.
#here are f'e main 'aria&les that can in,uence leadership &eha'iour:
1. #he tas!s and goal o* the organisation
-. #he leader.s !no(ledge, s!ills / attitudes
0. #he *ollo(ers s!ills, attitudes / moti'ation
1. #he conte2t or situation
3. #he resources a'aila&le
Characteristics/Features of leadership:-
1) All pervading/present:-
In all spheres of hu!an actiities whereer group e+ists, leadership is
essential to ensure profita1le output. 2or e+a!ple, these spheres !ay 1e
social, political, econo!ic, educational, and cultural or een the
households.
2) Optimiing the use of resources:-
It is the a1ility which ensures the opti!u! and full utili/ation of aaila1le
physical and hu!an resources.

!) "#istence of follo$ers: -
'ne cannot i!agine a leader without the e+istence of followers. In an
organi/ational set up, the followers are the su1ordinates, who are lead 1y
their !anagers
%) Co-coordinating agenc& :-
Leader has to perfor! the work of esta1lishing co%ordination, integration
and 1alance 1etween the works of indiidual e!ployees a!ong the
depart!ents and interact with the outer seg!ents. 3he leader i.e. !anager
has to has to esta1lish working relations 1etween hi!self and the !e!1ers
of group who! he leads.
') Full (no$ledge of the a)ilities of the su)-ordinates :-
3he !anager has to take in to consideration the a1ilities, (ualities,
e+perience, attitude and aptitude of su1ordinates 1efore entrusting any
work to the!. 3his re(uires that the !anager should 1e fully aware a1out
the characteristics and co!petence of su1ordinates.
*) Ma(ing polic& and important decisions:-
3he leader in an organi/ation is entrusted with !aking 1asic decisions,
for!ulating policies and deeloping strategies. -e has to find out the ways
and !eans for i!ple!enting such decisions.
+) On-going process: -
Leadership is an on%going process or continuous pheno!enon. 3he
effectieness of leadership can 1e !easured 1y, to what e+tent
organi/ational o14ecties hae 1een achieed. In case of any deficiency the
leader needs to !ake necessary i!proe!ents.
,) -elated to particular situation: -
Leadership is situational in nature. In accordance with the change in
situation or circu!stances, the leadership style will differ. 3he leader !ust
study the situation and accordingly decide hi!self as to the style of
leadership to 1e adopted.
1. Co-existence with followership. It is axiomatic to say that there cannot be any leader without
the existence of followers. The leader exercises authority over the group, and such authority is
willingly accepted by followers. Where authority is imposed over the group without the voluntary
acceptance of such authority, it results in domination, not leadership of the group. Leadership cannot
be conferred or ordered, it must be earned. The first feature of leadership is thus to be found in
confidence, respect, loyalty an devotion shown by followers.
2. Understanding feelings and problems. The second characteristic of leadership lies in
understanding group and individual feelings and problems of followers. The leader must try for the
satisfaction of social and personal needs of his followers. The leader is looked upon as one dependable
friend, philosopher and guide followers. Accordingly, followers expect the leader to recognie their
individual difficulties and to take ever possible measure for their well!being. This dependence or faith
in the leader is made to prevail among personnel through mutual understanding. And to increase this
understanding, the leadership is re"uired to keep the followers informed of all developments affecting
the group and its work to allow participation in decision making on important matters and to practice
counselling with group members.
3. Assumption of responsibility. The third feature of leadership calls for the acceptance of full
responsibility in all situations As the leader exercises authority and undertakes the task of guidance,
he must assume the responsibility for all actions and operations of his followers. #e must steer the
group clear of all difficulties for arriving at the fixed destination. $or the attainment of ob%ectives, he is
to encourage and develop the weak, to influence sand control the strong, and to prepare the whole
group for an effective teamwork. &oreover, leadership demands the capacity for stimulating the
growth of enthusiasm and initiative among individual members.
4. b!ecti"ity in relations. Another characteristic of leadership rests on maintaining ob%ectivity in
relationship through fair play and absolute %ustice in all affairs of the organiations. The playing fair is
to be demonstrated in all decisions and actions, in communication and participation, in reprimand and
commendation, or in placement and transfer. The leader's ability to inspire can be retained intact
through his impartiality in all operations and activities. &is%udgment and misdirection by the leader
affect employee behaviour and reduce the result of human efforts. &embers feel aggrieved and the
leader loses their confidence and loyalty. (onse"uently, leadership fails to guide and direct the group
efforts.
.mportance of leadership:-
1) "sta)lishing co-ordination:-
In a large si/ed organi/ation, the total work is split up and diided into
s!aller depart!ents. It is necessary to esta1lish proper co%ordination,
1etween the 4o1 of one indiidual with that of another and one depart!ent
with the other. In the a1sence of such co%ordination there is likely to 1e
disorder in the organi/ation. 3he !anagers hae to perfor! as a link, and
1ring effectie co%ordination in the organi/ation.
2) Ma#imum utiliation of human resources:-
In !odern large si/ed organi/ations, !any people are engaged to !anage
the 4o1s at different leels. "ue to indiidual differences, each of the! differs
fro! the other as far as their personalities, a1ilities, education etc are
concerned. 3he leadership in the organi/ation has to see to it that the
principle of fitting the right !an to the right 4o1 is strictly followed. 3his
facilitates the !a+i!u! use of the efficiency of the e!ployees and also
proides !a+i!u! 4o1 satisfaction to the e!ployees.
!) Motivation and morale )uilding :-
A good and dyna!ic leader knows the art of inducing, encouraging and
!otiating the followers to gie their 1est possi1le perfor!ance .-e can
!ake the people work towards the attain!ent of group goals.
Good leadership is also an indispensa1le aspect for e!ployee
!orale 1uilding. 5!ployees with high !orale show positie 1ehaior,
attitude and high productiity.
%) /asis of all other management functions:-
3he !anage!ent process consists of !any functions which are inter%related
to each other. It inoles planning, organi/ation, directing, 1udgeting etc.
A!ong all these, effectie leadership is of critical i!portance 1ecause if the
leader is co!petent enough they can perfor! the other functions in a 1etter
!anner.
') "ffectiveness of communication: -
In an organi/ation, the workers, e!ployees, !anagers and others perfor!
their work at different leels. 3he interpersonal and inter%depart!ental
co!!unications necessary for 1ringing co%ordination in the organi/ation.
5ffectie leadership is only capa1le of deeloping an efficient
co!!unication network within the organi/ation.
*) -emoval of o)stacles or pro)lems: -
3here arise pro1le!s of arying nature during the course of working of any
organi/ation. 3hese pro1le!s !ay or !ay not 1e of a predicta1le nature.
3he responsi1ility of re!oing these difficulties lies with the leader.
Components o* Leadership4 Leader, Follo(ers and situation, :
The Interactional Framework for Analyzing Leadership
Leader :
Indi'idual aspects o* the leadership e5uation:
Uni5ue personal histor)
Interests
Character traits
Moti'ation
6+ecti'e leaders di+er *rom their followers, and *rom inefective leaders
on elements such as:
Personalit) traits, cogniti'e a&ilities
7!ills, 'alues
8nother (a) personalit) can a+ect leadership is through temperament.
Leaders appointed by superiors ma) ha'e less credibility and ma) get
less lo)alt).
Leaders elected or emerging &) consensus *rom ran!s o* *ollo(ers are seen
as more e+ecti'e.
8 leader.s experience or history in a particular organi9ation is usuall)
important to her or his e+ecti'eness.
#he e2tent o* follower participation in leader.s selection ma) a+ect a
leader.s legitimac).
Follo(ers :
Certain aspects o* *ollo(ers a+ect the leadership process:
62pectations
Personalit) traits
Maturit) le'els
Le'els o* competence
Moti'ation
:or!ers (ho share a leader.s goals and values (ill &e more moti'ated to
do their (or!.
#he number of followers reporting to a leader can ha'e signifcant
implications.
%ther rele'ant 'aria&les include:
Followers trust in the leader.
Followers con!dence or lac! thereo* in leader.s interest in their
(ell4&eing.
7I#U8#I%"
Leadership o*ten ma!es sense onl) in the conte2t o* ho( the leader and
*ollo(ers interact in a gi'en situation.
