History of Eritrea: by ELF leader

OSMAN SALEH SABBE

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by Santo 21 Dec 2013, 20:16

Don't believe in everything you read but it is good to read anything!
Os"an Saleh Sabbe #rote this boo$ in Arabi% to Arab audien%e trying to a&&eal
to their sense of Arabi% nationalis" and 'sla"i% %hauvinis" by %lai"ing the
Eritrean &eo&le are fro" South Arabia and "ainly of se"iti% sto%$ as #ell as
Musli"s in order to gain assistan%e for ELF and the Eritrean se&aratist agenda(
THE HISTORY OF ERITREA
OTHMAN SALEH SABBY
Library of Congress
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Othman Saeh Sabby is one of the most !rominent fo"n#ers of the
Eritrean Liberation Front an# one of its most #isting"ishe# ea#ers$
He is the offi%ia s!o&esman for the e'terna mission of the (o!"ar
Liberation For%es) an# aso a fo"n#ing member of its *oint
%ommission +ith the Re,o"tionary Co"n%i$ This *oint %ommission
has been +or&ing for %om!rehensi,e "nifi%ation of the bases of the
re,o"tion an# its ea#ershi!s$ (ossiby) Osman Saeh Sabby is amost
"ni-"e among his %oeg"es in !ra%tising boo& +riting$ Other than
this boo&) he has area#y !"bishe# .The Str"gge In The Re# Sea.
an# other +or&s$
This Boo&
By Yo"ssef Ibrahim Ya/be%&
In intro#"%ing this ,ita boo& to the Arab rea#er) I am ga#y an#
+iingy f"fiing the +ish of the brothers +or&ing for the iberation
of Eritrea$ I ha,e #eiberatey #es%ribe# it as ,ita0 it rates this
#es%ri!tion *"sty sin%e the Arab ibrary) +hether in the east or the
+est) a%&s a history of Eritrea) .the neighbo"r1sister.) +hi%h is a
!art of the Arab entity an# +hose reass"ring neighbo"riness has a
great effe%t on the fate of this Arab entity an# +hose son2s rights
are a %harge +ith +hi%h +e +ere entr"ste# an# abo"t +hose history)
reaity an# *"st as!irations +e are %om!etey in the #ar&$ Th"s) this
boo& %omes aong to fi a #ist"rbing) harmf" ,a%%"m$ Moreo,er) a
#o"be %re#it is #"e to Othman Saeh Sabby) sin%e) in +riting this
boo&) he has gi,en "s an o!!ort"nity to &no+ the history of Eritrea)
the .neighbo"r1sister.$
I +o"# i&e ,ery m"%h to than& the a"thor for this stren"o"s
"n#erta&ing +hi%h he has %om!ete# +ith effort an# !ersisten%e$
Being a+ay from home) he ha# to se%"re referen%es an# so"r%es to
+rite his boo& an# to !"t "! +ith a the har# +or& that this
in,o,es) +hie at the same time sho"#ering a sa%re# nationa
mission as Se%retary 3enera of the Eritrean Liberation Front an#
the offi%ia s!o&esman of for its re,o"tion) %harge# +ith ma&ing its
,oi%e hear# in a !arts of the +or#$ If +e %o"# ony ,is"ai/e a
!oor) e'ie# %ombatant +hose ony +ea!ons are his faith in 3o#
amighty an# a beief in his %o"ntry2s right to in#e!en#en%e an#
Free#om) !"rse# by o!!ression an# a%%om!anie# by the ghosts of
the !erse%"te# an# star,ing of his !eo!e) hearing the groans of to
f"fi his nobe mission) ony then %an +e reai/e the magnit"#e of
his a%hie,ement in fin#ing the time to +rite this boo&$
It is #iffi%"t for me or for anyone ese) for that matter) to *"#ge this
ne+ +or& in o"r ang"age a%a#emi%ay) sin%e +e a%& so"r%es an#
referen%es$ A this !re,ent "s from !rono"n%ing a s!e%iaist2s
*"#gement on it) b"t the effort of the res!e%te# +riter) the
%ir%"mstan%es "n#er +hi%h he +or&e#) an# the iberation mission
+hi%h he sho"#ers) im!e me to than& him an# %ommen# his effort
an# !erse,eran%e$
The f"t"re of Eritrea) the .neighbo"r 1 sister.) is inse!arabe from
that of the Arab homean#$ The +estern %oast stret%hing aong the
Re# Sea +here the area of Eritrea "nfo#s from the S"#an to Bab e
Men#eb) an# ra%ing the Arab (enins"a strategi%ay) e%onomi%ay
an# fraternay 4an# .the g"ns of +hoe,er o%%"!ies Asmarah %an
rea%h the (enins"a.5 is) from the !oint of ,ie+ of !oiti%a
!re%a"tion an# geogra!hi%a a#*a%en%y) a !art of the (enins"a from
+hi%h the sea has not been abe to se!arate it %om!etey$ It is
+ise) enightene# an# the #"ty of Arab Nationaism that a Arabs in
a their %o"ntries hee# the !robems) ris&s an# #angers that
threaten the goo# !eo!e of Eritrea) im!eri their #estiny an# th"s
!ose a #ire%t threat to the se%"rity of the so"thern !art of the Arab
homean#$
The Str"gge of the Eritrean !eo!e for their %om!ete iberties)
!oiti%a) nationa an# e%onomi%) is to#ay a ne+ test for +or#
%ons%ien%e in s"!!ort of fight$ Be%a"se right is one for a) for the
strong an# the +ea&) for the ri%h an# the !oor) ai&e$ It is the #"ty
of the Arabs as +e are !art of +or# %ons%ien%e an# as +e ha,e
been &no+n for gaantry) an# &no+n for the fa%t that +hoe
-"arters of o"rs +ere #estroye# in #efen#ing those +ho so"ght
ref"ge in o"r mi#st) to be moti,ate# by brotherhoo# an#
neighbo"riness) an# by nationa interest in sym!athi/ing +ith the
Eritrean str"gge an# to ma&e o"r go,ernments stan# by the
6neighbo"r1sister. in its efforts to reai/e its *"st #eman#s$
Finay) I f"y a!!re%iate the #iffi%"ties +hi%h the a"thor ha# to
%o!e +ith$ He merits a #o"be !raise) on the one han#) he has
ren#ere# his o!!resse# %o"ntry a ser,i%e) an#) on the other han#)
he has ren#ere# h"man &no+e#ge a ser,i%e$ In both %ases) his
ser,i%es +ere "sef" an# genero"s$ I sin%erey say to him .May yo"r
han#s thri,e. an# in,ite the Arab rea#er to rea# .The History of
Eritrea.$
INTRO7UCTION
This boo& %o,ers the history of Eritrea from the eariest ages ti the !resent #ay$ My moti,e in +riting it is not
ony my +ish to fi the ga! in the Arabi% ibrary abo"t the !ast of this %o"ntry +hi%h en*oys histori%a)
3eogra!hi%a an# C"t"ra ties +ith the Arab +or#) b"t aso my +ish to ma&e a mo#est %ontrib"tion in ref"ting
Ethio!ia2s aegations +hi%h ha,e ne,er %ease# to smother histori%a fa%ts in the interest of its e'!ansionist
goas) #enying the ,ery e'isten%e of Eritrea as an histori%ay se!arate entity$
8hen I embar&e# on +riting) I +as fa%e# +ith many #iffi%"ties among +hi%h is the fa%t that I am not a
s!e%iai/e# historian an# %onse-"enty my %omman# of the histori%a fa%ts %on%erning the area is imite#$
Moreo,er) it has to be note# that the history of Eritrea +as asso%iate#) in most of its stages) +ith the history of
the neighbo"ring %o"ntries in North East Afri%a an# the basin of the Re# Sea) +hi%h re-"ires a %om!ete
histori%a st"#y of the area %on%erne#) an "n#erta&ing the time for +hi%h I %annot affor#) be%a"se of my
nationa res!onsibiities$
F"rthermore) not eno"gh referen%es abo"t the history of Eritrea are a,aiabe in the t+o ang"ages I am
!rofi%ient in) Arabi% an# Engish) +hat has been +ritten abo"t the history of Eritrea has been mainy +ritten in
Itaian$ There are more than t+o h"n#re# boo&s abo"t Eritrea in the ibrary of the Afri%an M"se"m in Rome$
These boo&s +ere +ritten by s%hoars s!e%iaise# in the ,ario"s fie#s of &no+e#ge) the most o"tstan#ing
among +hom is the famo"s Itaian historian) Conti Rossini) +ho %ertainy ma#e great efforts in +riting these
boo&s$
I sin%erey ho!e that Eritrean resear%hers +i ma&e "se of this Itaian ibrary an# of the ibrary of Eritrean
St"#ies) +hi%h is no+ being estabishe# by the E'terna Mission of the (o!"ar Liberation For%es of The Eritrean
Liberation Front) so that Eritrean history +i be +ritten by s!e%iai/e# Eritrean +riters$
I ha,e #ra+n on my ,ario"s rea#ings of history boo&s +hi%h #ea +ith the region of North East Afri%a an# the
basin of the Re# Sea in genera) an# the history of Ethio!ia) S"#an) Yemen an# Egy!t in !arti%"ar for most of
the information re%or#e# here) in a##ition to +hat my memory has retaine# sin%e %hi#hoo# of genera
histori%a information the so"r%e of +hi%h +as the stories reate# to as by my father 4may 3o# ha,e mer%y on
his so"5) +ho +as intereste# in Isami%) an# Arab history an# that of his %o"ntry$
O"r S"#anese tea%her) Tayfo"r Baba&r A#i&o"ni) #re+ on him for !reiminary information abo"t the history of
Eritrea +hi%h he "se# to tea%h in the interme#iate s%hoo0 he "se# to #i%tate to him from memory the #ates of
some Eritrean e,ents$ I memori/e# some of these s"%h as the year I99: A$7$) in +hi%h the Ottoman T"r&s
o%%"!ie# Massa+a) an# the year ;<=>) in +hi%h the Itaian missionary) Sabito) bo"ght a !ie%e of an# from the
S"tan of Aseb to be a s"!!y station for the shi!s of the Itaian R"batino %om!any) +ith the res"t that this
%ontra%t be%ame the beginning of the Itaian %ooni/ation of Eritrea$
It may be that the years I99: an# ;<=> ha,e st"%& in my memory sin%e %hi#hoo#) be%a"se they forme# a
t"rning !oint in the history of Eritrea$ The first +as the beginning of the #ominan%e of the Ottoman inf"en%e
o,er a the %oasts of Eritrea for the foo+ing three %o"ntries$
The se%on# forme# the beginning of the mo#ern history of Eritrea an# the im!ortant e,ents it %o,ere# s"%h as
the #e!art"re of the Itaians after their #efeat in the Se%on# 8or# 8ar an# the %oming of Eritrea "n#er
Ethio!ian o%%"!ation a%%or#ing to an Ameri%an1British !an$
Another shortage +hi%h I fa%e# on !re!aring this boo& +as my being a+ay for the homean# for a !erio# that
has no+ rea%he# fifteen years #"ring +hi%h I ret"rne# to the r"ra areas of my %o"ntry a fe+ times ony) an#
"n#er s"%h %ir%"mstan%es as +o"# not grant the o!!ort"nity for histori%a resear%h an# the st"#y of
ar%heoogi%a sites s"%h as the r"ins of A#"is) Matara an# ?"ohito) +hi%h +ere thri,ing %ities t+o tho"san#
years ago$
Ho+e,er) I #i# not %ome o"t of these ret"rn tri!s em!ty han#e#0 for e'am!e) in the A 3he#en area +est of
Eritrea I fo"n# some histori%a sites of the an%ient +ars$ Aso) in the 7an&aia area) in so"th east Eritrea) I
%ame a%ross the %"bi%a an# (yrami#i%a gra,es +hi%h ha,e im!ortant histori%a %onnotations %on%erning the
reation of A1F"ng S"tanate in Eritrea to the +ars +ith Ethio!ia$
I am oo&ing for+ar#) if I s"r,i,e) to #e,ote mysef to !arti%i!ate in +riting the history of my %o"ntry after the
,i%torio"s ret"rn) 3o# +iing) by reaying on #ire%t %onta%t an# obser,ation of the an# an# !eo!e %on%erne#
an# not ony by #ra+ing on referen%es +ritten by foreign resear%hers +hose %a!a%ity to "n#erstan# the
Eritrean so%iety remains) no matter ho+ great an effort they ma&e) ess than that of the Eritrean) the son of
the en,ironment +ho2s ,erse# in its i#iosyn%ra%ies$
The greatest #iffi%"ty +hi%h fa%e# me +as the 2m"ti!i%ity of Eritrean history2$ Eritrea) in its !resent
bo"n#aries) #i# not i,e "n#er the r"e of one state) in s!ite of the "nity of origins an# formation) "nti after
the Itaian o%%"!ation in the ast -"arter of the nineteenth %ent"ry$ In ,ie+ of its geogra!hi%a !osition an# the
many h"man migrations +hi%h sette# in its ,ario"s regions) Eritrea +as "n#er the inf"en%e of ,ario"s states at
the same time$
(arts of it +ere %onne%te# +ith other !arts of neighbo"ring %o"ntries as +as the %ase +ith the Eritrean
(atea") +hi%h +as at one time "n#er the @ing#om of A&s"m) the region of Bara&a in +estern Eritrea) +hi%h
+as for a time "n#er the @ing#oms of A Be*a an# the @ing#om of A Senar in the S"#an) or Re# Sea %oast)
+hi%h +as at times "n#er the a"thority of Yemen or Hi#*a/$
