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).
Phase Margin ():
Is the amount of phase shift at frequency
that would be
needed to produce instability.
= 180 + , where = G(j
)H(j
) is negative.
Phase Crossover:
Occurs when = 180, at the gain-margin frequency (
c
).
Gain Margin:
When operating at
c
, this is the factor ("a") by which the gain
must be changed in order to produce instability.
On a Polar plot: G(j) H(j) = 1/a
On a Bode plot: 20Log
10
a = 20Log
10
G(j) H(j)
- If the closed loop system has predominantly second order
behaviour, its phase margin is related to the effective damping of
the system.
- Satisfactory system response usually occurs if is between 45-
60
.
- Negative gain or phase margins indicate an unstable system
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
Ex fig 8.40
(DAzzo & Houpis Linear Control System Analysis & Design)
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
The Effect of Delay on Control System Stability
Delay in a plant can arise because of a physical response delay in the
regulator to an input command, or as a result of a measurement delay
in the feedback control signal. In either case this transport delay
(lag) needs to be modelled and its effect on the stability of the
system understood.
Ex: Thermal system
If measured at T
1
this can be modelled as:
s
K
s V
s T
+
=
1 ) (
) (
1
but if due to turbulence we have to measure and control temperature
at T
2
then we have a pure time delay:
s
Ke
s V
s T
s
+
=
1 ) (
) (
2
heater
air
Temp
Sensor 1
Temp
Sensor 2
v
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
In practice, transport delays can cause instability in closed loop
systems with high loop gain.
The reason for this can be seen by considering its frequency
response.
Since:
) sin( ) cos(
j e
j
+ =
90
180
1
=
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
Ex: A simple plant is placed in a closed loop control environment
but has a transport delay of 0.5s as shown.
Without the transport delay the closed loop system is a first order
unconditionally stable system (as verified by a simple Nyquist plot
showing infinite gain margin)
) 1 ( 2
2
) (
) (
K s
K
s R
s C
+ +
=
The stability of the system is very different with the added transport
delay, as shown in the Nyquist plot.
If K=2:
gain margin is =1/0.885 =1.13
phase margin = 23
U(s)
) 5 . 0 1 (
5 . 0
s
e
s
+
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
Closed loop Performance based on Frequency response
Recall that if a CLTF is predominantly second order then it can be
expressed as:
2 2
2
2 ) (
) (
n n
n o
s s
K
s R
s C
+ +
(nb: normally K
0
=1)
In the frequency domain: In the time domain (with step input):
n n
j
j R
j C
2 1
1
) (
) (
] [
2
) ( +
) ( ) ( = M
we can plot M and versus .
These responses are largely determined by the damping factor .
The peak magnitude can be determined in each case from the
maximum values of M() and C(t) respectively found using the
derivatives (dM()/d = 0) and (dC(t)/dt =0)
In frequency domain: in the time domain:
M
n n
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
1
1 4
=
+ ( )
1
2 1
2
M
p
= +
1
1
2
exp( )
where
m n
= 1 2
2
Ex fig 9.5
(DAzzo & Houpis Linear Control System Analysis & Design)
) cos 1 sin(
1
1
1 ) (
1 2
2
=
t e
t c
n
t
n
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
Ex fig 9.4
(DAzzo & Houpis Linear Control System Analysis & Design)
Whenever the CLTF is a good approximation to a simple second
order system then the following relationships exist between the time
& frequency domain.
(i) M
m
gives a good approximation to M
p
within the effective damping
range 0.4<<0.707. (ie; 1< M
m
<1.4).
eg: if = 0.5 M
m
= 1.15, and M
p
= 1.163
(ii) The larger
m
, the faster the time of response of the system
Thus if we determine M
m
&
m
graphically from a polar or Nichols
plot (see later), and we can design (or estimate) our system time
domain performance.
Bandwidth Definitions
The Bandwidth of many closed loop systems (
b
) is most often
determined as the frequency range over which the gain of the system
exceeds 3dB.
This definition is appropriate for the majority of closed loop control
systems as most have low frequency gains equal to unity.
Some type 0 systems do not have 0dB low frequency gains, hence
the bandwidth is normally taken over the frequency range that has
gain > 3dB above the designed passband gain.