#he situation ma) &e the most am&iguous aspect o* the leadership
*rame(or!.
C%"CLU7I%"
Leaders create environments (here followers innovations and
creative contributions are (elcome.
Leaders encourage growth and development in their *ollo(ers &e)ond the
scope o* the ;o&.
Leaders are generall) more interested in the big picture o* *ollo(ers. (or!
than managers.
Leaders motivate *ollo(ers through more personal and intangible
factors.
Leaders rede!ne the parameters o* tasks and responsibilities
C%"CLU7I%"7
Leadership in'ol'es dynamic interaction &et(een leaders and *ollo(ers in
a particular situation.
7tud) o* leadership must include the followers and the situation.
#he interactive nature o* leader4*ollo(ers4situation can help us &etter
understand
#he changing nature o* the leader4*ollo(er relationship.
#he increasingl) greater comple2it) o* situations leaders and *ollo(ers
*ace.
<ood leadership can &e enhanced &) greater a(areness o* *actors in,uencing
the leadership process.
Leadership myths : Leadership refers to the ability of a person to motivate and
inspire other persons towards a common goal. It is a critical management skill in
the corporate world where the manager should lead his team towards achieving a
common objective.His role as a leader is crucial in maximizing and integrating the
potential of available resources. For that, he needs multiple skills, which many of
us may think cannot be developed by an ordinary person. More often than not,
we nurture certain misconceptions about leadership. Knowing what these
misconceptions are helps us understand what leadership is really about and
enables us to build efective leadership skills.
Here are 10 of the most common myths about leadership.
1. Leaders are born and not made" This is the frst and most common of
all myths about leadership. Though some people have innate leadership
qualities, it is rare. Mostly, leaders are made by their circumstances. The
extraordinary circumstances that surround them propel them to become efective
leaders. When it comes to the corporate world, you can learn leadership skills by
consistent eforts.
2. Leaders know everything" It is not true that leaders know everything
under the sun. What leaders do have is a vision and a sense of direction. They
too learn from others.
3. Leaders are infallible" Leaders do make mistakes like all humans do. In
fact, they could even appear to commit more mistakes than all of us because they
take more visible decisions at every stage than others do. However, what
diferentiates good leaders from others is that they are candid in admitting their
mistakes and in learning lessons from them.
4. Leaders only give orders" Leaders do not always give orders, though
the position they are in requires them to do so. More often, they inspire others to
do what is required of them in a given situation.
5. Leaders are charismatic" Charisma is not the absolute quality of a
leader. Leaders are often followed because they are respected for their hard
work, integrity, ideas, and commitment.
6. Leaders have imposing personalities" Leaders need not have
impressive personalities. Though, sometimes, this does help attract people. What
leaders do posses is the ability to infuence people even if they dont have a
distinguished personality.
7. Leadership comes with age" There is no specifc age to become an
efective leader. People become efective leaders with what they learn from their
past experience, not just with increasing age.
8. Leaders possess absolute power" Not true always. Their true
efectiveness is measured by their ability to command a following without wielding
absolute power. Leadership is not tyranny. Bad leaders resort to strong arm
tactics when their leadership fails and so end up creating followers. But if
leadership succeeds, it creates leaders.
9. Leaders never delegate important stuf" Leaders do delegate the
right work to the right person. They share work and responsibilities judiciously
and get the job done. And this in no way undermines their credibility. In fact, as I
said earlier, they pave the way for new leaders to emerge.
10. Leadership can be attained through study" Leadership is about
attitude and not about knowledge. Even if you study thousands of books, you
cannot develop leadership skills until you inculcate the right attitude.
The misconceptions listed here are not what make you an infuential leader but
your ability to inspire a shared vision, facilitate collective eforts to reach a
common objective and identify and nurture the right talent.
8ssessing leadership :
It is *undamentall) concerned (ith predicting (ho (ill or (ill not &e an e+ecti'e
leader before the) ha'e &een placed into a position.
8ccuratel) predicting managerial e+ecti'eness is criticall) important
&ut not at all straight*or(ard.
$esearch has s)stematicall) determined (hich leadership assessment
techni5ues )ield more 'alid and accurate predictions than other techni5ues.
#ersonal opinions a&out leadership e+ecti'eness can vary substantially
across indi'iduals.
Putting the wrong people into !e) leadership positions can literall) cost
stock holders &illions o* dollars and lead to organi9ational ruin.
Man) o* the most commonly used leadership hiring techni5ues =application
&lan!s, re*erence chec!s, and unstructured inter'ie(s> are also the least valid$
?The best predictor of future leadership behavior is past leadership behaviorin
similar circumstances. Personnel ecisions International Managerial incompetence,
%anagerial incompetence"
espite the per'asi'eness o* leadership, the base rate of managerial
incompetence ma) &e some(here &et(een 3@ A B3 percent.
#he &r 'ordy test is one (a) to determine the le'el o* incompetence
among leaders.
(fective leaders are indi'iduals (ho are good at &uilding teams and
getting results.
Most people in leadership positions get paid to get results, and the) get
results &) &uilding teams.
Managers can &e categori9ed as &eing:
Competent Managers
$esults %nl) Managers
Cheerleaders
In "ame %nl) Managers
7e'eral *actors contri&ute to the short*all in managerial incompetence:
emographics
Lac! o* emplo)ee lo)alt)
Lac! o* good s)stems to identi*) and de'elop leadership talent
#echnolog)
$esearch sho(s that organi9ations ha'ing higher number o* Competent Managers
occup)ing critical positions are more success*ul than those (ithout
#he &iggest source o* (orr) *or organi9ations an)(here is the lack of high
)uality leadership talent.
#hree critical ingredients most loo!ed *or in persons in positions o* authorit)
include:
Pro&lem sol'ing and sound decision ma!ing a&ilities.
LocalC*unctional !no(4ho(.
8&ilit) to get things done through others.
Dest Practices in 8ssessing Leadership Potential : etermine the leadership le'el o*
the position.
Duild a competenc) model.
Use a multiple hurdles approach.
Leadership #alent Management s)stem.: Leadership #alent Management
Leadership talent management system: Consists o* those processes and
procedures organi9ations use to hire, de'elop, e'aluate, re(ard, promote, and
retain its leaders.
$esearch has sho(n that good talent management s)stems can ha'e a
pro*ound impact on organi9ational e+ecti'eness and success.
7teps In'ol'ed in Leadership #alent Management =continued>
Clari*) the organizations strategy *or the *uture.
Identi*) (hat are or (ill &e the critical leadership positions in the
organi9ation.
e'elop a competency model *or the critical leadership positions.
6nsure the organi9ation.s recruiting and selection processes are
identi*)ing, hiring, de'eloping, re(arding, and promoting the right
candidates.
8dopt valid and well*researched processes *or hiring, de'eloping, and
promoting leadership talent.
Measuring e+ects o* Leadership:
Eust as 'arious techni5ues are used to assess leaders, there are also 'arious (a)s
to measure their efects on su&ordinates and organi9ations.
:hen ;udging, the conse)uences o* leader &eha'iors are e2amined,
than the behaviors per se.
Focused &rive"
#he competenc) o* *ocusing on a goal and harnessing )our energ) in
order to meet that goal A a &alance &et(een the components o*:
Focus: #he a&ilit) to identi*) an important goal or 'ision and to channel
e+orts at specifc targets that support that goal or 'ision.
ri'e: #he a&ilit) to perse'ere, sacrifce =(hen necessar)>, and e2pend
high degrees o* energ) to reach high le'els o* per*ormance
(motional Intelligence * a &alance &et(een
Perception: #he a&ilit) to read the emotions and thoughts o* others
through the use o* insight, empath), and o&ser'ational s!ills.
6motional Maturit): #he a&ilit) to master emotions and cope (ith
stress in a (a) that instils confdence, moti'ates, and enhances group
e+ecti'eness.
Trusted In+uence
#he competenc) o* e+ecti'el) in,uencing others &) e'o!ing their trust
and &) placing trust in others to ena&le their success A a &alance &et(een
the components o*Trusted In+uence* a &alance &et(een
Commitment: #he a&ilit) to e'o!e trust *rom others &) !eeping commitments,
recogni9ing indi'idual contri&utors, setting a personal e2ample, and &uilding
shared goals, 'alues, and 'ision.