I ha,e narrate# +ith the greatest !ossibe a%%"ra%y an# reaism the e,ents of these asso%iations #e#"%ing from
the 2histori%a m"ti!i%ity2 a "nite# +hoe) the res"t of histori%a interminging among the ,ario"s eements
from +hi%h o"r !eo!e +as forme#) C"shiti% Hamiti%) Semiti% an# Negro$ Aso) 2"nity +ith m"ti!i%ity2 +as
im!ose# by the heterogeneo"s geogra!hi%a en,ironment an# the nee# of the inhabitants in their s"mmer1
+inter ,oyages of this %onstr"%ti,e heterogeneo"sness$
The im!ortant tr"th +hi%h I +ante# to attain thro"gh my mo#est resear%h is that the Eritrean !eo!e ha# been
in e'isten%e on this !ie%e of an# stret%hing aong the +estern %oast of the Re# Sea from the S"#anese bor#ers
to Bab e Men#eb ong before the Itaians name# it Eritrea eary in ;<>A$ It ha# been in e'isten%e) i&e other
!eo!es of the area) +ith its strifes) its +ars) its a%hie,ements an# its many #iae%ts) affe%ting an# being
affe%te# by the %o"rse of e,ents in the area$
The name of 2Eritrea2 is not o%a b"t 3ree& an# means the Re# Sea0 ho+e,er) it is an o# name +hi%h #ates
ba%& to more than t+o tho"san# years$ The fa%t that this name +as re,i,e# in the nineteenth %ent"ry #oes not
mean) as Ethio!ia %aims) that the e'isten%e of the !eo!e +as re,i,e# or fabri%ate#$ The name of Ethio!ia
itsef is 3ree& an# means 2the b"rnt fa%e2$ The em!eror Menei& ga,e it to the o# Habasha &ing#om after
enarging it at the e'!ense of his neighbo"rs in %oo!eration +ith the +estern %ooniaist states at the en# of
the nineteenth %ent"ry$ An# many are the ne+ names for the ne+ states in the +or#0 +hat) for instan%e +as
the name of @enya a h"n#re# years ago) (a&istan) or Argentina$ The im!ortan%e #oes not ie the name b"t in
the a%t"a e'isten%e of the name#$
Another histori%a fa%t +hi%h I +ante# to !ro,e is that the Ethio!ian1Eritrean str"gge is not a atter #ay
!henomenon$ E,er sin%e the Amhara fo"n#e# their mo"ntain &ing#om in the thirteenth %ent"ry after the fa of
the &ing#om of A&s"m) the Ethio!ians ha,e set their sights on the Eritrean %oasts to ma&e Ethio!ia a na,a
state$
An# to reai/e this goa) they ha,e ma#e great efforts) sometimes by resorting to ,ioen%e) an# at other times
by entering into aian%es +ith E"ro!ean !o+ers) +hi%h intro#"%e# internationa !o+er str"gges into the area
borne o"t by the (ort"g"ese T"r&ish str"gge in the si'teenth %ent"ry$
As a matter of fa%t) Haiaseassie2s aian%e in ;>9A +ith the Ameri%ans) +ho enabe# him to o%%"!y Eritrea
"n#er the g"ise of Fe#eration in ret"rn for the hegemony of their miitary) e%onomi% an# !oiti%a inf"en%e in
the area) +as ony an e'tension of the attem!ts ma#e by the Em!erors of Ethio!ia sin%e the fo"rteenth
%ent"ry) the most notabe among +hi%h +ere the attem!ts of Yeshag) Bara Ya&"b an# L"bna 7enge) to ay
themse,es +ith the &ings of Aragon) Fran%e an# (ort"ga in the three %ent"ries) the fo"rteenth) the fifteenth
an# the si'teenth to %ontro the %oasts of Eritrea$ These attem!ts e,ent"ay faie# +ith the inter,ention of the
Ottoman T"r&s) the greater !o+er at the time$
I ha,e e'!aine# that the mo"ntain &ing#om of Amhara) +hi%h I %ae# the &ing#om of Habasha as #istin%t from
the an%ient &ing#om of A&s"m an# the !resent &ing#om of Ethio!ia) +as neither an e'tension of A&s"m nor its
heir$ For ho+ %o"# it be an e'tension of the &ing#om of A&s"m +hen it arose fi,e %ent"ries after the fa of the
atterC I ha,e !a%e# the reation of the Ethio!ian (atea" +ith the &ing#om of A&s"m in its tr"e histori%a
!ers!e%ti,e$
I ha,e aso sho+n the reation of A&s"m +ith Yemen) +hi%h is a reation that ma&es of the %"t"re of A&s"m an
e'tension of the %"t"re of Yemen$ Finay) I ha,e #is%"sse# the %ose histori%a reations bet+een Eritrea an#
the Arab +or# in the ,ario"s ages sin%e the #ays of Hemyar an# Sheba in the so"th of the Arabian (enins"a
"nti o"r !resent #ay) by!assing any sensibiities) #omesti% or e'terna) that %o"# be !ro,o&e#$
Ho+e,er) the reation bet+een Eritrea an# Ethio!ia +as not a+ays in a state of #eterioration an# !ermanent
+ars) b"t +as sometimes mar&e# by #etente an# agreement$ For e'am!e) the Em!eror Fasii#es an# the
3on#ar &ings +ho foo+e# him aie# +ith the ,i%eroy of Massa+a against Des"it missionaries an# foreign
in,a#ers an# %oo!erate# in that res!e%t for a !erio# that aste# for a h"n#re# an# fifty years "nti the
beginning of the nineteenth %ent"ry$
A%t"ay) the mo,ement of %ommer%e an# traffi% bet+een t+o %o"ntries +as not hin#ere# thro"gho"t the ages$
Moreo,er) Ethio!ia +as in no +ay h"rt be%a"se of Eritrea2s %ontro o,er its na,a o"tets) e'%e!t +hen Eritrea
itsef +as h"rt by !o+ers +hi%h neither Eritrea nor Ethio!ia %o"# fa%e or %haenge$
To#ay) this reation %o"# be restore# to its norma %on#ition if the Ethio!ian Amhara ga,e "! their !ro!ensity
for #omination an# e'!ansion) Amhari/ing !eo!es an# #estroying their nationa entities$ I sin%erey beie,e
that b"i#ing bri#ges of %oo!eration an# frien#shi! bet+een the t+o !eo!es of Eritrea an# Ethio!ia) ea%h
"n#er his o+n state) +o"# f"rther their %ommon interests an# the interests of !ea%e an# se%"rity in the basin
of the Re# Sea an# in East Afri%a$
Another fa%t I +o"# i&e to #ra+ attention to is that e,ery eement of the Eritreans ha,e a%ross the bor#ers
brothers of theirs to +hom they are bo"n# by histori%a) %"t"ra) reigio"s an# ang"age ties$ This !henomenon
is not !e%"iar to Eritrea) b"t is %ommon among a the bor#er areas in the +or#$ 8e ho!e that this bor#er
E#eete#F +i be a moti,e for estabishing the best of reations +ith the neighbo"rs$
Atho"gh Eritrea in the Mi##e Ages +as #i,i#e# among the s!here of inf"en%e of a n"mber of neighbo"ring an#
#istant &ing#oms) this inf"en%e #i# not ere%t !artitions among the !eo!e of Eritrea +ho "se# to mo,e in their
tra#itiona ,oyages in +inter an# s"mmer among the !atea") the eastern !ains an# the +estern !ains$ These
,oyages ha,e a+ays a,aie# she!her#s an# !easants ai&e of ,arie# %imates for gra/ing an# %"ti,ation in
#ifferent seasons$
Moreo,er) the e%onomi% fa%tor !aye# a !rin%i!e roe in bin#ing the Eritrean !eo!e together$ F"rthermore)
mo#ern trans!ort an# mo#em e%onomy a"gment the ties of "nity among the Eritrean !eo!e0 the bananas of
Bara&a are trans!orte# to Massa+a for e'!ort +ithin se,en ho"rs) an# the same thing a!!ies to the %o!!er of
the !atea") its honey an# its ,ario"s %ereas0 an# many are the states +hose #ifferent !ro,in%es +ere "n#er
the inf"en%e of se,era em!ires an# +hi%h en*oy to#ay their nationa "nit$
Yogosa,ia is a %ase in !oint$ Its #ifferent !ro,in%es +ere "n#er the %ontro of the Ottoman Em!ire) A"stria) an#
H"ngary sim"taneo"sy) an# they +ere not "nite# +ithin one state "nti after the First 8or# 8ar$
Finay) I ha,e #e,ote# three %ha!ters to the mo#ern history of Eritrea an# its nationa iberation str"gge) so
that the Arab rea#er +i be informe# on +hat is going on in an area +hi%h is a nat"ra e'tension of the Mi##e
East Area geogra!hi%ay an# strategi%ay$
I #o not %aim %om!ete ob*e%ti,ity in +hat I ha,e +ritten) for the min# of man %annot be %om!etey #i,or%e#
from his emotion) b"t I ha,e trie# my best to !resent histori%a fa%ts as I !er%ei,e# them$ I ho!e that this
attem!t +i !a,e the +a, for other s!e%iai/e# +ritings abo"t Eritrean history an# +e%ome any %onstr"%ti,e
%riti%ism$
;G>G;>:H
Othman Saeh Sabby
Cha!ter I
The O# Ra%es in Eritrea
Some historians) beie,e the ra%e &no+n as 2C"sh2 4in reation to C"sh) the son of Ham) the son of Noah5 +ere
the first to sette the Eritrean %oasts$ These historians are in%ine# to thin& that these are the first origins of
the an%ient Egy!tians) an# that they ma#e the Re# Sea %oasts) to +hi%h they mo,e# from the So"thern Arabian
(enins"a more than ten tho"san# years ago) a !assage+ay "nti they rea%he# in their +an#erings the Nie
Iaey) +here they sette# an# b"it Egy!t2s famo"s !haroni% %i,ii/ation$
Sti) gro"!s of these sette# the %oasta region an# +ere &no+n for their #ar& s&ins an# feat"res +hi%h +ere
non1negroi#) !ossiby #"e to their minging +ith other ra%es of Afri%an origins$ Historians #o mention the
migration of some gro"!s from the Nie "!an#s to Bara&ah Iaey an# A13ash$ These gro"!s +ere &no+n as the
Nioti% !eo!es$ They fo"n#e# an agri%"t"ra %i,ii/ation in +estern Eritrea an# remaine# there "nti) #is!a%e#
by the Hamiti% Be*a migrations t+o tho"san# years ago from their homean# in the !ains an# ,aeys) they
!enetrate# into the Barent" !atea" in sear%h of a san%t"ary$
The A1Barya an# A1Ba/a tribes are reate# to these an%ient origins of the Nioti% !eo!es$ Most of the C"shiti%
gro"!s remaine# in the %oasts of Eritrea an# its highan#s #e!en#ing on shee!1her#ing an# h"nting "nti they
minge# +ith the ne+ migrants from the so"thern Arabian (enins"a) +ho trans!ante# their agri%"t"ra
%i,ii/ation in the fifth %ent"ry B$C) an# fo"n#e# sette# &ing#oms in A&&ee 3"/ai an# Serae) +hi%h +ere atter
merge# to form the famo"s &ing#om of A&s"m$
(haroni% man"s%ri!ts in#i%ate the !resen%e of some agri%"t"ra an# tra#er %omm"nities on the Eritrean
%oasts$ The man"s%ri!ts of Th"tmose III !oint to !a%es on the %oasts of the Re# Sea "n#er the names of
2O"to"it2) 2Hamas"2 an# 2Te&aro2) +hi%h are !robaby the origins of the %"rrent names of 2A#"is2) 2Hamasien2 an#
2Tigrai2 a%%or#ing to Dean 7oresse$ It is !robabe that A#"is ha# been the name of a ,iage before the
(toomites fo"n#e# the famo"s) histori%a !ort of A#"is in the thir# %ent"ry B$C$
In the thir# %ent"ry B$C$) the 3ree& historian) Agathar%hi#es) #es%ribe# the inhabitants of the Eritrean %oasts
as %a,e #+eers in the #esert a#*a%ent to the %oast +ho i,e# in the rainy season on a #iet +hi%h +as a
mi't"re of mi& an# boo#) an# +ho +ore anima s&ins an# !ra%tise# %ir%"m%ision$ Their +omen +ere
%omm"na) "nbo"n# by marita ties) e'%e!t for those +ho +ere the !ro!erty of their ea#ers$ They +ere
gro"!e# into sma tribes an# their arms +ere shie#s ma#e of hi#e) thi%& sti%&s) s!ears an# arro+s$
Another 3ree& historian) Artemi#or"s) !resente# a #etaie# #es%ri!tion of the Eritrean %oasts an# their
inhabitants in the fi,e %ent"ries !re%e#ing the birth of Christ$ He mentione# a n"mber of an%horages +hi%h
+ere ater to #isa!!ear$ He aso mentione# bitter a&es in the region of 7an&aia from +hi%h the inhabitants
obtaine# sat0 these are !robaby the famo"s Bar#oi sat !ans in the Bori (enins"a an# the a&e of Asa +hi%h
are sti a so"r%e of in%ome for the inhabitants$
The migrants from the so"thern Arab (enins"a transferre# their %"t"re an# their boo# to the region thro"gh
%ontin"o"s migrations +hi%h starte# three tho"san# years ago an# aste# "nti the #a+n of the t+entieth
%ent"ry an# thro"gh histori%a interminging$ They +ere foo+e# in the Mi##e Ages by the migrations of the
Hamiti% Be*a tribes from so"thern Egy!t an# eastern S"#an$ Th"s) the inhabitants of Eritrea inherite# the
mi'e# boo# of the !eo!e %on,entionay %ae# JHamito K Semiti%L$
This %an be %eary seen in the %"stoms of the !eo!e an# their #ifferent #iae%ts$ Tigrinya an# Tigre beong to