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
Using M-Circles for Unity Feedback Systems
Recall that the CLTF of a unity feedback system can be expressed
as:
C j
R j
KG j
KG j
( )
( )
( )
( )
=
+ 1
and
) ( 1
) (
j KG
j KG
M
+
=
Thus if the OLFT = KG(j) is known at various frequencies, the
closed loop magnitude M can be determined at each of these
frequencies as shown from the following polar plot of an OLTF:
Nb: The closer the KG(j) plot approaches the -1+j0 point, the larger the
value of M
Contours of constant M values drawn on the polar complex plane
yield a means of determining M
m
and
m
for any closed loop system
by locating the position on the OLTF frequency response which is
tangential to the smallest M-contour.
Ex fig 9.10
(DAzzo & Houpis Linear Control System Analysis & Design)
90
90
180
1
M
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
Gain Adjustment using M-Curves on a Nichols plot
If only gain adjustment is required, then it is more desirable to plot
logarithmic magnitudes in the complex plane, since pure gain
changes only cause a measured OLTFs frequency response to shift
either up or down the y-axis (similar to gain changes on the OLTF
Bode Magnitude plot).
A set of Nichols curves are shown on the following page.
Note:
1. the background grid has 20log
10
magnitude vs linear phase. The
log magnitude and phase of the OLTF for selected measured
frequencies can be plotted on this.
2. Overlaid on this grid are the unity feedback CLTF curves of
constant 20log
10
M, and related to this OLTF grid.
3. Once a frequency dependent OLTF point has been plotted on the
background grid, its CLTF magnitude and phase can be
read/inferred directly from the overlaid curves.
Nb: M-curves cannot be drawn on a Bode plot, as they are functions of open-
loop gain & phase, and are independent of the frequency.
Gain Adjustment
In order to achieve a particular response (M
m
)
(i) Plot the measured open loop curve KG(j) {if K is not known use K=1}
(ii) Identify the maximum {M
m
(
m
)} on your curve, and identify your
desired maximum M
m
'.
(iii) The vertical distance between these two points indicates approximately
the required gain change in dB (nb: this gain change should bring the
response curve tangential to the required M-contour)
note: Gain changes may also be made based on achieving a desired phase
or gain margin.
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
Ex fig 9.29
(DAzzo & Houpis Linear Control System Analysis & Design)
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
eg:
Ex: Fig 4.20 (Golten & Verwer)
Estimating
d
and from the resulting response
IF the CLTF is dominant second order the following good
approximations can be made:
A good estimate of
d
is the resonant frequency
m
:
m
can be found by locating the frequency at which the OLTF
frequency response is tangential to the smallest M-contour.
can be estimated for underdamped CLTF systems:
(i) determine the low frequency gain of the closed loop system (K
0
)
(ii) find the gain {M(
n
)} where the closed loop phase is 90
.
(iii) From the second order approximation: M(
n
) = K
0
/(2)
Nb: These estimates result in a second-order approximation of the
system which is somewhat better than the simple dominant pole
approach as the effect of all other poles are taken into account
implicitly.
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
Frequency Domain Compensation Design
In some cases it is desirable to change the OLTF gain (K) in order to
improve the steady state error e
ss
(t) experienced by various system
types (eg K
p
, K
V
, K
a
).
But gain adjustment by itself is not always sufficient, as this also has
the effect of modifying the gain and phase margins. In some cases a
simple K adjustment might result in unacceptable stability.
In such cases a frequency dependent gain adjustment is necessary,
however care must be taken not to increase the bandwidth of a
system too much, otherwise the system will become too responsive
to noise in either the demand measurement signals or from noise
within the plant. Noise can appear at specific frequencies {eg mains
pick-up} or may be wideband (random).
Cascade and Feedback Compensation
Thus our CLTF design is required to meet a set of performance
specifications. Typically:
(i) Steady state errors
(ii) Transient response measures (M
p
,
n
)
(iii) Disturbance rejection
If the original system does not satisfactorily meet these requirements
we may need to introduce compensation elements into the forward
path. These elements may be added either in cascade {G
c
(j)} or in
a feedback minor loop {G
f
(j)}.
We will limit our discussion to cascade compensation.
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
There are two important compensation networks we will consider:
(1) The phase lag network.
(2) The phase lead (advance) network.
With the objective of designing a closed loop system that has
dominant complex roots which are predominantly second order.
Nb:These compensation techniques are a way of tailoring a design
system but are not directly useful if the system dynamics are
poorly defined or liable to change significantly in the short term
{such as in many process control systems where the plant models
are rarely known}.