6mpo(erment: #he a&ilit) to help others reach higher le'els o*
per*ormance through trust, delegation, participation, and coaching
,ystems Thinking * a &alance &et(een
Process %rientation: #he a&ilit) to increase o'erall learning and per*ormance
&) designing, implementing, andCor connecting critical (or! processes.
Mental iscipline: #he a&ilit) to logicall) and thought*ull) sort through
am&iguit) and alternati'es (ith a rigor and discipline that cr)stalli9es ideas
*or action.
#roblem ,olving
#he s!ill o* emplo)ing anal)tical a&ilities, pragmatism, and other tools
to resol'e comple2 pro&lems in a 'ariet) o* conte2ts
Commonl) used measures to ;udge success*ul and unsuccess*ul leaders
include:
7uperiors. e+ecti'eness and per*ormance ratings
7u&ordinates. ratings o* their ;o& satis*action and morale or o* their
leader.s e+ecti'eness
Unit per*ormance indices
.
The -ualitative Approach
#he most common 5ualitati'e approach is the case stud).
-uantitative Approaches
Correlational studies
62periments
,uperiors efectiveness .performance ratings "most superiors
performance rating are determined by leader superior and include rating
of performance /n relevant dimension as well as recommendation for
promotions$ &imension are as follows like
integrity0leadership0administrative skills0communication impact $
1atings &) superiors and subordinates generall) )ield use*ul in*ormation
a&out a leader.s e+ecti'eness.
%ultiple measures o*ten )ield the &est in*ormation a&out leadership
success.
Practitioners need to thin! criticall) a&out ho( their behavior a+ects the
measures used to ;udge leadership success.
Practitioners need to &e a(are o* leadership success measures &eing biased.
,ubordinates rating of satisfaction "in this method subordinates asked to
rate their level of satisfaction or efectiveness0 may be motivated or not
motivated 0feeling committed to organization or not $fostering sense of
cohesiveness and coperation among unit members is a goal towards
leaders $
2nit #erformance Indices" to examine what impact leaders have on bottom
lines of the organizations$ They make 3udgement about leadership success
by examing store sales0pro!t margins0number of defective products
returned $the biggest )uali!cation to remember in these measure of
leadership is that factors beyond leaders control$It is important to
estimate how much a leaders behavior might afect a particular unit
performance index before using that index to 3udge the leaders
efectiveness like cheerleaders0 in name only managers will often take
credit for result they had little to do with which afects the base rate of
managerial incompetence
organi9ational climate : $e*ers to meaning*ul interpretations o* a (or!
en'ironment &) the people in it
6 8re social relationships (arm and caringF
6 8re people treated *airl) *or re(ardsCrecognitionF
6 o people ta!e pride in e2cellenceF
Factors that in+uence /rganizational 4limate"
In'ol'ement
Co4(or!er Cohesion
7uper'isor 7upport
8utonom)
#as! %rientation
:or! Pressure
Clarit)
Managerial Control
Inno'ation
Ph)sical Com*ort
Morale : It may be defined as the possessionof a feeling on the part of
theemployee of being accepted andbelonging to a group of employeesthrough
adherence to common goalsand confidence in the desirability of these goals.
$eeling accepted by one)s workgroup*+haring common goals with one)swork
group*#aving confidence in the desirabilityof these goals.
$actors that Influence &orale
#$roup cohesi"eness or feeling of togetherness#%eed for a goal#bser"able
progress towards the goal- there must be obser"able progresstowards the
goal#&pecific meaningful tas's-indi"idual in thegroup must ha"e specific meaningful
tas'sthat are necessary to the achie"ement of the goal
#(ob security.
#)anagementstyle.
#&taff feeling that their contribution is "alued bytheir employer.
#*ealistic opportunities for merit-based promotion.
#+he percei"ed socialoreconomic "alueof thewor' being done by the organi,ation
as a whole.
#+he percei"ed status of the wor' being done by the organi,ation as a whole.
#+eamcomposition.
#+he wor' culture
moti'ation and leadership e+ecti'eness,
and Unit per*ormance indices.
Unit :-
Po(er : Po(er A Capacit) o* one part) to in,uence another part), #ower is a
measure o* a personGs a&ilit) to control the en'ironment around them,
including the &eha'ior o* other people
In,uence and leadership: Leaders have power in situations$ #his does not
necessaril) mean that leaders should or do ha'e power over people.
#ower is simply the right to provide leadership$
O 8s leadership in'ol'es in,uence o'er other people, po(er is usuall)
gi'en &) the group to the leader. 7o too can the group ta!e the po(er
a(a) i* the) are not satisfed (ith the leader.
#he exercise of power is a comple2 process and appears to &e dependent
on context, personality and expertise.
7ources o* po(er:
C%6$CIH6: epends on *ear. It is the a&ilit) to punish or (ithhold pri'ileges.
$6:8$: Dased on oneGs control o'er things that others desire such as
'acations, raises, promotions, and oIce locations.
L6<I#IM8#6: Person holding po(er has right to it &ecause o* position or role.
#hus the person has a *ormal right to direct others in certain matters and the
su&ordinates ha'e a dut) to o&e) those directions.
6JP6$#: #he perception &) others that one has superior ;udgment or
!no(ledge on some topics, o*ten speciali9ed in nature. Unli!e in*ormation
po(er, this po(er &ase does not in'ol'e sharing o* the *acts or reasoning
&ehind a decision.
$6F6$6"#: e'elops out o* su&ordinatesG admiration *or leader and hisCher
desire to model &eha'iour and attitudes a*ter that person. #he person &uilds
*eelings o* support, li!ing, admiration, and respect (ith su&ordinates.
Po(er ac5uisition *or leadership :
[1] Gaining control over tangible resources --- Acquiring poer means
acquiring "potential" in!luence" hich is the potential !or getting others to do hat you
ant or !or preventing them !rom !orcing you to do something#
[$] %btaining in!ormation and control o! in!ormation channels
[&] 'stablishing !avorable relationships
(1) *reating a sense o! obligation
($) +uilding a good pro!essional reputation
(&) 'ncouraging identi!ication
(,) *reating perceived dependence
[,] -eys to success at acquiring poer
(1) .hey tend to be very sensitive to here poer e/ists in their organi0ations
($) .o some degree" they use all the methods described in this chapter to develop
poer
(&) .hey ta1e calculated ris1s in hich they 2invest2 some o! their poer in the
hopes o! gaining it bac1 ith interest
(,) .hey recogni0e that all o! their actions can a!!ect their poer and they avoid
actions that ill accidentally decrease it
(3) 4n their career development they try to move both up the hierarchy and toard
positions here they can control some strategic contingency !or their organi0ation
5oer!ul managers gain and maintain really si0able amounts o! poer by moving into
positions that control 1ey contingencies !or their organi0ations# .hey do so because they
recogni0e that as long as their organi0ation has to compete ith others to get support
!rom its environment" those ho can manage the most problematic environmental
contingencies are really the most important people in the organi0ation# 'veryone in an
organi0ation" must depend on a poer!ul manager" and that situation gives him or her a
great deal o! poer6
A summary o! the "acquisition of power" by a manager:
.he manager7s power comes from the combination o! (1) interpersonal and
analytical s1ills" 1noledge" and energy level and ($) the degree to hich the
manager controls important resources" such as [1] tangible resources" in!ormation
and in!ormation channels8 [$] and has !avorable relationships based on a sense o!
obligation" a strong pro!essional reputation" identi!ication o! others ith the
manager" and his or her perceived dependence#
Approaches to understanding poer:
Inner leaders do not arise si!ply as a result of a grant 1y others of the powers of
co!!and clai!ed and e+ercised 1y the!. 3hey ac(uire power only when they appeal
to followers 1y sti!ulating their e!otions and offering suggestions to the! that they see
as helpful in attaining the followers0 personal and professional goals.
0o$er 1se 2echni3ues
Inner leaders prepare the!seles to e+ercise power within their work co!!unities in
!any ways 7see also 2airhol!, 188,).