Semiti% origins) +hie the #iae%ts of the 7ana&i) the Saho Bein) an# A Ha#areb beong to the C"shiti% 1
Hamiti% ang"ages$ The #iae%ts of A Barya an# A Ba/a beong to the Afri%an1Nioti% ang"age gro"!$ The
ang"age of the Bein is %onsi#ere# one of the o#est C"shiti% ang"ages in the region to the !oint that some
historians thin& it is !robabe that the name is #eri,e# from the term "se# in (haroni% ins%ri!tions an#
borro+e# by the 3ree&s an# the Romans as the +or# 2Bemmys2$
It "se# to be gi,en to the !eo!es on the %oasts of the Me#iterranean tho"san#s of years ago$ In genera)
Eritrea forms +ith the ,arie# affiiations of its !eo!e a ty!i%a mo#e of the !eo!es of the area stret%hing
from @enya to the f"rthest %o"ntries of the Arab +est$
In this res!e%t) 7ennis (om says) in his .The Afri%an C"t"res.) .8hate,er the age +as in +hi%h the ba%&s
a!!eare# in Afri%a an# !roiferate# in it) there2s no #o"bt that %onta%ts +ere ma#e bet+een them an# +hites
+hose origin +as North Afri%a or the Near East an# +ho are the an%estors of the Berber in North Afri%a at the
same time$ 8e %an aso gi,e these !eo!e the name .Hamito 1 Semiti%.) in reation to Ham) the son of Noah) to
!oint o"t their origin +hi%h is %ose to the Semiti%s$
The #ifferen%e bet+een them ies in the ing"isti% as!e%t$ As for the ra%ia as!e%t) they are originay of the
inhabitants of the Me#iterranean$ In o"r !resent #ay) the +estern or the northern gro"! of the Hamito Semiti%
%om!rises) a!art from the Arabs) +ho %ame +ith the histori%a in,asions) tho"gh most of the Arabs of North
Afri%a are a%t"ay Berbers +ho a#o!te# the ang"age of the migrants) the inhabitants of Libya) T"nisia)
Ageria) Moro%%o) Ma"ritania) 8estern S"#an 4The T+aregs5 an# the inhabitants of the %entra #esert$
To#ay) +e see that the Eastern Hamites +ho minge# +ith the Semites an# the Ba%&s ma&e "! the Egy!tian
!eo!e) the !eo!e of the Be*a) the N"bians) the Eritreans) the Ethio!ians) the E#eete#F) the Soeans) an# the
7ana&is$ Moreo,er) ing"ists #isting"ish in the Hamito 1 Semiti% ang"age gro"! three s"bgro"!sM I5 Semiti%) N5
Berber) O5 C"shiti%$
The region +hi%h has f"rthest to the east in Afri%a) i$e$ the !atea" of Ethio!ia) Eritrea) Somaian# an# the
S"#an is inhabite# by Ethio!ian 4i5 sto%&) +hi%h is %hara%teri/e# by #ar& s&ins) near to ba%&) ta bo#ies) %"ry
hair an# straight fa%es$ This is #"e to the minging of the ba%&s +ith the +hite in,a#ers +ho most !robaby
%ame from the Arabian (enins"a) or it %o"# be a %onse-"en%e of the !resen%e of an aborigina gro"! of
!eo!e +hi%h ha# the %hara%teristi%s of both +hites an# ba%&s$
To the so"th) there +as interminging bet+een the Ethio!ians 4N5 an# the Nioti%s +hi%h ater forme# +hat +e
sometimes %a 2Semi 1 Hamites2$ These are the Masai) the Nan#i an# the So"& tribes in @enya an# the so"thern
S"#an.$
I ha,e -"ote# historian (om to sho+ the ,astness of the e'!anse in +hi%h there +as ra%ia interminging)
+hi%h ma&es a #is%"ssion of the s!e%ifi% origin of a ra%e) insignifi%ant as it is) o"t of the -"estion$
4i5 P 4N5 8hat is meant by Ethio!ia an# Ethio!ians here is the genera sense of the +or# as gi,en by the 3ree&s
to the !eo!e +ho i,e# so"th of As+an) an# means the ba%&s or Jthose of the b"rnt fa%esL$
Cha!ter II
The Connotations of the O# NamesM
C"sh) A&s"m) A Habasha) Ethio!ia
It is a great %on%ern of o"rs +hie st"#ying the history of Eritrea to st"#y the %onnotations of the histori%a
names +hi%h +ere gi,en to the region stret%hing from the so"th of Egy!t to the o"ts&irts of @enya) sin%e
Eritrea) +ith its !resent bo"n#aries in reation to the neighbo"ring %o"ntries) #i# not ha,e a se!arate name or
a history se!arate from the history of the !eo!es +ho sette# this ,ast region$ The terms A&s"m) A Habasha)
Ethio!ia an# C"sh) to be s!e%ifi%) are the ob*e%t of o"r !resent st"#y as they ha,e been s"b*e%t to a ot of
%onf"sion an# %onfi%ting %aims in the ser,i%e of !oiti%a aims$
The name of Ethio!ia
The term .Ethio!ia. is an an%ient name +hi%h +as mentione# in many of the o# 3ree& +ritings an# other
im!ortant reigions an# histori%a referen%es$ Its 3ree& meaning is .the b"rnt fa%e.$ Some o# so"r%es foremost
among +hi%h is the O# Testament ga,e it to the N"bian @ing#oms +hi%h +ere inf"en%e# by the o# Egy!tian
%"t"re$ Some referen%es +ent f"rther by gi,ing it to a the inhabitants of the Afri%an %ontinent so"th of the
#esert an# the Nie "!an#s$
8hen Sir B"#ge +rote his boo& abo"t the history of Eritrea) he starte# by ta&ing abo"t the history of the
N"bian @ing#om as !art of Ethio!ia$ In this res!e%t) he reie# on a the an%ient so"r%es sin%e the o# 3ree&
+riters) Homer) Hero#ot"s an# others +ho tho"ght that Ethio!ia %ommen%e# from the so"thern bo"n#aries of
Egy!t$ The geogra!her Strabo sai# that Ethio!ia +as !art of Egy!t an# a so"thern e'tension of it$ An%ient
+ritings are n"mero"s an# ,arie#0 some ha# it that the name Ethio!ia %om!rises Egy!t) the S"#an) Arabia)
(aestine) In#ia an# es!e%iay the !eo!e +ho inhabite# the Nie ,aey) in the north an# the so"th$
Sin%e the name in its 3ree& origin means 2the b"rnt fa%e2) historians ga,e it to a the !eo!es +hose
%om!e'ion ,aries bet+een bro+n an# ba%&) in%"#ing the Negroes) an# they ass"me# that the an#s inhabite#
by these !eo!e +ere %ae# Ethio!ia$ Sin%e the o# so"r%es #i# not agree on &no+n bo"n#aries for the an#
gi,en this name) it remaine# in#eterminate +itho"t any geogra!hi%a #efinition an# it +as asso%iate# +ith
another %ontem!oraneo"s name) 2C"sh2) +hi%h meant the same !eo!es an# the same regions$
One of the in#i%ations of %onf"sion in #efining the areas #esignate# by this name is the in,asion of Egy!t by the
@ing of N"bia) +hose #ynasty r"e# Egy!t from :;N to ==O B$C$ This #ynasty +as the N9th #ynasty %ae# by
historians the Ethio!ian #ynasty) atho"gh it %ame from N"bia$ This sho+s that the name Ethio!ia meant to
an%ient historians the &ing#om of N"bia an# Meroe more than anything ese$ They #efine# Nabata as its first
%a!ita an# Meroe as its se%on# %a!ita) both of +hi%h are in Northern S"#an$
8hy #i# A1Habasha %a itsef Ethio!iaCC
8riters in the Mi##e an# Mo#em Ages fo"n# im!ortant !arts of the area %on%erne# +hi%h ha# a%-"ire# #istin%t
names s"%h as Egy!t an# the S"#an) so) e'%e!ting these) they ga,e the rest) i$e$ a the ba%& !eo!es in%"#ing
A1Habasha 4Abyssinia5) the name Ethio!ia$
Th"s arose the #esire of the &ings of A1Habasha 4Abyssinia5 to a#o!t the name Ethio!ia in the Mi##e Ages)
be%a"se of their #esire to gi,e "! the o# %ommon name) A1Habesha 4Abyssinia) +hi%h s"ggests a m"ti!i%ity
of ra%es) their interminging an# a%& of %ohesion) es!e%iay sin%e those &ings) s"!!orte# by the %h"r%h) ha#
been trying sin%e the reign of &ing Y&"n" Ama& 4;N:A A$7$5 to enhan%e the &ing2s !restige an# a"thority by
s"rro"n#ing him +ith an a"ra of san%tifi%ation an# by reating him to !ro!hets an# a!ostes$
So) they in,ente# a story for the name by saying that Ethio!s) the son of Ham) the son of Noah) is their
an%estor) that his !rogeny migrate# to A1Habasha 4Abyssinia5 !atea" at the beginning) that the name is
a%-"ire# from him) an# that his son) Y&s"m) fo"n#e# the %ity of A&s"m$
S!enser Trimingham !referre# to a!!y the name Ethio!ia as a geogra!hi%a term to the region of North East
Afri%a) +hi%h %om!rises the o# Habasha 4Abyssinia5 an# its #e!en#en%ies0 Eritrea) an# Somai an#) b"t it is a
term +hi%h a%&s s%ientifi% a%%"ra%y an# a!!eases the #esire of Ethio!ian &ings for e'!ansion at the e'!ense of
neighbo"ring %o"ntries$
The Term C"sh an# its Connotation
As for C"sh) the an%ient Egy!tians "se# it to #esignate the So"thern bo"n#aries of Egy!t) no+ %ae# N"bia$
The Hebre+s mentione# it in the Torah *"st as they mentione# Ethio!ia to signify that C"sh is one of Ham2s
sons$ The A&s"mite ins%ri!tions mentione# it as Cas"$ Sin%e the Hamites) +ho +ere aso %ae# C"shites) sette#
the S"#an) Eritrea) Habasha 4Abyssinia5 an# Somai an# after ha,ing migrate# there in eary histori%a times)
the an# +as %ae# C"sh an# an# %om!rise# Habasha 4Abyssinia5) Eritrea) an# the S"#an among others$
The C"shiti% eement ha# been #ominant in the area before the %oming of the Semites from the So"thern
Arabian (enins"a$ In the region of Eritrea) Somaian# an# Habasha) they no+ form one of the eements of
+hi%h the !eo!es of that region are forme#$ The Agan) E#eete#F an# Si#ama ang"ages in Habesha 4Abyssinia5
an# the Saho) 7ana&i an# the Bein ang"ages in Eritrea an# the Somaian# are %onsi#ere# ang"ages of
C"shiti% origin$
The @ing#om of A&s"m Is Not The @ing#om of Habasha$
The +or# Habasha is #eri,e# from the term 2Habashat2 or 2Habasht2) the name of an Arab tribe +hi%h migrate#
from the so"thern Arabian (enins"a to the %oasts of Eritrea) then !enetrate# into the mo"ntaino"s highan#s
to be%ome ater one of the tribes +hi%h %ontrib"te# in fo"n#ing the &ing#om of A&s"m$ At the beginning) this
tribe an# other migrants inhabite# the Eritrean isan#s of 7aha&$ Then they estabishe# %ara,an trais into the
interior to tra#e +ith the in#igeno"s C"shiti% inhabitants$
The Semiti% names) %ommon on the %oasts an# the Eritrean !atea") in#i%ate the migration ro"tes$ Massa+a
from the name of a Yemenite famiy 2Massa+a2) Saharat from Shahar in Yemen) Hisein from 2Thee H"ssein2)
Anbasa from Ayn Saba) Marab from 2Mareb2) 8a2a) Matara) an# Areb et%$$$ Historians state that the Habashat
tribe se%"re# for itsef a footho# on the Eritrean !atea" in the 9th %ent"ry B$C$ The +or# 2Habasha2 in Arabi%
signifies "nity an# aian%e) an# from this root there are #eri,ati,es %ommon among Arabs$
8e fin# that 2Habashat2 is an Arab mar&et before Isam0 2Habasha2 an# H"beish are Arabi% !ro!er no"ns$ 2A1
Ahabeesh2 are !eo!e from 2?"reish2 +ho entere# into an aian%e an# +ere %ae# th"s$ Aso) in Yemen) there is
a mo"ntain %ae# H"beish an# it is sai# that the Habashat tribe beongs to that area$ As for the A*a2a/yan tribe)
it is sai# to be the o#est Yemenite tribe to migrate to the %oasts of Eritrea$ Their origina habitant +as on the
%oast bet+een Sana2a an# A#en) an# they are mentione# in ins%ri!tions in A#en an# A&s"m$ To them is
attrib"te# the 3ee/ ang"age from +hi%h +ere #eri,e# Tigrinya an# Tigre) t+o ang"ages %"rrent in Eritrea$
It m"st be note# that the state of A&s"m) fo"n#e# by the Semiti% migrants s"%h as the 2Habashat2 an# 2 A*2a/yan2
tribes an# others in the Eritrean highan#s an# the Tigrai !atea" in the north of +hat is no+ %ae# Ethio!ia)
+as not %ae# the state of Habasha 4Abyssinia5 "nti ater ages0 abo"t the tenth %ent"ry A$7$ after the rise of
the Amhara &ing#om) as +i be #etaie# ater$
There is no mention of the +or# Habasha or 2Ahbashat2 in o# A&s"mite ins%ri!tions e'%e!t +ithin states or
tribes that +ere s"bor#inate to A&s"m) +hie the offi%ia name of the state +as the &ing#om of A&s"m$ An o#
A&s"mite ins%ri!tion that #ates ba%& to Hth %ent"ry A$7$ mentions t+o &ings of this region) Aa2mi#a an# his
son) E/ana) +ho are %ae# .the &ing of A&s"m) Thoo Ry#an) Saba) Ahbashat) Asah) Tahama) Be*a an# Sam".