G
f
(s)
C(s)
E(s) R(s)
G
p
(s)
+
G
c
(s) +
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
Phase Lag Cascade Compensation Networks
These networks can be used to increase the gain at low frequencies
(and thereby reduce the steady state error), while simultaneously
maintaining the high frequency gain, and the transient response
(assuming M
m
,
m
are satisfactory).
Conversely, if the low frequency gain is already satisfactory, we may
want to try and improve the transient response by shifting the gain
near the critical stability region (ie, near
c
and
)
Here
G s A
sT
s T
c
( ) =
+
+
1
1
where > 1
or
G j A
j T
j T
A
T
T
T T
c
( )
( )
( )
(tan tan )
=
+
+
=
+
+
1
1
1
1
2
2
1 1
if A = 1 then as: 0, gain = 1 (unity)
, gain = 1/ < unity
A practical network is:
Assuming A=1 then:
G s
R
sC
R R
sC
sCR
sC R R
( )
( )
=
+
+ +
=
+
+ +
2
1 2
2
1 2
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+
1
1
2
2
1 2
2
sCR
sCR
R R
R
( )
where T R C =
2
,
=
+ R R
R
1 2
2
) (t u
C
1
R
2
) (t e
+
_ R
1
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
If A==10 and T=1, the Bode frequency response is:
And the family of frequency dependent curves are for A=1 and
various values between 110 are:
Ex fig 11.4
(DAzzo & Houpis Linear Control System Analysis & Design)
1. The frequency dependent change in gain here is desirable (either
at low frequency or near the critical stability region).
2. A disadvantage with this circuit is its phase variation.
Thus this cascade gain must be placed so that the phase is not
distorted about the critical stability regions of the system. Ie, Keep
this phase variation at least one decade below the present or desired
unity gain cross-over point.
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
Example (increasing low freq gain)
Consider the case where the original system is (type 1):
) 1 (
1
) (
1
T j j
j G
p
+
=
Here K
v
= 1, and T
1
= 1
By considering the Bode plot we can determine that we want to maintain the present
phase margin, yet we want to increase K
v
by 3.
Hence: Thus choose A = 3
and choose = A, so as to maintain the high frequency gain.
The phase lag frequency should be chosen so as to have minimal effect on the stability
(choose the zero to be between 1.5-2 decades below the gain cross-over frequency).
(180
(180
+ PM +5
)
The frequency at which the OLTF phase is 130
is at 2.43r/s.
This point requires a 10.6dB shift to put it on the 0dB line (ie: requires a high freq.
gain change of 1/3.4).
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
Solution: Choose
z
= 1/T = 0.243r/s (=
/10)
And = 3.4 to reduce the upper frequency gain so that this frequency
point moves through the 0dB line as shown.
Ex fig 5.2. & 5.6
(Golten & Verwer)
Plus: Bode Plot
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
Phase Lead Cascade Compensation Networks
A problem with phase lag networks is that:
1. we generally have to sacrifice bandwidth and speed of response to
improve the PM
2. it is almost impossible to use them to compensate systems with
two free integrators in the forward path (ie type 2 or above).
With phase lead networks our objective is to improve the P.M. (etc)
of the system simply by advancing the phase, while maintaining the
OLTF gain (K).
These networks provide bandwidth extension and therefore also
significantly reduce the system settling time as
n
increases, but in
so doing also increase the system responsiveness to noise. In
addition, practical circuits introduce frequency dependent gain shifts,
and these must be considered as part of the design.
Here
G s A
sT
s T
c
( ) =
+
+
1
1
where < 1
or
G j A
j T
j T
A
T
T
T T
c
( )
( )
( )
(tan tan )
=
+
+
=
+
+
1
1
1
1
2
2
1 1
if A = 1 then as: 0, gain = < unity
, gain = 1 (unity)
Practical networks require additional amplification (A=1/) to
re-establish the low frequency gain:
) (t u
) (t e
R
1
C
1
R
2
+
_
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
Assuming A=1 then:
G s
v s
v s
R
R
R
sCR
R sCR
R R sCR R
o
in
( )
( )
( )
( )
= =
+
+
=
+
+ +
2
2
1
1
2 1
1 2 1 2
1
1
=
+
+
+
+
R
R R
sCR
sCR
R
R R
2
1 2
1
1
2
1 2
1
1
( )
( ( ))
thus:
T R C =
1
,
=
+
R
R R
2
1 2
If A=1/, =0.1, T=1 then the Bode response is:
The family of frequency dependent curves with A=1 are:
Ex fig 11.10
(DAzzo & Houpis Linear Control System Analysis & Design)
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
While the phase advance is desirable, the disadvantage is the
variation in gain with decreasing . Thus the largest value which
suffices is usually chosen.