Creating (or Making Use of Existing) Power Situations
Inner leaders are aware of the power co!ponent in eery interpersonal interaction in
which they engage. In fact, all !e!1ers of the work co!!unity are continually
negotiating for power to gain their desires. It is a u1i(uitous and legiti!ate part of work
9all9life. All !e!1ers of the work co!!unity are regularly in situations where they
co!pete for adantage so they can get their own way in the face of co!peting action 1y
others. Inner leaders understand that the co!ponent parts of a power relationship 7a
situation in which power is and ought to 1e used to gain success) are nor!ally present
in !ost work relationships. 3he co!ponents of such a power situation include
interdependence, differing goals, and co!petition to see who will achiee desired goals
in a situation of scarcity where if one participant gains his or her goals the others do not.
It is a situation where at least one participant in the relationship attaches enough
i!portance to the situation, goals, or approach to 1e willing to e+pend energy in the
relationship. :nless all these factors are present, operational power use need not 1e
called upon to get one0s way. ;ut the fact is that al!ost eery interpersonal situation in a
work co!!unity can 1e defined in ter!s of these characteristics.
Understanding the Classic Power-Use Model
:nderstanding the theory of power use is a crucial aspect of the inner leader0s success
in using this techni(ue. 3he characteristics of any group where power politics is a part of
a relationship include the following< 3he relationship !ust inole a decision situation
characteri/ed 1y choice a!ong co!peting alternaties. Power use depends on a social
situation where action 1y one party i!pacts the 1ehaior or choices of the others and
where a condition of scarcity of resources critical in achieing the work co!!unity0s or
an indiidual0s purposes is present. Inner leaders use power in situations where
participants are free to act to achiee desired results. Power arises fro! the leader0s
a1ility to take needed action to achiee desired results or to withhold action. It is a
dyna!ic, interactie process.
Using Power to Increase Power
:sing power increases one0s cache of power. 2ailure to e+ercise it can result in its loss.
3his characteristic of power use places inner leaders in a co!ple+ interactie and
dyna!ic power relationship with eeryone with who! they interact, one purpose of
which is to gain and !aintain their relatie power positions in the work co!!unity.
Facilitating Power Use b Creating Conditions !hat Foster It
Inner leaders insure the presence of the following factors in their work culture as these
factors increase their relatie power in the work co!!unity and further the potential for
its productie use.
Discretion. Inner leaders structure the work co!!unity to !a+i!i/e discretion.
Centrality. 3hey !anipulate relationships to insure that they are at the center of actiity.
Exchange. Inner leader create situations where 1oth parties hae so!ething to gie and
so!e e+pectation of potential attractie results fro! their decision to engage in
co!!unal relations.
Status vis--vis superiors. Inner leaders endeaor to hae !ultiple inti!ate contacts
and influence with people superior to the! in the hierarchy.
Conformance to work-community norms. 3hey take actions to insure that followers see
the! as the personification of work%co!!unity nor!s. 3hey !odel desired 1ehaior.
Legitimacy. Inner leaders insure that followers see the! as haing legiti!ate authority.
Association. Inner leaders associate in friendly ways with !e!1ers of the work
co!!unity and with other like%!inded people.
Personal status. Inner leaders try to present the!seles in ways that induce followers to
hold the! in high estee!.
Personal characteristics. 3hey also try to get others to think of the! as possessing
personal attri1utes like integrity, co!!it!ent, high energy use, interest, skill, and
personal and professional attractieness.
Controlling rewars. 3he inner leader0s capa1ility to proide 1enefits to followers allows
hi! or her to control follower 1ehaior and achiee desired results to the e+tent of the
followers0 need for that tangi1le or intangi1le reward.
Criticality. $ontrol oer ital infor!ation, ti!e, e+pertise, or other resources needed 1y
the work co!!unity or any !e!1er gies inner leaders power oer those in need.
Alliances. Inner leaders !ultiply their power as they colla1orate with groups of
independently powerful people and thus increase their potency to attain a sufficient
critical power !ass to achiee desired results.
A perception of legitimacy. As recipients 1eliee their inner leaders hae a legiti!ate
right to co!!and, whether those leaders hae actual authority or not, leaders can
e+ercise power toward those persons or groups. Legiti!acy co!es fro! a perceied
delegation fro! the co!!unity or higher corporate9or other9entity. Acceptance of that
delegation co!es as affected indiiduals accept the inner leader0s actions as
appropriate.
!entification with powerful others. Affiliation with other people who! their followers
perceie as i!portant can aug!ent inner leaders0 power. &uch identification can 1e
actual or !erely perceied, or it can 1e sy!1olic. Inner leaders can ac(uire or increase
their power 1y adhering to the ideals, nor!s, or goals stakeholders alue in their heros
7$oey, )==1). Perceied identification with ideas, alues, !ethods, or goals of fa!ous,
wise, attractie, or powerful people adds to the inner leader0s perceied power in the
sa!e way that direct association does.
Expertise. 3he leader0s own e+pertise 1eco!es an i!portant 1ase of power as the
targets of the leader0s power use co!e to depend on his or her e+pertise in needed skill
areas. ;eing perceied as e+pert lets inner leaders e+ert power 1eyond their official role
in the work co!!unity in any direction9up, down, and laterally.
"se of power. 3he act of using power tends to increase one0s power.
Personal ifference. As inner leaders !ake the!seles different fro! their colleagues
7positiely, 1ut also negatiely9say, as a cur!udgeon), they are !ore likely to hae
and e+ercise power.
Centrality. Physical location in the center of actiity, in the !iddle of work operations, or
close in pro+i!ity to powerful people. A central location adds to the deelop!ent and
effectie use of inner leaders0 power and the likelihood that they will 1e in the circle of
powerful cli(ues and hae access to other powerful people in the hierarchy.
"eco#ing Ex$ert in Man Power !echni%ues
Inner leaders hae learned to use seeral kinds of power such as these<
#ewar power. 2ounded on the inner leader0s a1ility to proide 1enefits to another.
!nformation power. ;ased on uni(ue data needed 1y others.
Coercive power. ;ased on the leader0s a1ility to punish nonco!pliance.
Expert power. ;uilt on the uni(ue skill or knowledge that the inner leader has.
#eferent power. 2ashioned on desires others hae to 1e identified with the inner leader.
Legitimate power. ;ased on a perceied grant of power fro! an e+ternal and
recogni/ed source.
&ielding Power in 'elationshi$s with !o$ (eaders
Inner leaders continually engage in power politics with those people who are superior to
the! in the for!al corporate structure. &eeral specific tactics of power use with
superiors are listed 1elow. 3his listing follows 2airhol!0s 7188,) work and relies largely
on aspects of personal character rather than prerogaties of position.
Proactivity. :sing proactie power is nothing !ore than using power first and seeking
per!ission afterward. It is often seen as a fait accompli, a situation in which the inner
leader presents the 1oss with a co!pleted decision or action and seeks support and
endorse!ent after the fact.
"sing outsie experts. Inner leaders at ti!es use authorities not connected with their
i!!ediate work co!!unity to conince others that their proposed decisions or
alternaties are the correct ones. 3hey fre(uently select an e+pert who is known to faor
a gien approach, philosophy, or techni(ue so they can ensure that the perspectie they
faor will 1e reflected in the reco!!endations ulti!ately gien.
Displaying charisma. $haris!a9personal !agnetis!9is 1ased on an al!ost isceral
connection 1etween the powerful and the relatiely powerless. It inoles inner leaders
in any of a wide ariety of 1ehaiors and de!eanor intended to elicit follower
co!pliance 1ecause of their attraction to the character of the leader in so!e ways.
#ationali$ation. Anything an inner leader does to consciously engineer reality, to 4ustify
decision results or specific points of iew, can 1e included in the rationali/ation power
techni(ue. 3he rationali/ation tactic uses language or sy!1ols to construct a
particulari/ed iew of reality that legiti!i/es the inner leader power user0s decisions.
*ationali/ation inoles persuasion, structuring reality, appeal to the e!otions, and the
use of hu!or.
"sing am%iguity. Inner leaders use or create situations of !ultiple, chaotic interactions
where understood nor!s of hu!an interaction are 1roken down and new standards
hae not 1een solidified to gain their desires. 3hese a!1iguous situations allow the
leader to assu!e power and authority for acco!plish!ent in ways and to degrees not
possi1le in a highly structured, controlled, and predicta1le eniron!ent.