+hi%h attests the fa%t that Ahbashat #i# not mean the +hoe region or a its !eo!es at the time the
ins%ri!tion +as re%or#e#$
Another A&s"mite ins%ri!tion +hi%h #ates ba%& to =th %ent"ry A$7$ mentions the name of Ramha/) one of the
&in#s of A&s"m) +ho is %ae# &ing of the Da2a/ites$ The +or# Ahbashat +as mentione# in the ins%ri!tion +hi%h
sho+s that the name #i# not %o,er the +hoe region$
It %an be %on%"#e# from this the %"rrent Habasha +hi%h is %ae# Ethio!ia by its &ings an# +hi%h %om!rises its
#e!en#en%ies in the an# of the E#eete#F an# Somaian#) is not an e'tension of the &ing#om of A&s"m +hi%h
fe in the <th %ent"ry A$7$ Rather) A&s"m +as a &ing#om on its o+n) +hi%h at the beginning forme# an
e'tension of the &ing#oms of Sheba 4Saba25 an# Himyar in Yemen to the e'tent that initiay) the tite of its
r"er) Neg"s or 2Negash2) meant merey a ta' %oe%tor +ho +as sent by the &ings of Sheba an# Himyar to their
%omm"nities there for the %oe%tion of ta'es) b"t +ith the !assage of time the +or# %ame to mean &ing$
Eritrea an# the histori%a A&s"m en*oy a %ommon heritage embo#ie# in the h"man) %"t"ra) ing"isti% an#
%i,iisation %om!osition of si/abe !arts of Eritrea) es!e%iay its !atea"$ This is +hy +e !ai# s"%h %on%ern to
the history) %"t"re an# %i,iisation of A&s"m) in s!ite of o"r a+areness of the sensibiities +hi%h might be
offen#e# on a%%o"nt of that) es!e%iay sin%e the &ings of Ethio!ia %aim the Ethio!ian heritage tho"gh they are
more remo,e# from it than the Eritreans) an# sin%e the %ity of A&s"m itsef sti stan#s on the Tigrai !atea"
near the Eritrean bo"n#aries$
Ho+e,er) if the Amhara &ings an# their !eo!es #o ha,e #istant affiiations +ith the %i,ii/ation of A&s"m) then
it is ony of the nat"re of %ommon heritage +hi%h +e #o not %ontest$ The Latin !eo!es in E"ro!e) for e'am!e)
beong to a %ommon %"t"ra heritage) b"t this has not !re,ente# the e'isten%e of se!arate) in#e!en#ent
nationaities s"%h as Itay) S!ain) Fran%e) (ort"ga an# R"mania besi#es the %o"ntries of Latin Ameri%a$
The Name of Eritrea
In the thir# %ent"ry B$C$) the 3ree&s ga,e the name Tri%hone1Sin"s Erythrae"m to the sees aro"n# the Arabian
(enins"a +hi%h +ere the Re# Sea) the 3"f of A#en) the Arab Sea) an# the Arabian 3"f$ They e'!aine# the
name +hi%h iteray means the Re# Sea by a"#ing to the n"mero"s mosses +hi%h +ere seen by the 3ree&
saiors afoat on the +aters of these seas an# +hi%h "se# to refe%t a re# %oo"r off the s"rfa%e of the +ater$
In an%ient 3ree%e) there +as an isan# %ae# Eritrea) +hi%h is the isan# of Yoboya ra%ing the eastern %oast of
3ree%e) an# o"t of +hi%h %ame many !eo!e to fin# the %oonies in the northern !art of the Aegean Sea$ These
%oonies too& !art in the 3ree& "!rising against the (ersians 4H>> B$C$5) so 7ari"s I 4H>A B$C$5 #estroye# them
ater$ Athens estabishe# a %oony there +hi%h re,ote# against it t+i%e 4H;; 1 OH> B$C$5) an# there is sti a site
in the Isan# of Crete +hi%h is %ae# Ca!e Eritrea$
8e #o not &no+ +hether the 3ree&s) in their #ays of gory) trans!ante# this name to a Re# Sea region +hi%h
they %ontroe#$ The Romans) in their #ays of gory) %onfine# the name Sin"s Erythrae"m to the Re# Sea an# its
%oasts) +hi%h they %ame to %ontro +hen A#"is fe "n#er their inf"en%e$ 8hen the Itaians o%%"!ie# the
%oasts of the Re# Sea) +hi%h stret%h from Rahaita in the so"th to Ras @assar in the north) they re,i,e# the o#
Roman name for the %oast of A#"is by #e%ree iss"e# by &ing H"mbert I) the &ing of Itay) on the first of
Dan"ary) ;<>A A$ 7$$ 4!$ OA5
Cha!ter III
The Reation of the Eritrean
(atea" +ith the @ing#om of
A&s"m an# the So"thern Arabian (enins"a
The Inter,ention of A&s"m in the Affairs
of the So"thern Arabian (enins"a
The fo+ of Arab migrations sto!!e# tem!orariy +hen the 3ree& (toomites in Egy!t inter,ene# in the Re#
Sea) a%-"ire# !oiti%a an# miitary inf"en%e on both si#es of the Re# Sea an# fo"n#e# the famo"s !ort of
A#"is in the mi##e of the thir# %ent"ry$
A 3ree& ang"age man"s%ri!t fo"n# near 7"&&i Mahari HA &iometers to the so"th of Asmara mentions a &ing
+ho bears the 3ree& name of Sembr"thes) +hi%h sho+s the inf"en%e of 3ree& %"t"re as a %onse-"en%e of the
3ree& (toomite !resen%e in A#"is on the Eritrean %oasts$ Ho+e,er) Arab migrations #i# not %ease %om!etey
e,en in that !erio#$ Some resear%hers thin& that the Arabs entere# the o!!osite Afri%an %oasts after the birth
of Christ aso) an# that they "se# to %ross the sea an# an# there bet+een the years NON an# N9A A$7$
Moreo,er) the Shebans +ho sette# the Eritrean highan#s an# the Tigrai !atea" #i# not se,er reations +ith
their o# homean#) b"t they remaine# intereste# in it) interfering in its affairs) sen#ing %am!aigns against it
an# o%%"!ying it at %ertain times$ A&s"mite +ritings re,ea that the &ings of A&s"m +ere in the so"thern Arabia
in the first %ent"ry A$7$) an# they +ere there again in the se%on# %ent"ry A$7$ aso$
It seems that they ha# o%%"!ie# the +estern %oasts) +hi%h are near the Eritrean %oast an# %an be rea%he# by
sma boats a%ross Bab e Men#eb) it is state# in an A&s"mite te't that the &ing of A&s"m ha# s"b*"gate# the
%oasts ra%ing the %oast of his &ing#om by sen#ing an# for%es that #efeate# the .Arab &ings of those %oasts an#
for%e# them to !ay trib"te$ An ins%ri!tion s!ea&s of a +ar +hi%h 2A1Sharih Ya&hsab2 of Hemyar on 2Ah/ab
Ahbashat2) i$e$ the !eo!e of Habasha 4Abyssinia5) an# 2Thee Sahartat2) i$e$ the !eo!e of Sahartah$
8ritings that #ate ba%& to the #ays of 2Ahan Nahfan2 state that this Yemenite &ing negotiate# +ith 2Da#art2) the
&ing of A&s"m) to ma&e !ea%e +ith him$ The senten%e .Tha ?o+ 8a&a#iness 8a2asha2ab Mae& Habashat.) i$e$
.the ea#ers) or#s an# tribes of the &ing of Habasha 4Abyssinia5) in#i%ate that the &ing of A&s"m r"e# o,er a
!art of so"thern Arabia at the time$ There is aso a referen%e in the te't to the A&s"mite &ing) 2Da#art Mae&
Habashat 8a A&s"men.$ Moreo,er) 8ithba) the &ing of A&s"m) interfere# in the affairs of so"thern Arabia
bet+een the years OAA an# ONA A$7$
It %an be seen from the ong tite ass"me# by the &ing of A&s"m) E/ana) that Yemen an# the neighbo"ring an#
+ere "n#er his r"e$ B"t the most ob,io"s inter,ention of A&s"m in so"thern Arabia +as the one that too& !a%e
in the first haf of the si'teenth %ent"ry an# its o%%"!ation of Yemen) +here they staye# for abo"t se,enty
years "nti the !eo!e of Yemen) ai#e# by the (ersians) re,ote# against them an# they eft Yemen fore,er$
They ha# entere# it in 9N< A$7$ +ith the he! of the Romans) +ho !ro,i#e# them +ith the shi!s that
trans!orte# them from the !ort of A#"is) +hi%h +e +i #is%"ss in o"r #is%o"rse on the str"gge in the Re# Sea$
The Roman historian) (ro&obi"s) +rote that the Em!eror D"stinian sent an emissary %ae# D"ianos to the
Negash Asbaha to as& him to #e%are +ar on the (ersians an# se,er %ommer%ia reations +ith them) sin%e
Casear an# he +ere %o1reigionists) i$e$ Christians) an# his #"ty +as to s"!!ort his Roman Christian %o1
reigionists an# "!1ho# their %a"se$ D"stinian2s emissary arri,e# at the !ort of A#"is) then !ro%ee#e# to A&s"m
+here he fo"n# the Neg"s A1Asbasha stan#ing in a fo"r +heee# %hariot to +hi%h +ere tie# fo"r ee!hants0 he
+as na&e# e'%e!t for a %otton oin%oth fastene# +ith go#) an# on his +aist an# arms +ere tie# go#
ornaments$
The Neg"s hee#e# the %a an# sent a miitary e'!e#ition to sa,e the Christians of Na*ran from the !erse%"tion
of the De+ish &ing of Hemyar) Thee Na+as) +ho +as s"!!orte# by the (ersians$ The e'!e#itionary for%e +as
trans!orte# in t+o stages on Roman shi!s +hi%h ha# %ome from Egy!t$ The first %on,oy mo,e# "n#er the
%omman# of the neg"s +ho ha# his o+n shi!) +hi%h %rosse# Bab e Men#eb an# an#e# at the %oast of Yemen$
The neg"s2s shi! +as the first to rea%h an# +as foo+e# by the rest of the shi!s$ The battes +hi%h too& !a%e
bet+een the army of A&s"m an# the Hemyarites %"minate# in the ,i%tory of A&s"m an# the a!!ointment of
2Abraha A Ashram2) +ho +as one of the %omman#ers of the e'!e#itionary for%e) as r"er of Yemen$ He ater
#e%are# his in#e!en#en%e an# his sons s"%%ee#e# him on the throne for se,enty years$ 4Refer to s!e%ia
%ha!ter on the str"gge in the Re# Sea5$
The System of 3o,ernment in A&s"m
The (ro,in%es of the Eritrean (atea"
The &ing#om of A&s"m +as forme# of se,era sma &ing#oms fo"n#e# by Semiti% migrants from Yemen in the
age of Sheba 4Saba25 an# Hemyar bet+een the an# of Ta&/i an# the Eritrean !ro,in%e of 2A&&ee 3"/ai2$ It is
!robabe that this #ates ba%& to the ;st %ent"ry A$7$ A&s"mite ins%ri!tions) es!e%iay the one re%or#e# on the
stone tabet of its most famo"s &ing) E/ana) +ho +as the first to embra%e Christianity abo"t O9A A$7$) sho+
that A&s"m "se# to a"n%h in,asions aiming at s"b*"gating the neighbo"ring tribes an# for%ing them to !ay an
ann"a in#emnity$
It +as not so m"%h a %ase of %entraise# go,ernment as of &ing#oms an# tribes that "se# to !ay their ann"a
in#emnities$ In his tabet) E/ana mentions se,era !eo!es he ha# s"b*"gate# an# refers to himsef as the r"er
of A&s"m) Hemyar) Ry#an an# Sheba 4Saba25 in Yemen$ He aso mentions 2Sahin2) 2Siyamo2) 2Be*a2 an# 2Cass"2
+hi%h might ha,e been in the &ing#om of Meroe in the Nie Iaey an# in eastern S"#an) sin%e he refers to his
%rossing) 2Ta&asa2 ri,er an# aso to the !eo!es of 2Min&arto2) 2Hassa2) 2Barya2) 2Sara+i2) an# 2Hamasein2 in the 3ash
Iaey in +estern Eritrea an# the Eritrean highan#s$
8hat attests to the in#e!en#en%e of the territories +hi%h fe "n#er the inf"en%e of A&s"m is +hat Y/ana2s
tabet mentions of his s"b*"gating the &ing of 2Agosa2 +hi%h) a%%or#ing to historians) is the Eritrean A&&ee
3"a/i) bor#ering on A&s"m an# aso the &ing Hamasein$ He aso mentions the &ing of 2Sarati2) 4this name %ro!s
"! in #ifferent forms of one of +hi%h is Sara+i$ It stan#s for the Eritrean !ro,in%e of 2Serae25) an# says that he
%ame to an "n#erstan#ing +ith him %on%erning the !assage of tra#e %ara,ans to 2A#"is2 !ea%ef"y a%ross his
%o"ntry$ Ho+e,er) the names of these &ing#oms #isa!!eare# after the fo"rth %ent"ry A$7$) an# the ony re%or#s
that +ere fo"n# +ere the ones that mention the names of the &ings of A&s"m an# the #ates of their reigns
ina%%"ratey$
Foo+ing the fa of A&s"m as a "nite# &ing#om after the Hamiti Be*a tribes o,erran the Eritrean highan#s in
the <th %ent"ry A$7$) the !ro,in%e 2Serae2 forme# an in#e!en#ent state "n#er the a#ministration of its r"er
+ho +as %ae# 2Cantibai2$ Hamasein) aso) remaine# in#e!en#ent "n#er a !rin%e %ae# 2A&san2$ 8hen the
ea#ers of the Tigrai im!ose# a sha#e of their inf"en%e an# 2E&"n" Ama&2 as%en#e# the throne of Habasha
4Abyssinia5) the r"e of the three !ro,in%es of the Eritrean !atea" +as ass"me# by a !rin%e %ae# JBahr
NegashL) i$e$ Jthe &ing of the sea2) atho"gh his inf"en%e #i# not rea%h the sea) as the fero%io"s Be*a tribes
%ontroe# the %oasta stri!$
The system of go,ernment in the three !ro,in%es +as not %entrai/e#) b"t +as rather i&e a %onfe#eration
im!ose# by se%"rity !re%a"tions in a an# that ha# been e'!ose# to in,asion an# %onstant ooting by northern
migrants) the Be*a) an# so"thern migrants the Tigrai an# ea%h !ro,in%e ha# its o%a r"ers$ 4( O95
Cha!ter II
The Roots of C"t"re on the Eritrean
(atea" an# its Reation +ith the Arabs
Before an# After the Intro#"%tion of Christianity
There is no territory in the +or# o"tsi#e the %o"ntries of the Arab eag"e +hose o%a %"t"re bears s"%h a
Semiti% or Arab im!rint as the Eritrean !atea") the ,ario"s as!e%ts of +hose %i,ii/ation) %"t"re an# ang"age