Chosing a value of <0.1 is not generally possible since:
1. Much like the design of the PD controller in process control
applications, the compensator pole will not provide sufficent
filtering for the zero, resulting in "kicks" in the output u(t) as the
compensator responds to input transients and noise.
2. The compensator output {u(t)} could hit the voltage rails, as a
result of such kicks, eliminating any predicted theoretical
improvements that such a small value might provide.
Phase Advance Design using Peak Phase shift
p
z
c
s
s
s G
+
+
=
1
1
) (
the peak phase shift occurs at:
log( )
log( ) log( )
max
=
+
z p
2
since
z
p
=
, then
max
=
p z
and therefore:
max
=
z
,
max
=
p
Substituting these expressions into the formulae for phase shift of the
combined network it is easy to show that:
sin( )
max
=
+
1
1
rearranging gives:
=
+
1
1
sin( )
sin( )
max
max
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
Example using the peak phase shift method
The only accurate result using this method is obtained by a little trial and error Codas
is very helpful in this respect)
Consider the identical (type 1) OLTF used that we previously compensated using a
phase lag network:
) 16 1 )( 4 1 (
10
) 16 )( 4 (
640
) (
j j j s s s
s G
p
+ +
=
+ +
=
here K
v
= 10
K
v
is fixed and we want a 45 phase margin as before.
We should try and achieve our design using the smallest phase shift possible (note this is
not always possible as will be shown).
ANS:
This design method uses the fact that at the mid frequency of a phase advance
compensator (with A=1/) we have:
1. a phase shift (preferably no more than 55
60
) of: sin(
max
)=(1-)/(1+)
2. a positive gain shift of: 10log(1/)
Hence our objective should be to find a frequency point on the original OLTF that
requires a shift in gain and phase that matches a given value, to achieve the desired
PM. Recall that at the PM frequency (
PM, the frequency point will have to have its phase advanced to 135
j
j
s G
c
+
+
=
Ex fig 5.2., 5.7, 5.9
(Golten & Verwer)
Bode Plot of above example
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
Examples using Pole Cancellation Method
An alternative method for phase advance design is:
1. to place the compensators zero on top of the pole that is having the greatest effect
on the PM (pole cancellation) thereby removing its effect.
2. and then to decide where to place the new compensator pole based on the desired
PM.
Example 1
Using the above example.
1. The OLTF poles exist at 0, 4r/s, and 16r/s. The second pole (4r/s) has the dominant
effect on the PM, hence cancel this pole by setting T=1/4, and replot the Bode of
the modified OLTF G
j j
j G
+
=
2. Now use the desired PM to determine where to place the compensator pole
p
=1/T . The final G(s) is:
) 1 )( 16 1 (
10
) (
T j j j
s G
+ +
=
We want PM = 45
= 180 + G(
)
) ( tan ) 16 ( tan 90 180
1 1
p
PM
=
o o
Hence to find
p
we must first determine the phase margin frequency
.
We generally require PM 45
, hence
p
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
If we assume that
p
will not affect the gain much, then
8.8r/s.
Hence
) 8 . 8 ( tan ) 16 8 . 8 ( tan 90 180 45
1 1
p
=
o o o
p
30.33 r/s = 4/33.3 = 0.12
Created by Dr Grant Covic for paper: Systems & Control 1988: Document 3 of 3
Example 2
) 1 (
10
) (
1
T j j
j G
p
+
=
here K
v
= 10, and T
1
= 1
K
v
is acceptable & should be maintained, but we want a 45 phase margin.
ANS: Choose the compensator T = 1, to cancel the present pole.
) 1 (
10
) (
p
j j
j G
+
=
PM = 180
90
tan
-1
(
/
p
)
Thus: tan
-1
(
/
p
) = 45
p
=
And
.
Thus:
p
=
= 1/7,
and A = 1/, so as to maintain the low frequency gain.
Effectively we have moved the corner frequency of the original system from 1r/s to 7r/s
The Nichols plot of our compensated and uncompensated system is shown below.