&uiling a favora%le image. ;uilding a faora1le i!age refers to atte!pts inner leaders
!ake to create or change the perceptions others hae of their personalities, skills,
capacities, alues, or attitudes to enhance their power a!ong colleagues including their
1osses.
6merson.s po(er dependence theor) : Po(er4ependence in irect 62changes ,
$ichard 6merson =1KL-> theori9ed a&out impacts o* macro4net(or! structures on
direct d)adic e2changes and their outcomes. Comple2l) interconnected e2changes
rein*orce 'arious structural ine5ualities =im&alances> and a+ect actors. dependence
on others.
8.s po(er o'er D is =1> directl) proportional to the importance D places on the goals
mediated &) 8 and =-> in'ersel) proportional to the a'aila&ilit) o* these goals to D
outside the 84D relation.M
#ower is a structural relationship, in'erse to the cost that one actor is (illing to pa)
to another *or an e2change. I* actor D accepts a higher cost than actor 8 *or an
e2change, then D has a greater dependence on 8: #A5 6 &5A
Power (A-B) = Dependence (B-A)
Power (B-A) = Dependence (A-B)
Increase mutual dependence, increase mutual power
2 dimensions of power
o 4ntensity: value o! resources
o 'quality: 5oer (A-+) 9 5oer (+-A)
In a net(or! o* man) actors, structural arrangements shape the prices / po(er that
actors o&tain through e2changes.
7alanci! / Pfei+er :

8ll leaders are *undamentall) the same
#here are internal constraints on leader &eha'ior =roles>
62ternal *actors are more important in determining organi9ational
per*ormance =e.g. competition, scarce resources, go'ernment
regulation, etc.>
Leadership does matter:
$esearch suggests that leadership e2plains a&out 1@N o* an organi9ations
per*ormance
6'en i* good leadership doesn.t matter, &ad leadership defnitel) does
"ot all leaders are ali!e, nor are man) managerial ;o&s :e.re not ;ust tal!ing
a&out C6%.s.
Principles
Po(er, 8uthorit) and
%rgani9ational Politics
8d'anced %rgan9ation #heor)
Po(er
8m&iguous and u&i5uitous; relati'e, not a&solute.
8 person is onl) po(er*ul in relation to others.
8uthorit)
:hen the distri&ution o* po(er in a social setting
is accepted or Olegitimised. &) the other actors.
Politics
8ction ta!en to o'ercome resistance to one.s
pre*erred outcomes. ?8 conscious e+ort to muster
and use *orce to o'ercome opposition
Strategic contingency odel !
"ncertainty
o Changes o'er time
o Manu*acturing, Mar!eting, Finance, P$F
#riticality
o Centralit) in (or!,o(
o Centralit) in in*ormal relationships
Scarcity
o Pigh dependenc)
o Lo( su&stituta&ilit)
Implications of ,trategic 4ontingency %odel
Power resides in acti$ities, not indi$iduals
Power is necessarily s%ared
Power aligns t%e organi&ations wit% t%e en$ironment
o
>ith &trategic $ontingencies 3heory, a leader depends on his pro1le! soling skills and a
pro4ectie personality that is center stage. 3he leader his so 1ecause she or he is in de!and and
others cannot sole the pro1le!s the leader faces. 3his gies the leader 1argainingpower. In that the
leader cannot 1e replaced easily, he or she is not easily displaced, especially 1y popular will. &ocial
processes depend upon the leader. &trike out the leader and the syste! is in danger of collapsing.
3he a1ility of one to !aintain leadership in a syste! through pro1le! soling relies on the
interconnectedness of syste! units 7depart!ent, diisions, etc.), social interaction, co!!unications
speed and syste! infrastructure integrity. :ncertainty is a driing force in -ickson?s writing. It is
defined as @...lack of infor!ation a1out future eents so that alternaties and their outco!es are
unpredicta1le@ . Power co!es fro! the a1ility to cope with uncertainty. &uch a1ility reduces the
uncertainty and persons and organi/ational units 1eco!e dependent upon it for surial. -ere, at a
su1unit leel of organi/ation, the pro1le! soling status 7in this case, the processing of re(uisitions)
is a function of power. >ith all this, an organi/ation?s units are reified as persons. &uch units, if
highly structurali/ed, !echani/ed and with well%defined procedures can cope 1etter and are !ore
resilient to uncertainty. *egularity and perforce allows for a greater prediction of eents. A leader
plies on this, using her or his pro1le! soling a1ility to i!pose regularity on uncertainty.
-ickson argues that if an organi/ational unit cannot su1stitute @o1tain alternatie perfor!ance@, then
it 1eco!es dependent upon the leader for the one solution she or he presents. 3his e+tends to
speciali/ation, where if workers are confined to knowing only one su1set of operations, a leader
haing knowledge of all the operations has great control. 3he greater the scope of pro1le! soling
a1ility, the greater power a leader has. &u1unit power is a function of how !any other units need
that su1unit. If other depart!ents of a factory depend on a daily 1asis for the *e(uisitions
"epart!ent to act, the latter has !ore than if re(uisitions were done, let?s say on a !onthly 1asis.
:nit dependencies can oerride uncertainties in assessing how !uch power e+ists. A greater
dependency !ay 1e !ore i!portant than the a1ility to pro1le!%sole an uncertainty. -ere is where
the &trategic $ontingency 3heory !ay not pro!ote efficiency, functionality, or rationality A-ickson, p.
11B. 3hat is, there !ay 1e cases where it should not 1e used in deeloping leaders.
Mint9&erg.s <enesis o* po(er theor).: Mint9&erg =1KB0> stated that leadership (as
merel) a *orm or su&set o* management.
, Mint9&erg applies the model to the &usiness corporation. Pe &elie'es that the
control o* the corporation is o* concern toda) *or *our reasons: economic po(er has
&ecome concentrated in the pri'ate sector; the economic po(er o* the pri'ate
sector has &ecome increasingl) important *rom a social perspecti'e; pu&lic
e2pectations a&out the use o* economic po(er and the social &eha'iour o* &usiness
ha'e risen; and it is no( reali9ed that large corporations are o*ten controlled &)
management (ithout a legitimate &asis *or po(er. Mint9&erg claims that these
reasons are (h) &ig &usiness is &eing attac!ed.
Mint9&erg ma!es se'eral proposals *or controlling &ig &usiness, that is, the
corporation. #hese proposals are illustrated in graphical *orm &) a ?conceptual
horseshoeM =62hi&it 1> and each position represents di+erent 'ie(s on (ho controls
the corporation. Drie,), the positions are:
1. "ationali9e It A #he go'ernment ta!es o'er the corporation and determines its
&eha'ior.
-. emocrati9e It A #he goals o* the corporation are &roadened &) changing the
&asis o* po(er, that is, allo(ing 'arious groups to participate in managing.
0. $egulate It A <o'ernment has an acti'e, *ormali9ed role in determining (hat the
corporation does.
1. Pressure It A Change is &rought a&out through pressure campaigns &) special
interest groups and others.
3. #rust It A #here is a &alance &et(een economic and social goals as managers
&elie'e it is their moral dut) to act responsi&l). #here is a status 5uo in the
po(er s)stem and managers retain control &ecause the) (ill act responsi&l).
L. Ignore It A 7ocial goals are attended to &ecause ?it pa)s to &e good,M that is, it
is in the corporation.s economic to &e good,M that is, it is in the corporation.s
economic interests to attend to social goals.
B. Induce It A Management recogni9es the con,ict &et(een economic and social
goals, &ut the economic goals (in out (ith social goals onl) attended i* it pa)s in
economic terms. #hus, social goals onl) attended i* it pa)s in economic terms.
#hus, social goals are loo!ed a*ter i* societ) pa)s terms. #hus, social goals are
loo!ed a*ter i* societ) pa)s the corporation to do so.
Q. $estore It A #he Corporation is controlled &) its right*ul o(ners, the
shareholders, (ho are interested onl) in economic goals.
In,uence tactics.:
Leadership is an in,uencing process.
RI n * l u e n c e is the a&ilit) to a+ect the &eha'ior o* others in a particular direction.
R P o (e r is the potential or capacit) to in,uence.
R 8 leader must ac5uire po(er to in,uence others.