an# the basis of so%ia ife ha# been inf"en%e by the So"thern Arab !enins"a before the intro#"%tion of
Christianity into it in the mi##e of the Hth %ent"ry A$7$) an# ater by Arabi% %"t"re after its %h"r%h ha# been
in&e# to the Egy!tian %h"r%h thro"gho"t the ages of history) +hi%h re-"ire# the transation of reigions) ega
an# %"t"ra boo&s from Arabi% as +e +i see in this %ha!ter$
The Nee# for Ar%heoogi%a E'%a,ation
The history of Eritrea a%&s resear%h an# Ar%heoogi%a E'%a,ations$ 8ith the e'%e!tion of the imite# Itaian
resear%h in A#"is) there has not been a thoro"gh sear%h for an%ient r"ins$ Ho+e,er) the r"ins fo"n# so far)
es!e%iay those fo"n# in 2?"ohito2) 2Ti&honoa2 an# 2@as&i2 in the !ro,in%e of A&&ee 3"a/i) re,ea a %ear
so"thern Arabian inf"en%e on this area$
The ar%haeoogist 7"n%anson is in%ine# to beie,e that there are many other r"ins +hi%h are sti "n#er the
earth in the Eritrean !atea"$ Lotman fo"n# a n"mber of histori%a rei%s +hi%h #ate ba%& to sometime
bet+een the ;st an# 9th B$C$$ Aso) some Eritrean ,iagers in JA#i @aranshamL in Hamasein fo"n# a stone
stat"e +hi%h resembes the Egy!tian s!hin' an# a !"!it bearing +riting in Sabaean etters$ Co"nt Rossini
thin&s that it +as +ritten in the !erio# bet+een the :th an# 9th %ent"ries B$C$ These histori%a rei%s are the
o#est that ha,e been fo"n# in North East Afri%a$
A*a2a/yah an# 3ee/ 1 (eo!e an# Lang"age
3ee/ is %onsi#ere# the o#est Semiti% ang"age in North East Afri%a$ It +as the ang"age of the Sabaean Tribes
+hi%h migrate# to the Eritrean !atea" an# the Tigrai !atea" from the so"thern Arabian !enins"a in the
an%ient ages$ The !eo!e +ho s!o&e 3ee/ +ere %ae# A*a2a/yan an# its itera meaning is) a%%or#ing to some
resear%hers) 2noma#s2 4i5 an# a%%or#ing to others) the free ones$ If it is the se%on# meaning) then it is !robabe
that the migrant Semiti% tribes %ae# themse,es th"s to #isting"ish themse,es from the aborigina Negroi#
an# C"shiti% eements +hi%h +ere stigmati/e# +ith sa,ery$
This is s"!!orte# by the fa%t that the Semiti%s im!ose# their %"t"re an# their ang"age on the C"shiti% !eo!es
that ha# !re%ee#e# them sin%e they +ere %"t"ray more a#,an%e#$ It +as they +ho ha# intro#"%e# the means
of %"ti,ating his by means of terra%ing hisi#es) b"i#ing +ith sheer stone "n%onne%te# by !iaster) b"i#ing
o,a tem!es an# !aa%es) +riting an# other means of %i,iisation an# !rogress$ It is s"ffi%ient that they ga,e
the region its ang"age$
4i5 3ee/a an# 3aLa/i in Tigre #iae%t #eri,e# from 3ee/) means 6the noma#sQ$ Sin%e the A*aLa/yan migrate#
from their origina homean# in the so"thern Arabian !enins"a to sette in the Eritrean !atea") the first
meaning of the +or# is !robaby %orre%t$
Their reigion re!a%e# the o# reigions of the C"shiti% !eo!es +ho "se# to san%tify %ertain &in#s of trees)
+ater an# sna&es$ The inhabitants of the so"thern Arabian (enins"a "se# to +orshi! the s"n) the moon an# the
(anet Ien"s$ The o# r"ins in Matara an# ?"ohito in the !ro,in%e of A&ee 3"a//i attest to the +orshi! of the
2go##ess Ashtar2) i$e$ the go##ess Ien"s$
The Tigre +or#) JA starL +as #ei,ere# from this +or# to mean the s&y$ They aso +orshi!!e# 2Iah Bahr2 an# 2Iah
Ma#ar2) +hi%h mean res!e%ti,ey the go# of the sea an# the go# of the earth) an# 2Iah Mahram +hi%h means
the go# of +ar$ A of these are !agan go#s for +hi%h i#os +ere ma#e in the so"thern Arabian (enins"a an#
+hi%h +ere transferre# to the Eritrean (atea" by the Semiti% migrants$
Many 3ee/ ins%ri!tions ha,e been #is%o,ere# in the Eritrean !atea") the +riting of +hi%h %an be #i,i#e# into
three %ategories or ages$ The first re!resents the o#est mo#es of 3ee/ +riting) an# its s%ri!t is the o#
Sabaean s%ri!t %ommon in the age of the &ings of Sheba 4Saba +ho +ere &no+n as 2Ma&reb2$ Their reign
e'ten#e# amost from ;AAA B$ C$ to =AA B$ C$ This &in# of +riting re!resente# the migrants before their
minging +ith the o%a eements$ The se%on# resembes ate Sabaean s%ri!t0 this %ategory %ame si' %ent"ries
after the first$ The thir# is 3ee/ +ritings +ith a #istin%t s%ri!t an# ang"age$
4!$ O<5
Their reigion re!a%e# the o# reigions of the C"shiti% !eo!es +ho "se# to san%tify %ertain &in#s of trees)
+aters an# sna&es$ The inhabitants of the so"thern Arabian (enins"a "se# to +orshi! the s"n) the moon an#
the (anet Ien"s$ The o# r"ins of Matara an# ?"ohito in the !ro,in%e of A&ee 3"//ai attest to the +orshi! of
the Jgo##ess AshtarL) i$e$ the go##ess Ien"s$ The Tigre +or# JA starL +as #ei,ere# from this +or# to mean the
s&y$
They aso) +orshi!e# JIah BahrL an# JIah Ma#arL) +hi%h means res!e%ti,ey the go# of the sea an# the go# of
the earth) an# JIah MahramL +hi%h means the go# of +ar$ A of these are !agan go#s for +hi%h i#os +ere
ma#e in the so"thern Arabian (enins"a an# +hi%h +ere transferre# to the Eritrean (atea" by the Semiti%
migrants$
Many 3ee/ ins%ri!tions ha,e been #is%o,ere# in the Eritrean !atea") the +ritings of +hi%h %an be #i,i#e# into
three %ategories of ages$ The first re!resents the o#est mo#es of 3ee/ +riting) an# its s%ri!t is the o#
Sabaean s%ri!t %ommon in the age of the &ings of Sheba 4Saba +ho +ere &no+n as JMa&rebL$
Their reign e'ten#e# amost from ;AAA B$ C$ to =AA B$ C$ This &in# of +riting re!resente# the migrants before
their minging +ith the o%a eements$ The se%on# resembes ate Sabaean s%ri!t0 this %ategory %ame si'
%ent"ries after the first$ The thir# is 3ee/ +ritings +ith a #istin%t s%ri!t an# ang"age$
Ho+e,er) a s%r"tiny of the 3ee/ s%ri!t !ro,es it to be #ei,ere# from the Sabaean an# inf"en%e# by the
Sabaean form$ It seems that the Sabaean s%ri!t +as not ,ery %om!atibe +ith 3ee/ !rono"n%iation) so the
A&s"mites) on first embra%ing Christianity) ha# to in,ent this s%ri!t) +hi%h a##e# to its etters something
resembing stresses) in an in#e!en#ent stye ma&ing it a %om!romise bet+een Semiti% an# 3ree& s%ri!ts$
3ee/ +as initiay the ang"age of Semiti% tribes that i,e# among Afri%an tribes on the Eritrean !atea" an# in
A'"m) 8hen the t+o eements starte# merging an# forming a nation +hi%h +as neither !"re Semiti% nor !"re
Hamiti%) this ang"age remaine# the ang"age of the hybir# nation in a !arts of the %o"ntry +itho"t osing its
Semiti% %hara%ter or origin) sin%e the roots of its #eri,ation are fo"n# in Arabi% an# other Semiti% ang"ages$
8hat %hange it #i# "n#ergo is %onfine# to the fa%t that its !rono"n%iation +as some+hat atere# in reation to
+hat is %ommon among Semites) an# some Hamiti% +or#s +ere intro#"%e# into it$ Orientaists ha,e obser,e#
that 3ee/ has !reser,e# o# Semiti% feat"res of +hi%h there is no tra%e in a other Semiti% ang"ages)
es!e%iay in forms +hi%h in Eritrea are o# in str"%t"re an# system$ Aso) there are other in#i%ations +hi%h
sho+ that 3ee/ has !reser,e# the o#est$
Semiti% feat"res s"%h as the a%& of a #ifferntiation bet+een mas%"ine an# feminine in no"ns$ 8e #o not &no+
the time +hen 3ee/ se%e#e# %om!etey from the mother Sabaean ang"age) as the !ro%ess of e,o"tion m"st
ha,e ta&en many %ent"ries as mentione# abo,e$ It is !robabe that 3ee/ be%ame in%om!rehensibe to the
inhabitants of the so"thern Arabian (enins"a abo"t the first %ent"ry A$7$ The obeis& of Matara in A&ee 3"/ai)
+hi%h #ates ba%& to the Hth %ent"ry A$7$ the emergen%e of 3ee/ as a ang"age #istin%t from the ang"age of
the so"thern Arabian (enins"a$
Ho+e,er) a ang"age is greaty inf"en%e# by the !oiti%a state$ The gory of A&s"m) +hi%h aste# from the Hth
%ent"ry to the :th %ent"ry A$7$) #e%ine#$ This +as s"%%ee#e# by the #e%ine of 3ee/ as a i,ing ang"age an#
its %onfinement to boo&s +ithin the %h"r%h for the !"r!ose of reigions tea%hings$
It is note# that the %"t"ra re,i,a of 3ee/ +as bet+een the ;Oth an# the ;:th %ent"ries) the !erio# in +hi%h
the %h"r%h +as ,ery a%ti,e after %ent"ries of isoation Tigre an# Tigrini% re!a%e# it as s!o&en ang"ages in the
areas in +hi%h it ha# been histori%ay #ominant$ The former t+o are) of a Semiti% #iae%ts) the %osest to
3ee/$ As for Amhari%) it +as more strongy inf"en%e# by C"shiti% ang"ages in s!ite of its Semiti% roots$ To
sho+ the "nit of origins an# roots among 3ee/ an# the other Semiti% ang"ages) +e a##"%e here a tabe +hi%h
in%"#es a n"mber of simiar +or#s$ 4i5
4i5 Transator2s noteM
These an# s"bse-"ent trans%ri!tions are base# on the Thir# Ne+ Internationa as %on#ense# in the Merriam1
8ebster !rono"n%iation g"i#e$
There are many other +or#s in Arabi% +hi%h are of 3ee/ origin or %ame from other ang"ages s"%h as 3ree&)
Aramai% an# Hebre+ by +ay of 3ee/$ For e'am!eM
Gha+ariyyenG) Gm"nafagG) Gf"trG) GmihrabG) Gb"rharG) Gmish&atG Gba,G) Gma/i#aG) G/in/heG)
G*ahannemG) Gtab"tG) GSarhG) G*ibabG) G/arebaG) et%$$$ E,en the +or# Gm"s$nafG is of 3ee/ origin an# is rea#
+ith a %ear GsG$
The a"thor of .The Bea"tif" Sa,e Mai#s in the History of the .H"bshan. reates that Saem) the Ma+ah of bn
Abi H"thaifa) assembe# the ?oran bet+een %o,ers$ Then they %onferre# on naming it0 some s"ggeste# 4A1
Sifr5$ B"t he to# them that this is the name the De+s ga,e to their boo&s so they #e%ine# it$ Then he sai# I
ha,e seen its i&e in A&s"m %ae# Gam"s$nafG) so they "nanimo"sy #e%i#e# to %a it so$
The Hemyariti% inf"en%e is noti%e# in the names of the eary &ings of the &ing#om of A&s"m$ The names of the
&ings +ho r"e# in the !erio# bet+een the first an# thir# %ent"ries A$7$ are !refi'e# +ith the syabe G/aG as
in G/aba/enG) G/a/ant"G) G/ah&a%eG$ The syabe GthaG in Arabi% means master or r"er an# their i&es in
Himyar are %ae# Ga Ith +aiG s"%h as Gth" ya/enG) Gth"gafarrG an# Gth" *a#anG$ It is generay &no+n that
+hat foo+s this syabe in#i%ates the name of the tribe) the !eo!e) or the !a%e to +hi%h this &ing
beongs$ Gba/aenG) G/anatiG an# Gh&aaeG are a the names of the tribes or the !a%es of these &ings$ Some of
these sti remain in A13ash region) i&e Gba/aenG +hi%h is the name of a tribe$ The same %an be !robaby sai#
of GYa/en+a&fanG an# G*a#anG aso$ To#ay in Yemen) the syabe Gth"G !refi'es a n"mber of signifi%ant names
s"%h as the tribe Gth"h"saenG an# Gth"m"hamma#G$
There is aso another gro"! of &ings +hose names are !refi'e# +ith an GaG syabe +ith a stresse# on a non
stresse# GIG as in GaasfanG) GasamraG) Gais&in#iG) GaabrahaG an# GaasbahaG$
8e fin# that this str"%t"re !ersists in the names of the &ings from N:9 B$C$ "nti H:< A$7$ It %eases as of this
#ate "nti the en# of the A&s"mite state in the se,enth %ent"ry A$7$ in#i%ating the brea& "! of its %"t"ra an#
s!irit"a reations +ith the so"thern Arabian (enins"a$ (erha!s) the meaning of GaG is go# in +hi%h %ase the
meanings of the str"%t"re Ga/asfahG be%omes the 3o# of Asfah2$
It is %"stomary in an%ient 3ee/ to en# the name !re%e#ing a !re!osition +ith an GaG so"n#) th"s Ga asfahG
means the 3o# of Asfah$ (erha!s) the tra#itions of &ings in that age besto+e# on them -"aities of #i,inity an#
hoiness sin%e A&s"m +as initiay !agan$
After the intro#"%tion of Christianity into the %o"ntry) the feat"res of the !agan 3ee/ %"t"re +ere s"!!resse#
or atere# to s"it the tea%hings of the ne+ reigion) +hi%h %ast sha#es of ambig"ity on the %"t"ra +or&s of the
!erio# +hi%h !re%ee#e# the intro#"%tion of Christianity$ 3ee/ remaine# a Semiti% ang"age) the %osest of the
Semiti% ang"ages to Arabi% from the !oint of ,ie+ of semanti%s$ The transate# ,ersion of the famo"s Bibi%a
!rayer 4The Lor#2s (rayer5 is the best e,i#en%e for that$
Here2s the Arabi% ,ersion .Gbana athi fis sama+at yata&a#as ism"&a &ama h"+a bissama &athai&a aa ar#
",f"r ana sayyiatina &ama nagn" na,f"r" iman sa a iaynaG.