#he end result o* a leader.s in,uence are a *unction o*
the tactics heCshe uses:
R C o m m i t m e n t
R C o m p l i a n c e
R $ e s i s t a n c e
R #hese in,uence tactics are in turn moderated, or
a+ected &):
R # h e l e a d e r . s t r a i t s
R # h e l e a d e r . s & e h a ' i o r s
R # h e s i t u a t i o n
Leadership and 'alues: Concept :

leadership 4 doing the right thingsM is deciding the &est course o* action to ta!e.
Values are traits or 5ualities that are considered (orth(hile; the) represent
)our highest priorities and deepl) held dri'ing *orces
?constructs representing generali9ed &eha'iors or states o* a+airs that are
considered &) the indi'idual to &e important. Halues are &ecoming the pre*erred
mode o* decision4ma!ing in &usiness.
8 strong desire to do right, to do the &est, and to treat others as the) (ould
li!e to &e treated.
Halues are not imposed, rather, selected. Halues4Dased leaders ha'e criticall)
e2amined these 'alues and made a conscious decision to li'e &) them.
Halues guide leaders in a (a) o* li'ing that *eels good =and right> a*ter the
*act.
Halues4Dased leaders e2pect good conse5uences i* the) em&race and li'e
these 'alues and &ad conse5uences i* the) re;ect and donGt *ollo( them.
Pelp leaders &e their &est.
Leaders (ith a strong $ecognition 'alue, might li!el) choose a ris!ier solution
that (ould thrust them in the spotlight.
Halues o*ten in,uence a leader.s perceptions o* indi'idual and organi9ational
successes as (ell as the manner in (hich these successes are achie'ed.
Leaders (ith strong 7cience 'alues (ill defne organi9ational success
di+erentl) than those (ith strong Po(er 'alues.
Forms o* leadership :
8utocratic Leadership
8utocratic is the leader (ho ma!es the decision and the group mem&ers are
not in'ol'ed.
Leader that use this st)le is usuall) &oss) leader.
Leader use this &ecause there is not enough time and the mem&er ran out o*
ideas.
Leader use this st)le during camping or an)(here that needs 5uic! decision.
8 leader use this st)le (hen the time is running out or (hen the mem&ers are
out o* ideas.
#he) use this st)le &) directl) sa) the decision (ithout as!ing the mem&ers.
Doss) leaders use this st)le or the mem&ers that out o* ideas.
emocratic st)le:
(hen the leader and some o* the group mem&ers ma!e the decision. #his is
usuall) use during a president 'oting process.
#he leader (ho appl) this st)le trusts onl) some mem&er to gi'e ideas.
7ometimes the other are not in'ol'e.
#he leader use this st)le to ma!e it *air. PeCshe uses the 'oting process.
#he leader use this st)le (hen there are enough time and usuall) in
classroom, or other places.
People (ho use this st)le ma!e decision &) as!ing some mem&ers a&out
(hat the) (ant and also implement their ideas.
People that use this st)le are pro*essional leaders.
Free*1eign styles"
Free4range st)le is (hen the leaders gi'e all the (or! to the group mem&ers.
#he) let the mem&ers do the (or!s &) themsel'es.
Leaders (ho use this st)le ;ust gi'es suggestions to the group mem&ers and
the group do it.
People use this st)le &ecause the) trust the group mem&ers that the).re
smart enough to do the (or!. 7ometimes also &ecause the leader doesn.t
ha'e an)time to discuss.
Pro*essional leaders use it in classrooms, oIces and it can &e e'er)(here li!e
at home.
Leaders use it (hen the) don.t ha'e enough time and (hen the) !no( that
their group mem&ers are smart enough.
Leaders use this st)le &) ;ust rela2ing (hile the rest o* the group is (or!ing.
Pe or she ;ust gi'es suggestions that help the pro;ect.
Pro*essional leaders use it i* the) ha'e good mem&ers.
Moral reasoning, : Moral reasoning: Process leaders use to make decisions about ethical
and unethical behaviors.
Manner by which leaders solve moral problems.
Value diferences often result in diferent judgments regarding ethical and unethical
behavior.
Pre4con'entional: 'alues &ased on sel*4interest , 4 the le'el in (hich a
person.s criteria *or moral &eha'ior are &ased primaril) on sel*4interest.
7tage 1: ?DadM &eha'ior is that (hich is punished.7tage -: ?<oodM
&eha'ior is that (hich is concretel) re(arded.
Con'entional: 'alues &ased on gaining appro'al o* others, the le'el
the criteria *or moral &eha'ior are &ased primaril) on gaining others.
appro'al. 7tage 0: ?<oodM &eha'ior is that (hich is appro'ed &)
others; ?&adM &eha'ior is that (hich is disappro'ed &) others.
Post4con'entional: 'alues &ased on uni'ersal, a&stract principles, the
le'el in (hich the criteria are &ased on uni'ersal, a&stract principles
that ma) e'en transcend the la(s o* a particular societ) 7tage 3:
?<oodM &eha'ior con*orms to communit) standards set through
democratic participation; concern (ith maintaining sel*4respect and
the respect o* e5uals
7tage L: ?<oodM &eha'ior is a matter o* indi'idual conscience &ased on
responsi&l) chosen commitments to ethical principles.
Mistakes in Moral Reasoning
Arbitrariness
Relying on gut feeling
Selfshness and Partisanship
Appealing to Moral Authorities
Religion
Culture

'ey wor( $alues ! 4Leadership is the energetic process of getting other people
full& and $illingl& committed to a ne$ and sustaina)le course of action5 to
meet commonl& agreed o)6ectives $hilst having commonl& held values47
07g 1!8 )oo( )an(
-ecognition5
0o$er
5hedonism attitude 9fun at $or( place)5
altruistic9health care and educational to iproce social 6ustice ) 5
affiliation 5
traditional values 5
securit&9minimie uncertaint&) 5
commerce values 9concerned a)out financial success)5
aesthetics 9focus on 3ualit& $ith creating pro)lem solving )
science 9anal&ing data to get at the truth )
,tages of Leadership culture development0"
#he continuous organi9ational process o* identi*)ing potential leadership talent,
de'eloping &oth the e2ternall) o&ser'a&le s!ills and internall) nourished personal
character o* that talent, and pro'iding an appropriatel) challenging outlet *or
indi'idual de'elopment (ithin the leadership ran!s o* the organi9ation.
%rgani9ational Culture ?8 pattern o* shared &asic assumptions that the group
learned as it sol'ed its pro&lems o* e2ternal adaptation and internal integration,
that has (or!ed (ell enough to &e considered 'alid and, there*ore, to &e taught to
ne( mem&ers as the correct (a) to percei'e, thin!, and *ell in relation to those
pro&lemsM .
1.etermine the Leadership 7t)le *or Sour %rgani9ation ..... ependent leadership
cultures =top do(n control >con*orming culture.
-. Identi*) Current and Potential Leaders :ithin the Compan)... Independent
leadership =&ased on !no(ledge and e2pertisement>
0. Identi*) Leadership <aps....................................................=interdependent
leadership culture >
1. e'elop 7uccession Plans *or Critical $oles ........................
3. e'elop Career Planning <oals *or Potential Leaders .....
L. e'elop a 7!ills $oadmap *or Future Leaders........................
B. e'elop $etention Programs *or Current and Future Leaders .
Moral ;ustifcation: in'ol'es reinterpretation other(ise immoral &eha'ior in terms o*
a higher purpose . li!e euphemistic la&eling =cosmetic (ords:de*use,disguise>
ad'antageous comparison =a'oid sel* Acontempt>,displacement o* responsi&ilit)
='iolate personal moral standard >di+usion o* responsi&ilit), distortation o*
conse5uences ,dehumani9ation ,attri&ution o* &lame .
Moral ;udgments are not mere pre*erences, &ut must &e:
&ased on *acts,
de*ended in terms o* o&;ecti'e reasons,
(hich can &e articulated
;ustifcation *or moralit): Practical pro&lem: people (ith di+ering religions (ill
not &e a&le to share moral reasons.
O #heoretical pro&lem: $ight and (rong cannot ;ust &e a matter o* <od.s (ill.
i+usion o* responsi&ilit)
O isregard or distortion o* conse5uences
O ehumani9ation
O 8ttri&ution o* &lame
%rgani9ational Politics: Concept,:

8ttempts to in,uence others using discretionar) &eha'iours to promote
personal o&;ecti'es
iscretionar) &eha'iours neither e2plicitl) prescri&ed nor prohi&ited
Politics ma) &e good or &ad *or the organi9ation
signifcance,
Political strategies:
8 7#$8#6<S I7 8 76# %F 8C#I%"7 #P8# :ILL D%#P 8C#IH8#6 S%U$
P%:6$ D876 8" 8LI<" S%U$ <%8L7. Specs
combinations and sequences of political
tactics
the politicalSpecifies combinations and sequences of political tactics
Includes plan for responding to changes in the political context
People at all levels can develop and use a political strategy
Not written; usually tacit
Political strateg) =cont.> Used in
$esource allocation
Choice o* senior managers
Career decisions
Per*ormance appraisals
Pa) increase decisions
%rgani9ational politics re*ers to in*ormal approaches to gain po(er
through means other than merit or luc!.
Politics are pla)ed to achie'e po(er, either directl) or indirectl)
Po( to control d)s*unctional politics: 8'oiding *a'oritism
7etting good e2amples at the top o* the organi9ation.
7haring o* similar goals among the indi'iduals and the organi9ation
Piring people (ith integrit)
#o ac5uire and retain po(er , a leader must s!ill*ull) use organi9ational
politics. Contri&uting *actors include
P)ramidal shape o* organi9ation
7u&;ecti'e per*ormance standards
6n'ironmental uncertaint)
6motional insecurit)
Machia'ellianism
6ncouraging admiration *rom su&ordinates
L. Political tactics and strategies
6thical methods
8imed at gaining po(er
8imed at &uilding relationships
8imed at a'oiding political &lunders
Unethical tactics
6m&race or demolish strateg)
Constitute another categor) o* political &eha'ior
1 increasing po(er : #olitical strategies
#actics that managers use to increase their po(er and to use po(er
e+ecti'el) to in,uence and gain the support o* other people (hile
o'ercoming resistance or opposition.
62cercising po(er :

27IT 8 " Leadership Theories"
(volution of leadership theories0
5asic leadership models*
Trait theory "

Leadership Traits: Leadership Traits:
Ambition and energy Ambition and energy
The desire to lead The desire to lead
Honesty and integrity Honesty and integrity
Self-confdence Self-confdence
Intelligence Intelligence
Job-relevant knoledge Job-relevant knoledge
5orn with leadership traits
7ot sure what those characteristics were"
9eight
:eight
Appearance
Intelligence
&isposition
Inconsistent !ndings
4ertain traits may enhance the perception that
somebody is a leader
Limitations"
7o universal traits that predict leadership in all
situations$
Traits predict behavior better in ;weak< than
;strong< situations$
2nclear evidence of the cause and efect of
relationship of leadership and traits$
5etter predictor of the appearance of
leadership than distinguishing efective and
inefective leaders$
5ehavioral theories " behavioural theory attempts
to describe leadership in terms of what leaders do0
while trait theory seeks to explain leadership on
the basis of what leaders are$ Leadership
according to this approach is the result of efective
role behaviour$
Leadership is shown by a persons acts more than
by his traits$ This is an appropriate new research
strategy adopted by %ichigan 1esearchers in the
sense that the emphasis on the traits is replaced
by the emphasis on leader behaviour =which could
be measured>$
Theories proposing that speci!c behaviors
diferentiate leaders from non leaders$
#attern of actions used by diferent individuals
determines leadership potential
(xamples
Autocratic0 democratic and laissez*faire
%ichigan ,tudies" (mployee centered
versus task centered$
5ehavioral studies focus on identifying critical
behavioral determinants of leadership that0 in
turn0 could be used to train people to become
leaders
/hio ,tate studies :
The Ohio State Studies The Ohio State Studies
sought to identify independent dimensions of leader sought to identify independent dimensions of leader
behavior behavior
Initiating structure Initiating structure
Consideration Consideration

8*ter ::II
Measured specifc leader &eha'iors
Identifed t(o dimensions
Consideration
Initiating 7tructure
8 leader could possess 'ar)ing amounts o* &oth dimensions
2niversity of %ichigan ,tudies0"
Conducted shortl) a*ter ::II
%ne dimensional
Identifed t(o &asic leadership st)les:
Production oriented
6mplo)ee oriented
8 &uilding &loc! *or ne(er leadership studies
5lake and %outons %anagerial 'rid0"

9as also
been called the %anagerial 'rid
Focuses communication styles
?0? Impoverished %gt
@0? Authority*4ompliance
A0A %iddle of the 1oad %anagement
?0@ 4ountry 4lub %anagement
@0@ Team %anagement
,ituational Approaches
Fiedlers 4ontingency %odel of Leadership
9ersey and 5lanchards ,ituational
Leadership Theory
Fiedlers 4ontingency %odel of Leadership
Contingenc) Models4 Fiedler.s Contingenc) : :hile trait and &eha'ior
theories do help us understand leadership, an important component is
missing: the en'ironment in (hich the leader e2ists.
Contingenc) #heor) deals (ith this additional aspect o* leadership
e+ecti'eness studies.
The theory that efective groups depend upon a proper match
between a leaderBs style of interacting with subordinates and the
degree to which the situation gives control and in+uence to the
leader$
There are basically three steps in the model
?> Identifying Leadership ,tyle " Fiedler believes a key factor in
leadership success is the individuals basic leadership style ,o he
created the Least #refer 4o*worker =L#4> -uestionnaire 0L#4"*An
instrument that tells to measure whether a person is task or
relationship oriented0
If the low L#4 score then the person is task oriented
If the high L#4 score then the person is relationship oriented$
Least preferred coworker ,cale
#leasant C D E A F 8 G ? 2npleasant
Friendly C D E A F 8 G ? 2nfriendly
1e3ecting C D E A F 8 G ? Accepting
Tense C D E A F 8 G ? 1elaxed
4old C D E A F 8 G ? :arm
,upportive C D E A F 8 G ? 9ostile
5oring C D E A F 8 G ? Interesting
-uarrelsome C D E A F 8 G ? 9armonious
'loomy C D E A F 8 G ? 4heerful
/pen C D E A F 8 G ? 4losed
5ackbiting C D E A F 8 G ? Loyal
2ntrustworthy C D E A F 8 G ? Trustworthy
4onsiderate C D E A F 8 G ? Inconsiderate
7asty C D E A F 8 G ? 7ice
Agreeable C D E A F 8 G ? &isagreeable
Insincere C D E A F 8 G ? ,incere
Hind C D E A F 8 G ? 2nkind
Iour !nal score is the total of the numbers you circled on the ?C
scales
AD or less 6 Low L#4 =task motivated>
AC*E8 6 %iddle L#4 =socio*independent leaders0 self directed and not
overly concerned with the task or with how others view them>
EF or above 6 9igh L#4 =motivated by relationships>

G> &e!ning the ,ituation " Fiedler identi!ed three contingency

dimensions that de!ne the key situational factors
?$ Leader*member relations"
The degree of con!dence0 trust0 and respect0 members have in
the leader
G$ Task structure"
The degree to which the 3ob assignments are procedurized
8$ #osition #ower"
The degree of in+uence a leader has over power variables such
as hiring0 !ring0 promotion etc$
8> %atching leaders and situations "
After knowing the leadership style through L#4 and de!ning all the
situations0 we will chose the leader who will !t for the situation$
Two ways in which to improve leader efectiveness
?> 4hange the leader to !t the situation
G> 4hange the situation to !t the leader
:

Least Pre*erred Co4:or!er
Leader 7ituation has 0 dimensions:
Position Po(er
#as! 7tructure
Leader4Mem&er $elations
Leader e+ecti'eness in a gi'en situation is a+ected &) their LPC score.
Criticism o* the theor)
9ersey and 5lanchards ,ituational
Leadership theory "
8 model that *ocuses on *ollo(er ?readinessM
Follo(ers can accept or re;ect the leader
6+ecti'eness depends on the *ollo(ers. response to the leader.s
actions
?$eadinessM is the e2tent to (hich people ha'e the ability and
willingness to accomplish a specifc tas!