An# here2s the 3ee/ ,ersion .Gab"na tha bismayat yata&a##as s"m&a bi&ama bissamay &ama bim"#ri hay#e*
ana isana &ama nann" nah#e* itha ibs anaG.
The Sabaean inf"en%e on the O+nershi! of Lan# on the Eritrean (atea"$
After the ne+ migrants from the so"thern Arabian (enins"a ha# #i,este# the o# C"shiti% inhabitants of their
an# an# ma#e them into sa,es) they be-"eathe# the an# to their sons an# their #es%en#ants$ Th"s the
system of o+nershi! be%ame here#itary or +hat is o%ay %ae# .R"sti.$ The ,iage o+ns the an# on a
%omm"na basis an# re1ao%ates it among its %iti/ens on%e e,ery se,en years to a%hie,e fairness of
#istrib"tion$
Beonging to a ,iage originay bore the nat"re of boo# reation an# &inshi!$ It is noti%e# that most of the
,iages on the Eritrean !atea" bore the name .7e&&i. +hi%h means %hi#ren or .A#i. +hi%h means to+n) s"%h
as .7e&&i Ma#a2abi.) .7e&&i A2# Shoom. an# .7e&&i Mahari.) +hi%h res!e%ti,ey mean the %hi#ren of Ma#a2abi)
the %hi#ren of A2# Shoom an# the %hi#ren of Mahari$
Aso) .A#i ?ih.) .A2#i Nabra.) an# .A2#i @haa.) +hi%h res!e%ti,ey mean the to+n of ?ih2) the to+n of Nabra an#
the to+n of @haa$ These +ere originay the names of big famiies or im!ortant !ersons +ho be-"eathe# the
!a%e to their sons$ Sometimes) the big famiies ga,e their names to a +hoe !ro,in%e) as is the %ase +ith the
!ro,in%e of 6A&&ee 3"/aiQ +hi%h means the sons of the t+o brothers) A&&ee an# 3"/ai$ The an# s"rro"n#ing
the ,iage is inherite# by it on a here#itary basis$
The Sabaeans trans!ante# this system from their !atea" in Yemen$ It is aso note# that the !ro,in%e of Serae
is an e'%e!tion to the %omm"na o+nershi! !rin%i!e an# the #istrib"tion of an#$ The o+nershi! of the an# is
in#i,i#"a an# the system of !erio#i%a re1ao%ation of an# is not a!!ie#$ A !erson be%omes a %iti/en of a
,iage on%e he has resi#e# in it for forty years$
In intro#"%tion of Christianity into the Eritrean !atea" an# A&s"m$
Christianity +as intro#"%e# into Eritrea an# A&s"m in an eary age$ The most inteigibe narrati,e abo"t the
intro#"%tion of Christianity is the one +ritten by the !riest R"fin"s) +ho #ie# in H;A A$7$ He sai# that he ha#
hear# it from E#esi"s !ersonay$ The gist of it is that a gro"! of mer%hants from the %ity of Tyre ma#e a
%ommer%ia ,oyage to In#ia) a%%om!anie# by t+o reate# yo"ng men0 the o#er +as Fr"menti"s an# the
yo"nger +as E#esi"s$
7"ring the ,oyage) the shi! sto!!e# at the !ort of A#"is on the Eritrean %oast$ The shi! an# its o+ner ha#
infi%te# some #amages on the !eo!e of the !ort) in an earier ,oyage) so the atter atta%&e# the shi!)
#ro+ne# the !eo!e on boar# an# ony these t+o yo"ng men s"r,i,e#$ The nati,es so# them to the &ing of
A&s"m) +ho +as ha!!y +ith them) ga,e them his %onfi#en%e) an# ma#e the o#er his se%retary an# treas"rer
an# the se%on# his !ri,ate %"!bearer$
8hen he #ie#) they remaine# besi#e the -"een to oo& after state affairs "nti the yo"ng &ing .Y/ana. %ame of
age an# then they remaine# in his ser,i%e$ It +as by this means that Fr"menti"s +as abe to inf"en%e &ing
.Y/ana. "nti he ma#e him embra%e Christianity$ E#esi"s ater ret"rne# to Tyre +here he be%ame the !astor of
its %h"r%h an# +here he +as abe to reate his story to R"fin"s$ As for Fr"menti"s) he +ent to Ae'an#ria +here
he met the !atriar%h Athenasi"s an# "rge# him to sen# a bisho! to A&s"m o ten# the affairs of Christians an#
Christianity in that %o"ntry$
The !atriar%h fo"n# him to be best man for the *ob) an# so or#aine# him bisho! of A&s"m$ 7"ring the ifetime
of Fr"menti"s an# &ing Y/ana) Christianity be%ame the offi%ia state reigion re!resente# by the %h"r%h +hi%h
a#here# to the Ortho#o' Co!ti%) Da%obite %onfession of the Egy!tian Ch"r%h$
The !atriar%hs of Ae'an#ria &e!t or#aining Egy!tian bisho!s at the hea# of the %h"r%h in A&s"m an# ater in
Habasha 4Abyssinia5 one after the other) an# the Eritrean %h"r%h remaine# s"bor#inate to it "nti the Habashite
4Abyssinian5 %h"r%h s"%%ee#e# an# or#aine# its o+n bisho! in ;>H<$ It +as ony a sma segment of the !eo!e
that embra%e# Christianity in the reign of &ing Y/ana) as the !agan tribes remaine# m"tino"s an# Christianity
!enetrate# them ,ery so+y o,er t+o %ent"ries$
Th"s) Christianity is as o# in Eritrea as it is in the Mi##e East$ <AR of the tota Christian Eritrean !o!"ation
beong to the Ortho#o' %onfession) +hie the remain#er are #i,i#e# among the other %onfessions) es!e%iay
Cathoi%ism an# (rotestantism) +hi%h +ere intro#"%e# in the nineteenth %ent"ry +ith the o%%"ran%e of
E"ro!ean %ooni/ation an# estabishe# missionary s%hoos in ,ario"s !arts of the Eritrean !atea"$ The a%ti,ity
of the Cathoi% missionary s%hoos is es!e%iay note# in the !ro,in%e of 2A&&ee 3"/ai2) +hie the !rotestant
bo#ies) hea#e# by the S+e#ish Mission) +hi%h %ame in the Egy!tian r"e an# set "! a %h"r%h in 2Um @"o2) a
s"b"rb of Massa+a) +ere a%ti,e in Asmara) @eren) A1Mansaa2 region) an# @"nama) the ast of +hi%h +as a
!agan area$ These missions !aye# a note+orthy roe in s!rea#ing mo#em e#"%ation "n#er the Itaian
o%%"!ation) an# +ere e'!ose# to !erse%"tion by the Itaian a"thorities +ho %ose# #o+n their s%hoos$
The Syrian Missionaries Intro#"%e Reforms
Into 3ee/ an# its 8ritings0
Christianity in Eritrea intro#"%e# a fe+ im!ro,ements into o# 3ee/ +hi%h be%ame s"itabe for re%ei,ing the
sa%re# te'ts$ The %re#it for that is #"e to those missionaries +ho %ame to this %o"ntry from Syria$ The o#
ang"age of Sheba as it a!!eare# in the o#est Eritrean ins%ri!tions +as #e,oi# of ,o+e stresses) so that if they
+ante# to +rite GSanafiG) meaning +riter) they +rote it as GshfG$ The Syrian missionaries +ere abe to
intro#"%e reforms into this ang"age$ They #e,ise# ,o+e stresses +hi%h they %onne%te# to the etters) ma#e
+riting !ro%ee# from eft to right) an# a##e# three etters to its t+enty si' etters$
The Syrian 2Syria%2 missionaries ha# a 3ree& %"t"re) so they a##e# ne+ reigio"s e'!ressions same of +hi%h
+ere Syria% an# some 3ree&$ Nine of these missionaries fe# to A&s"m ha,ing ref"se# to abi#e by the #e%rees
of the %o"n%i of Ef/"s in HO; A$7$ an# the %o"n%i of Cae#onia in H9; A$7$ They a"gmente# Christianity on the
Eritrean !atea" an# in A&s"m an# transate# the Bibe into 3ee/$
The inf"en%e of these missionaries +as borne o"t in the reigio"s terms +hi%h they "se#$ These +ere Semiti%
terms +hi%h +ere %ose to Arabi% s"%h as 2@"rban2) 2Sa"t2) 2M"&a##as2) 2So"m2) ?ais or ?"ashi) @ahen) et%$$$ A
h"n#re# years ater) a gro"! of Mosems fe# there to es%a!e the o!!ression of the non1beie,ers 42@afirs25 of
2?"reish2) +hi%h sho+s the e'isten%e of reigio"s toeran%e on the !atea" an# in A&s"m$
The Inf"en%e of the Arab Lang"age
on the Literat"re of the Ch"r%hM
The iterat"re of the %h"r%h in Eritrea an# neighbo"ring A&s"m +as inf"en%e by Arabi% in the Mi##e Ages in
,ie+ of the reation of the Co!ti% %h"r%h in Ae'an#ria +hi%h ha# a#o!te# Arabi% as its ang"age$ The emissary
of the Imam of Yemen) A Hassan bin Ahma# A Haimi +rites in his boo& .The story of Habasha. in ;==9 A$7$ .The
bisho! +as an Egy!tian Co!t +hose mother tong"e +as Arabi% an# +ho %ame o"t of Egy!t ta&ing aong +ith him
a Bibe +ritten in Arabi% an# boo&s of their faith an# of the r"ings of their reigion +hi%h +ere aso +ritten in
Arabi%.$
Th"s) most of +hat +as +ritten in 3ee/ for the !"r!ose of reigio"s !rea%hing an# *"ri#i%a r"ings +as
transate# from Arabi%$ The best &no+n among these boo&s is 2Fatha Na*ist2 +hi%h means .The La+ of the @ing.)