8 paternal model:
8s the child matures, the adult releases more and more control o'er
the situation
8s the (or!ers &ecome more read), the leader &ecomes more laissez-
faire
9ersey and 5lencherd identify four speci!c leader behaviors
The most efective behavior depends on the followers ability and
motivation
1. I* *ollo(ers are una&le and un(illing to do a tas!,
the leader needs to gi'e specifc and clear directions.
-. I* *ollo(ers are una&le and (illing,
#he leader need to displa) a high tas! orientation.
0. I* the *ollo(ers are a&le and un(illing,
#he leader needs to use a supporti'e and participati'e st)le.
1. I* *ollo(ers are &oth a&le and (illing,
#he leader doesnGt need to do much.
Perse) and Dlanchard sa) the le'el o* maturit) o* a (or!er pla)s a role in leadership
&eha'ior
Maturit) consists o*:
Eo& maturit) A tal!s4related a&ilities, s!ills and !no(ledge
Ps)chological maturit) A *eelings o* confdence, (illingness and
moti'ation
Follo(er readiness
Leader &eha'ior
Contemporar) theories4
7er'ant leadership: ?ser'ant leaders are those (ho put the needs, interests,
and aspirations o* others a&o'e their o(n; in'ol'e others in decision ma!ing,
is strongl) &ased in ethical and caring &eha'ior, and it enhances the personal
gro(th o* (or!ers (hile impro'ing the caring and 5ualit) o* organi9ational li*e
.
7er'ant leaders ha'e certain assets on (hich to &ecome ser'ant leaders.
#hese assets are &uilt upon ten characteristics.
Listening, empath), healing, a(areness, persuasion, conceptuali9ation,
ste(ardship, commitment, and &uilding communit).
Listening4 ?a critical communication tool, necessar) *or accurate
communication and *or acti'el) demonstrating respect *or othersM =7mith, 3>
6mpath)4 ?the a&ilit) to mentall) pro;ect one.s o(n consciousness into that
o* another indi'idualM =7mith, 3>
Pealing4 ?to ma!e (holeM =7mith, 3>
8(areness4 ?(ithout a(areness, (e miss leadership opportunitiesM
Persuasion4 ?the e+ecti'e ser'ant4leader &uild group consensus through
gentle &ut clear and persistent persuasion, and does not e2ert group
compliance through the position o* po(er.
Conceptuali9ation4 ?concei'e solutions to pro&lems that do not currentl)
e2istM
Foresight4 ?prescience, or *oresight, is a &etter than a'erage guess a&out
(hat is going to happen in the *uture.
7te(ardship4 ?organi9ational ste(ards, or trustees are concerned not onl) *or
the indi'idual *ollo(ers (ithin the group, &ut also the organi9ation as a
(hole, and its impact on relationship (ith all societ)M
Commitment to the gro(th o* people4 ?a demonstrated appreciation and
encouragement o* othersM
Communit) Duilding4 ?the rise o* large institutions has eroded communit),
the social pact that reunites indi'iduals in a societ)M
62amples : Mother #eresa is an e2cellent e2ample o* a ser'ant leader
O Pighl) respected leader *or the Missionaries o* Charit)
O Dest !no(n *or her incredi&le humilit), courage, thoughtlessness and
compassion *or others that (ere less *ortunate
.ransactional: approaches followers with an eye to exchanging one thing for
another Burns
pursues a cost beneft economic exchange to met subordinates current
material and psychic needs in return for !contracted services rendered by
the subordinate . Bass
#ransactional approach is (here leaders moti'ate *ollo(ers to achie'e goals
&) mutual e2change
".g. Business # bonuses to achieve goals politicians # votes for
promises.
#ransactional leadership:
Focuses on moti'ational e2changes that occur &et(een leaders and
*ollo(ers
6.g politicians get 'otes &) promising ta2 cuts
Managers (ho o+er promotionsC&onusesCgood e'aluations to those
(ho do (ellCe2ceed targets
#eachers (ho remind students good grades (ill &e gi'en to those (ho
(or! hard
#ransactional leadership is common at all le'els in organisations

#rans*ormational leadership.: 4 'isionar) leaders see!ing to appeal to their

*ollo(ers &etter character
:ant to mo'e them to(ard higher and more uni'ersal needs and purposes to
achie'e goals
#he trans*ormational leader is seen as an agent o* change.
Leadership that:
$aises *ollo(ers a(areness o* the signifcance o* team goals
Drings change in *ollo(ers *rom sel* interest to team interest
Drings trans*ormation to their character
It *ocuses on relationship &et(een leaders and *ollo(ers and their:
Halues
6thics
<oals
6motions
7ocial st)le o* leadership concerned (ith collecti'e good
%*ten o* a political or religious nature
Transformational $eader facilitates a redefnition of a people%s mission and
vision a renewal of their commitment and the restructuring of their systems
for goal accomplishment. &t is a relationship of mutual stimulation and
elevation that converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into
moral agents. 'ence transformational leadership must be grounded in
moral foundations.($eithwood as cited in )ashin et al. *+++ p.,-
As exactly said by Bass the transactional leaders work within the organizational
culture as it exists; the transformational leader changes the organizational culture.
Following table shows diference of transactional and transformation leadership[1].
Transactional
Leadership Transformational Leadership
T Leaders are a(are o*
the lin! &et(een the
e+ort and re(ard
T Leadership is
responsi'e and its &asic
orientation is dealing
(ith present issues
T Leaders rel) on
T Leaders arouse emotions in
their *ollo(ers (hich moti'ates
them to act &e)ond the
*rame(or! o* (hat ma) &e
descri&ed as e2change relations
T Leadership is proacti'e and
*orms ne( e2pectations in
*ollo(ers
standard *orms o*
inducement, re(ard,
punishment and
sanction to control
*ollo(ers
T Leaders moti'ate
*ollo(ers &) setting
goals and promising
re(ards *or desired
per*ormance
T Leadership depends
on the leader.s po(er to
rein*orce su&ordinates
*or their success*ul
completion o* the
T Leaders are distinguished &)
their capacit) to inspire and
pro'ide indi'iduali9ed
consideration, intellectual
stimulation and ideali9ed
in,uence to their *ollo(ers
T Leaders create learning
opportunities *or their *ollo(ers
and stimulate *ollo(ers to sol'e
pro&lems
T Leaders possess good 'isioning,
rhetorical and management s!ills,
to de'elop strong emotional
&onds (ith *ollo(ers
&argain.
T Leaders moti'ate *ollo(ers to
(or! *or goals that go &e)ond
sel*4interest.
Initial studies portrayed Transactional Leadership and Transformational Leadership as
mutually exclusive, but Bass viewed the transactional & transformational leadership
as continuum rather than opposites. The transformational leadership style is
complementary to the transactional style and likely to be inefective in the total absence
of a transactional relationship between leaders and subordinates.
Based on detailed studies of various works in Transformational Leadership reveals
following broader characteristics of Transformational Leader which includes (not limited
to) [3], [4]
Clear sense o* purpose, e2pressed simpl)
Halue dri'en =e.g. ha'e core 'alues and congruent &eha'ior>
7trong role model
Pigh e2pectations
Persistent
7el*4!no(ing
Perpetual desire *or learning
Lo'e (or!
Li*e4long learners
Identi*) themsel'es as change agents
6nthusiastic
8&le to attract and inspire others
7trategic
6+ecti'e communicator
6motionall) mature
Courageous
$is!4ta!ing
$is!4sharing
Hisionar)
Un(illing to &elie'e in *ailure
7ense o* pu&lic need
Considerate o* the personal needs o* emplo)ee
Listens to all 'ie(points to de'elop spirit o* cooperation
Mentoring
8&le to deal (ith comple2it), uncertaint) and am&iguit)
#ransactional Hs #rans*ormational
#ransactional Leadership in moti'ating *ollo(ers is 'er) common
Moti'ation to *ulfllCe2ceed goals pro'ided &) personal e2change e.g. mone),
promotion, gi*ts
#rans*ormational leadership4 encourages moti'ation simpl) *or good o*
teamCorganisation and to *ulfll goals.
Follo(ers (ill not &e re(arded A &ut are more pro*essional and team pla)ers
In this (a) trans*ormational raises moralit) and ethic o* people
Man) Charismatic leaders moti'ate *ollo(ers using trans*ormational C
pseudotrans*ormational leadership