+ritten by an Egy!tian immigrant %ae# bn Asa) an# mosty #eri,e# from Isami% *"ris!r"#en%e an# 3ree&
a+s$ Aso) the boo& 2Fossi Manfassei2) i$e$ the 2Me#i%ine of the S!irit2) is as%ribe# to an Egy!tian !riest %ae#
Mi&hai$ Li&e+ise) the boo&s 2Sa+ana Nafsi2) i$e$ the ref"ge of the s!irit an# 2Fa&ari Maa&o"t2 %ontem!ation of
the &ing#om an# 2Haman"t Ab"2) the faith of the fathers) ha,e a been #eri,e# from boo&s that first ha# been
The Roe of the Eritrean Ch"r%h an#
its Monastery in the Mi##e Ages
The Monastery of 7ebre Bea/en
In the Mi##e Ages) the %h"r%h in Eritrea an# in Ethio!ia) ha,ing absorbe# many De+ish an# (agan o%a rites)
remaine# a %entre of %"t"ra ra#iation for the Christian inhabitants an# its tea%hings an# tra#itions a%-"ire# a
"ni-"e %hara%ter +hi%h ma#e it interfere in the ,ario"s #aiy affairs of its a#herents$
The monasteries +ere %entres of earning as they +ere %entres of +orshi! an# !rea%hing an# sheters in the
im!regnabe mo"ntains at the time of the rai#s +hi%h "se# to ro%& the region$ The monastery of 7ebre Bea/en)
fo"n#e# by Father (hib"s bet+een the years ;O9A K ;O=A on the to! of Mo"nt Bea/en in A&&ee 3"a/i) one of
the most famo"s Eritrean monasteries an# the most im!ortant$
The hea# of the (ort"g"ese mission) Father A,are/) sa+ +hie !assing by the monastery aro"n# I9NA A$7$ that
the an# o+ne# by the monastery e'ten#e# for OA mies an# the ,iages s"bor#inate to the monastery
stret%he# for a #ay2s or t+o #ay2s mar%h$ Ea%h ,iage !ai# a horse e,ery three years as a ta' to the monastery)
+hi%h sho+s that the %h"r%h !ra%ti%e# se%"ar a"thority in a##ition to tem!ora a"thority$
A,are/ saysM . as&e# one of them +hy horses +hen the !eo!e of the monastery #on2t ri#e themC.2 He sai# they
+ere for%e# that it be th"s) b"t in a%t"a fa%t !ayment +as !ai# in %atte at the rate of fifty hea#s of %atte for
e,ery horse$ This ratio is o"t of !ro!ortion as it seems) "ness A,are/ mistoo& the n"mber0 es!e%iay as the
area) as it is no+) #oes not en*oy a big i,esto%& fort"ne$
The a"thority of the %h"r%h gre+ stronger after the #e%ine an# fa of the &ing#om of A&s"m) sin%e ony the
%h"r%h an# its ri%h monasteries +ere eft to !reser,e the heritage of the %o"ntry) its reigion an# its entity at a
time +hen the Eritrean !atea" +as e'!ose# to the onsa"ght of the Be*a) +ho sette# in the %o"ntry an# r"e#
it for more than fo"r %ent"ries$ As a res"t of this) many inhabitants of Hamasein) s"%h as the !eo!e of Sa2a#
Ba&&a) Ha//a&a an# Beit M"&ha ,iages %aim &inshi! +ith the Be*a an# Ba" tribes$
These Be*a tribes +ere then assimiate# into the frame+or& of the Christian Semiti% %"t"re) an# ost their
reations +ith their o# %hara%teristi%s before they +ere re!a%e# in !o+er an# a"thority at the en# of the
thirteenth %ent"ry by the Aga" tribes an# one of their bran%hes) the Beins) +ho migrate# from the Lasta
!ro,in%e in the heart of Habasha 4Abyssinia5 after its r"ing #ynasty 2Bag"e2 ha# been #is!a%e# by another
famiy +hi%h %ae# itsef the Soomoni# #ynasty$ The atter sti r"es Habasha 4Abyssinia5 an# the %"rrent
Em!eror) Haie Seassie) %aims &inshi! +ith it$
The Effe%t of Reigion on
the 7e,eo!ment of Art
Sin%e the intro#"%tion of Christianity into the Eritrean !atea") the ife of the inhabitants in its #ifferent
as!e%ts +as asso%iate# +ith reigio"s ife) an# the arts +ere no e'%e!tion$ They
+ere mainy asso%iate# +ith the %h"r%h an# its re-"irements of b"i#ings) #ra+ings) %r"%ifi'es an# bes) an#
they +ere inf"en%e# by By/antine forms$
The greatest manifestation of %h"r%h art +as the +riting an# embeishment of man"s%ri!ts$ This is a
!henomenon +hi%h +as %ommon in the Isami% +or# in ,ie+ of the fa%t that Isam #o%s not en%o"rage #ra+ing
!i%t"res of i,ing things$ The bo"n#aries of iron an# %o!!er "se# to be estabishe# near a monastery or a
%h"r%h on the mo"ntain to!s$ Besi#es %r"%ifi'es an# bes) their most im!ortant !ro#"%ts +ere items of #aiy
"se s"%h as !o+s) #omesti% ,esses) an# arms s"%h as s!ears an# short hoo&e# s+or#s$
A!art from b"i#ing an# #e%orating %h"r%hes an# monasteries) no #e,eo!ment in b"i#ing too& !a%e among
the sette# agri%"t"ra !o!"ation after the fa of the gory of A&s"m an# of the %i,ii/ations of Sheba an#
Hemyar) +hi%h %onstr"%te# the great b"i#ings an# obeis&s$
After that) the b"i#ing mo,ement #i# not #ie o"t an# !robaby the nati,es entise# the he! of Egy!tian Co!ti%
masons) a n"mber of +hom migrate# to es%a!e the !erse%"tion of the Fatimi# Cai!hs$ The %h"r%h of 27ebre
Liban"s2 in the Serae !ro,in%e is %onsi#ere# an ar%hite%t"ra master!ie%e in the harmony of its !arts an# the
!re%ision of its b"i#ings) es!e%iay its entran%e +hi%h is hoo+e# in the ro%&s$
As for the b"i#ing of %astes) it +as not famiiar$ This is !ossiby #"e to the fa%t that the mo"ntain to!s an# the
r"gge# trais !ro,i#e# a sheter for the nati,es in emergen%ies) th"s ob,iating the nee# for b"i#ing %astes an#
+as$ The T"r&s) ho+e,er) b"it a %aste in 27ebar+a2 on the Hamasein !atea" +hen their for%es o%%"!ie# the
region$
One of %ons!i%"o"s feat"res of b"i#ings on the Eritrean !atea" is the "se of stones an# +oo# in aternate
a,ers$ This is a stye of b"i#ing +hi%h #ates ba%& to the A&s"mite age an# +hi%h +as "se# in b"i#ing %h"r%hes
in eary Mi##e Ages as instan%e# by one of the o# %h"r%hes in Asmara$ This mo#e of b"i#ing is sti %ommon on
the !atea"$ Aso) hori/ontay *"tting s"!!orts +hi%h are bent in a +i#e are re!resent a mo#e of A&s"mite
b"i#ings$ As for the +i#ey !o!"ar b"i#ings) He#mo) A&#o an# Ti&") +e ha,e #is%"sse# them ese+here$
Song an# #an%e +ere inf"en%e# by the reigio"s ife) es!e%iay by the O# Testament$ One of the note#
m"si%a instr"ments is J@rarL) a har! +ith si' to ten strings) the e-"i,aent of +hi%h in the O# Testament is
7a,i#2s har!) +hi%h +as %ae# @enor$ The Messango) a singe string instr"ment) is %onsi#ere# !"rey o%a an#
!ro#"%es sa#) bea"tif" t"nes$ No o%%asion) +hether ha!!y or sa#) is %om!ete +itho"t the @ebro) the #r"m$
These m"si%a instr"ments are "se# on reigio"s feasts an# o%%asions) +hen the !riests often #an%e +ith their
ong sti%&s 4i5 ste!s of reg"a
an# %onstant rhythm to the beat of the #r"ms$ Moreo,er) a these instr"ments are "se# on norma o%%asions in
the ife of the !eo!e i&e marriage) for instan%e$
A n"mber of !eo!e on the !atea" +ho are %ae# 28aty2 are !rofessiona singers) b"t this is not %onsi#ere# a
res!e%tabe o%%"!ation$
4i5 The a"thor has seen in 7amas%"s some !eo!e from Ho"ran +ho resembe# the !eo!e of the Eritrean
!atea" in their %ost"mes) #an%es an# m"si%a instr"ments$ It is !robaby #"e to the inf"en%e of the Syrian
missionaries
The Inf"en%e of the Eritrean
Art on the Arabs
The Arabs +ere a%-"ainte# +ith the !eo!e of A&s"m) an# the Arab mer%hants fre-"ente# the %oasts of Eritrea
an# its !atea" for the sa&e of tra#e) in fight from !erse%"tion or in sear%h of !ast"re$ They %ae# a those
+ho %ame from the Afri%an an# ra%ing the !enins"a the !eo!e of Habasha 4Abyssinia5) sin%e the Habasha +as
the most #isting"ishe# among the ,ario"s) n"mero"s nations +hi%h inhabite# the area$
They +ere &no+n by the Arabs for their o,e of #an%e an# song$ It is reate# that "!on Ai Bin Abi Taab2s ret"rn
from the migration to Habasha) the !ro!het met him in !ri,ate$ Ai) inf"en%e# by the manners of the !eo!e of
A&s"m) starte# #an%ing aro"n# the (ro!het) +hi%h he a!!ro,e# of an# #i# not fin# "nbe%oming$
Some A&s"mites in Me%%a !ra%ti%e# #an%ing an# !aying +ith !i&es #"ring festi,ities an# feasts$ It 2s reate#
that on one s"%h o%%asion they +ere !aying in the mos-"e +hie the (ro!het +at%he# them +ith his +ife)
Aisha) eaning on his sho"#er$ Then they #an%e# before him sa,ing in 3ee/M .M"hamma# is a goo# man.$ He
a!!ro,e# of it an# sai# in their ang"age .Sanah$$$$$$ Sanah. +hi%h means .fine$$$) fine.$
This +or# is sti "se# in 3ee/ an# Tigre$ The Arabs too& some &in#s of #an%es from A&s"m an# the Eritrean
!atea"$ Aso) Arabi% !oetry benefite# from the rhythms of o# A&s"mite #an%es an# songs$ The 2?"anin2) an
Arabi% m"si%a instr"ment) is base# on the A&s"mite 2tambo"r2$
In the .En%y%o!ea#ia of Isam.) Cres+e says that an A&s"mte)2Ba&"m2or2Haba&o&2) reb"it the 2?a2aba2 in =A<
A$7$) an# that he "se# +oo#en boar#s +hi%h he too& off a s"n&en shi!$ He ere%te# the b"i#ing of aternate
ayers of stone an# +oo#$ It %onsiste# of si'teen stone ayers an# fifteen +oo#en ayers$ It +as a mo#e of
As&"mite b"i#ings$ 4! 9;5
Cha!ter I
The Str"gge of the Strong for
The Contro of A#"is
A#"is +as famo"s as a !ort fo"n#e# by (toomy (hia#e!hi"s III) one of the 3ree& (toomy &ings) +ho r"e#
Egy!t after the em!ire of Ae'an#er +as #i,i#e# into three !arts in the mi##e of the thir# %ent"ry B$C$ The
r"ins of this !ort sti stan# near the ,iage of B"a =A &iometres north of Massa+a$ (ossiby) the ,iage
#eri,e# its name for the histori%a !ort +hi%h the nati,es %a A2/"$
It +as &no+n by the Arabs before Isam "n#er the name A#"i) an# shi!s ma#e there +ere %ae# A#"ite$ It
seems that the Arabs "se# this nat"ra an%horage on the bay of B"a for the !"r!ose of tra#ing +ith the Afri%an
%oasts$ 8a,es of migrants !asse# thro"gh it to the Eritrean (atea" an# the Tigrai to fo"n# the aforementione#
&ing#om of A&s"m$
So) resear%hers #o not r"e o"t the !ossibiity that the Arabs %o"# ha,e !re%e#e# (toomy in %hoosing the !ort$
Ho+e,er) the !ort +as &no+n as (toomy2s) an# the o# r"ins in#i%ate the !resen%e of 3ree& #ra+ings an#
%"t"re$
The first re%or#e# information to rea%h "s abo"t this histori%a !ort +as +ritten by the a"thor of .(ryb"s
Aerithre"s.) a 3ree& saior +ho inhabite# Ae'an#ria an# ma#e a ong ,oyage aro"n# the Re# Sea an# the In#ian
O%ean$ He %oe%te# some #o%"ments +hi%h he !"bishe# in =A A$7$ in :9AA +or#s #es%ribing a the !orts on
the Afri%an %oast "! to the !ort of 2Rabta2 +hi%h is beie,e# to ha,e been hear the !resent 7ar1es1Saam in
Tan/ania$
The a"thor of the .(ryb"s. states that A#"is +as of great %ommer%ia im!ortan%e as it +as a !ort of e'!orting
,ario"s &in#s of i,ory) Rhino%eros horns an# s&ins$ It +as at the %enter of the east1+est tra#e ro"te$ The big
shi!s %oming from In#ia) the (ersian 3"f) East Afri%a an# the Arabian (enins"a "se# to barter ,ario"s goo#s
s"%h as +heat) ri%e) sesame) %otton %oth an# honey +ith the shi!s %oming from Egy!t an# the Arabian
(enins"a$
Mer%hants im!orte# into it ,ario"s iron toos +hi%h +ere man"fa%t"re# in the !ort of M"/a on the Re# Sea$ The
a"thor a##s that the %ity +as of me#i"m si/e an# it is a three #ays2 mar%h from 2@""2) an interna %entre of
i,ory tra#e) an# near the site of the !resent A##i ?ih in A&&ee 3"/ai$ The %ity of A&s"m) +hi%h im!orts i,ory
from a %o"ntry beyon# the Nie) is a fi,e #ays mar%h from it$ He aso says that there is a big 3ree& %omm"nity
in A#"is an# aso (ersian) Arab an# Afri%an %omm"nities) an# that 3ree& is the #ominant +ritten ang"age$
A&s"m 7i# Not Enter the Arena of
the Str"gge for A#"isM
The a"thor of the .(ryb"s. says that this an#) the %oasts of the Re# Sea) has no one &ing to +hom e,erybo#y
o+es aegian%e) as e,ery mar&et an# %ity on the %oast has a %hief$ Some of the %hiefs of these %oasts are
in#e!en#ent +hie others o+e aegian%e to the state of Himyar in Yemen$
This %onfirms the fasehoo# of the %"rrent Ethio!ian aegations +hi%h %aim that A&s"m %ontroe# A#"is)
atho"gh +e ha,e area#y i"strate# that the %"rrent state of Ethio!ia is not an e'tension of the &ing#om of
A&s"m) +hi%h fe in the se,enth %ent"ry A$7$ It is histori%ay estabishe# that the Eritrean %oast +as a in&
bet+een A&s"m an# many other nations$ The history of this %oast is o#er than that of the A&s"mite state$
The history of A#"is #ates ba%& to the %ent"ry B$C$) +hie A&s"m #i# not emerge as a state "nti the first
%ent"ry A$7$ The e'%a,ations "n#erta&en by the Itaian mission hea#e# by (aribeni in ;>A= "n%o,ere# the r"ins
of a tem!e +hi%h +as 3ree& in str"%t"re an# ar%hite%t"re$ This tem!e #ates ba%& to the age +hen the 3ree&
%omm"nities sette# in A#"is before the Roman Age$ This #oes not mean that some of the &ings of A&s"m #i#
not o%%asionay %ontro A#"is an# re!eate#y in,a#e it$
This a+ays ha!!ene# bet+een neighbo"ring an#s$ The migrants from the so"thern Arabian (enins"a) +ho
fo"n#e# the &ing#om of A&s"m) !referre# to sette on the Eritrean !atea" an# the Tigrai !atea" +hi%h
resembes in their mo#erate %imate an# the fertiity of their soi their origina homean#$ Th"s) the migrations
#i# not sette on the hot) #am!s Eritrean %oasts$
So A&s"m #i# not enter the Arena of the internationa str"gge that +as going on then among the na,a states
to %ontro the entran%es of the Re# Sea$ Sin%e the age of Ae'an#er) this str"gge +as %onfine# bet+een the
3ree&s) on the one han#) an# the (ersians on the other han#$ Later +hen the Romans inherite# the 3ree&
em!ire in the Mi##e East) the str"gge be%ame bet+een them an# the (ersians$
8hen the Roman Em!eror D"stinian I re-"este# the he! of the A&s"mite army to a,enge the tort"re of the
Na*ran Christians by Thee Na+as) the De+ish &ing of Hemyar) an# his atta%&ing the Roman %ara,ans in Yemen)
he !ro,i#e# them +ith a Roman feet that trans!orte# the A&s"mite army to Yemen$ A#"is +as in those times
s"bor#inate to +hoe,er %ontroe# Egy!t) the 3ree& (toomies first) an# the Romans se%on#$
The +e1&no+n Roman historian) @osmas An#-"isetos) +as in A#"is +hen the A&s"mite e'!e#ition +as
trans!orte# to Yemen$ He +rote abo"t it in his boo&) .Christian To!ogra!hy.) an# state# that the Roman shi!s
ha# %ome from Agaba 3"f) an# that A#"is +as !ros!ero"s) teeming +ith shi!s that %ame from Egy!t) Yemen)
(ersia) In#ia an# the Isan# of Ceyon$ Emera# stones +ere bro"ght to it from In#ia$ He %as the A&s"mite
&ing) +ho hea#e# the e'!e#ition 2Eeshaah2 an# aso 2Ea Asbeha2$
Contrary to histori%a fa%ts) %"rrent Ethio!ian Aegations mention that the name of the &ing +ho in,a#e#
Yemen +as @aeb an# %aim that his feet roame# the seas of the +or#$ This fasehoo# +as ref"te# by a
%ontem!orary historian$ Ha# the %ontro of A&s"m o,er A#"is been a histori%a fa%t) the Eritrean ha,e greater
%a"se to %arify this fa%t as it forms a !art of their histori%a heritage$
The str"gge of A&s"m +as mainy +ith the neighbo"ring sma &ing#oms foremost among +hi%h +as the
&ing#om of Meroe in the S"#an +hi%h +as #estroye# in the mi##e of the fo"rth %ent"ry A$7$ by the A&s"mite
&ing) E/ana$ The main reason for the str"gge +as) a%%or#ing to the great British historian) Arno# Toynbee the
%ontro of the an# ro"tes of the %ara,ans that "se# to tra,e to A#"is "n#er the s"!er,ision of the Be*a tribes
from the regions of the Mi##e Nie %arrying Afri%an !ro#"%ts of i,ory) Rhino%eros horns) et%$$$
The histori% roe of A#"is +as finishe# +hen the (ersians manage# to s!rea# their inf"en%e o,er Yemen again
after the Hemyarites regaine# so,ereignty thro"gh the +or& of 2Thee Ya/en2 an# e'!ee# the A&s"mites$ This
enabe# the (ersians to s!rea# their %ontro o,er A#"is an# the 7a&a& Ar%hi!eago) th"s im!en#ing the traffi%
of Roman tra#e an# re#"%ing the n"mber of shi!s that %ae# on A#"is "nti it be%ame a #eserte# %ity$ It en#e#
in r"ins after it +as o,err"n by the !astora Be*a tribes) +hi%h %ame from eastern S"#an after the Isami%
%on-"est of Egy!t in the eighth %ent"ry A$7$ Then it be%ame a hi#e o"t for !irates) +hi%h %a"se# the Omayya#
state to o%%"!y it +ith the rest of the neighbo"ring %oasta region) as +e +i sho+ in the s!e%ia %ha!ter on
the str"gge in the Re# Sea$
Ho+e,er) the e'%eent geogra!hi%a !osition of this !ort sti &e!t it a !assage+ay for in,a#ers$ The (ort"g"ese
e'!e#ition) +hi%h !enetrate# the Habasha 4Abyssinia5 !atea" to ai# its neg"s against the %on-"ests of the
!rin%e of Harar) Imam Ahma# bin Ibraheem) !asse# thro"gh it in ;9H;$ Aso) the British e'!e#ition of Lor#
Na!ier) +hi%h aso !enetrate# the Habasha 4Abyssinia5 !atea" to res%"e a han#f" of British !risoners hea#e#
by the British Cons") Cameron) +ho ha# been %a!t"re# by the Em!eror Theo#ore) !asse# thro"gh it$
The r"ins of A#"is are sti an ob*e%t of str"gge bet+een their rightf" o+ners an# the Ethio!ian %aimants$ 4!
9:5
Cha!ter II
The Str"gge in the Re# Sea
thro"gh History
The Str"gge in the Re# Sea in the An%ient AgesM
The an%ient Egy!tians +ere the first to sai the Re# Sea be%a"se of their nee# for the %oasts of Eritrea
Somaian# an# the so"thern Arabian (enins"a) es!e%iay to obtain in%ense) !erf"mes an# some &in#s of +oo#
ne%essary for tem!es an# reigio"s ife$ They ma#e the Re# Sea their trans!ort ro"te to those an#s$ History
mentions that Sah"re #e,eo!e# na,a traffi% +ith .("nt. an#2) from +hi%h he bro"ght myrrh) go# an# si,er$
The an# stret%hing aong the Eritrean %oasts "nti the Afri%an horn +as &no+n as Somaian#$ ?"een
Hatshe!s"t 4;9NA 1 ; H<H B$C$5 ma#e a ,oyage to the an# of .("nt.) +hi%h is atteste# to by the r"ins in 7ayr a
Bahri tem!e in Thebes$
Ho+e,er) the an%ient Egy!tians #i# not mono!oi/e the tra#e ro"tes in the Re# Sea$ Other !eo!es entere# the
arena of %om!etition in atter !erio#s of the (haroni% age$ The (hoeni%ians +ere foremost among them0 Hiram)
the &ing of Tyre) sent his shi!s to bring him go# for +hi%h the region +as famo"s$ This ha# ta&en !a%e N9AA
years before the ,oyage of the (ort"g"ese Barbarossa +ho %ame for the same !"r!ose in ;9AA A$7$ The
so"thern Arabian (enins"a +as not "nto"%he# by this %om!etition$
After its a#,an%e# %i,iisation ha# b"it im!regnabe strongho#s on the mo"ntains of Yemen an# Ha#ram"t) it
gaine# %om!ete %ontro o,er the entran%es an# e'its of the Re# Sea$ No one +as ao+e# to %ross this sea
before !aying f" trib"te a%%or#ing to the +ish of the or#s of both en#s of the sea$ A&athsi#es) the
Ae'an#rian historian) mentione# the +eath of that !art of the (enins"a an# its !o+er in ;9A B$C$ The re%or#s
of Soomon the +ise !ro,i#e the best in#i%ation of the +eath of .("nt. an# an# the so"th of Arabia$ He o+ne#
a feet in Tarshish together +ith Hiram2s feet$
This Tarshish feet "se# to %ome on%e e,ery three years to bring go#) si,er) i,ory an# !ea%o%&s from Ofir)
+hi%h ma#e &ing Soomon the +eathiest &ing on earth an# his +is#om s!rea# at arge$ The origins of this ,ast
+eath first emerge# in Saba +hi%h +as a#ministere# by Ba&is$ .She ga,e Soomon a h"n#re# an# t+enty
b"n#es of go#) an# great amo"nts of s!i%es an# of !re%io"s stones$ (eo!e ha# ne,er &no+n an amo"nt of
s!i%es s"%h as the one bro"ght by Ba&is to Soomon.$ This +as three tho"san# years ago$
The str"gge bet+een the 3ree&s an# the (ersiansM
After a +hie) the !o+er of the 3ree&s in%rease# after the %on-"ests of Ae'an#er the 3reat$ Ae'an#er +ante#
go# an# si,er an# aso +ante# to s"b*"gate the Re# Sea an# its %oasts to a%-"ire in%ense) m"s& an# other
,a"abe !ro#"%ts$ He sent re%onaissan%e missions to gather the ne%essary information in !re!aration for
sen#ing a big feet from the 3"f of Agaba$ He assembe# the feet an# bro"ght shi! !arts an# the +oo#
ne%essary for ma&ing them from (hone%ia an# Cy!r"s$
Ho+e,er) his s"##en #eath an# the s"bse-"ent ri,ary an# #i,ision among his %omman#ers aborte# the !ro*e%t
+hi%h #ie# +ith his #eath$ Sti) the heirs of Ae'an#er #i# not nege%t the Re# Sea$ They sent se,era
re%onnaissan%e missions to st"#y the %on#itions of the sea) the %oast an# the !eo!es) +ith the aim of !"tting
their fin#ings to "se in f"rthering their !ra%ti%a ob*e%ti,es in the Re# Sea an# the In#ian O%ean$ This %on%ern
+ith the Re# Sea an# the In#ian O%ean #is!aye# by the (toomy go,ernment is !robaby #"e to Egy!tLs
e'%eent geogra!hi%a !osition$
It is a !osition +hi%h forms a bri#ge bet+een the t+o seas) the Me#iterranean an# the Re#) an# a mar&et +hi%h
is a %ommer%ia %rossroa# for the tra#e of the north) the so"th) E"ro!e an# the Me#iterranean basin) the
S"#an) Eritrea) Habasha) Somaian# an# the other !arts of Afri%a) the Arabian (enins"a an# In#ia$ This #is!ay
of %on%ern ha# been sho+n by the an%ient Egy!tians) then by the (ersians an# then by Ae'an#er$ The %on%ern
of the (toomies is a%t"ay an e'tension of the o# ob*e%ti,es of %ontroing the fort"ne of the region$
(toomy II (hia#e!hi"s 4N<9 1 NH= BC$5 or#ere# the re1e'%a,ation of the %ana bet+een the Nie an# the Re#
Sea$ This +as a !ro*e%t beg"n by the Egy!tians "n#er the (haros to %onne%t the t+o seas$ He aso or#ere# an
in%rease in the tra#e +ith the %oasts of Afri%a an# those of the Arabian (enins"a an# In#ia) an# an in%rease in
the n"mber of %ategories im!orte# from the hot regions$ Th"s) the tra#e of Arab an#s an# Afri%a a%-"ire# a
form "n&no+n hitherto$
7eo#or"s mentions that the ast attem!t ma#e to %onne%t the Re# Sea +ith the Nie +as in the #ays of (toomy
II (hia#e!hi"s) +ho name# the %ana be or#ere# #"g) (toomy2s %ana$ It +as #"g abo"t N=> B$C$ Then he sent
a feet to s"r,ey the %oasts of the Re# Sea from the S"e/ to the In#ian O%ean$ Then he fo"n#e# se,era
%oonies aong the %oasts of the Re# Sea to !rote%t Egy!tian shi!s an# tra#e$
The (toomies) +ho s"%%ee#e# (toomy II) %ontin"e# his !oi%y of e'!ansion on the Afri%an %oasts an# in the
In#ian O%ean$ They starte# sen#ing a#,ent"rers to e'!ore %ertain regions so as to be a%-"ainte# +ith their
%on#itions an# benefit from the &no+e#ge th"s obtaine# in im!ementing the !oi%y of %ommer%ia an#
!oiti%a e'!ansion +hi%h they !"rs"e# in the %o"ntries that ie in the hot regions$
The (toomies stro,e +ith the Arabs for the %ontro of the tra#e of east Afri%a an# In#ia$ Then the efforts of
the 3ree& (taomai% mer%hants +ere %onfine# to #ire%t the tra#e from the Arab !orts in Yemen an# Hi*a/ to
the Eritrean %oasts an# then to Egy!t$ (toomy III Orgat"s 4NH: K NN; B$ C$5 fo"n#e# A#"is 4=A &iometres so"th
of Massa+a in Eritrea5 as one of the im!ortant histori% stations$ (toomy II ha# area#y b"it a strong feet in
the Re# Sea +hi%h ma#e a reg"ar ,oyage to In#ia) the me%%a of the seas) an# he assigne# s!e%ia offi%ias to
g"ar# mer%hant ,esses an# !rote%t them from the thie,es of the seas$ These f"n%tione# as a na,a !oi%e$
The interests of the Arab %ara,ans in the so"th of the Arabian (enins"a an# Hi*a/ +ere affe%te# by the
interferen%e of the (toomies in the affairs of the sea) by their !a%ing 3ree&s in se,era !a%es on the %oast to
!rote%t their shi!s) an# by their tra#ing #ire%ty +ith the !orts of the Arabian (enins"a an# Afri%a) the best
&no+n +hi%h then +as A#"is) Ma&ha an# A#en$ Arab mer%hants +ere for%e# to aban#on the sea to their mighty
ri,as an# sette for sen#ing their tra#e on the an# ro"tes to Syria$
This e# to the fo"rishing of A#"is) +hi%h be%ame eary in the first %ent"ry A$7$ the greatest %ommer%ia !ort
on the Re# Sea$ The a"thor of .(ryb"s Aerithre"s. #es%ribes it by sayingM .It +as a thri,ing) organi/e# so%iety
i,ing in a big %ity of bea"tif" b"i#ings) tem!es) baths an# +i#e streets$ Big shi!s from the Arabian (enins"a
an# from e,ery #ire%tion in the In#ian O%ean bro"ght it #aggers) s!ears an# gass an# saie# from it a#en +ith
i,ory) Rhino%eros horns an# t"rte s&ins.$
The %oming of 3ree%e into the Re# Sea bro"ght abo"t a #ire%t %onta%t bet+een 3ree& %"t"re an# orienta
%"t"res$ 3ree& +ritings ha,e been fo"n# in se,era !a%es on the %oasts of the Re# Sea an# East Afri%a)
es!e%iay in A#"is$ Coins +ere fo"n# in se,era !a%es on these %oasts$ The effe%ts of the 3ree& %"t"re mo,e#
from A#"is to the &ing#om of A&s"m$ 3ree& e,en be%ame the ang"age of %"t"re there for a !erio# of time)
+hi%h ma&es the %"rrent r"ers of Ethio!ia in%"#e this in their histori% arg"ments %on%erning the !ossession of
A#"is$
The Entry of the Romans into
The Arena of the Str"ggeM
In the first %ent"ry B$C$) the Romans !"t an en# to the (toomies) r"e in Egy!t an# #is!a%e# them in
a"thority$ The Romans) +ho +ere the mightiest em!ire in that age) aso inherite# the 3ree&s in the Re# Sea)
an# set their sights on its %oasts an# on the In#ian O%ean "nti the (ersians +reste# a+ay the 3"f from the
3ree& Se"%i#s$
8hen A"g"st"s o%%"!ie# Egy!t an# ma#e it a ,assa of Rome) he or#ere# the reformation of +hat ha#
#eteriorate# on a%%o"nt of !oor !oiti%a an# e%onomi% %on#itions in the ast #ays of the (toomies$ He ga,e
s!e%ia attention to na,a %ommer%e an# to the +aters of the Re# Sea +hi%h +ere infeste# +ith the thie,es of
the sea$ He or#ere# the go,ernor of Egy!t) Ui"s 3a"s to in,a#e the Arabian (enins"a an# the Afri%an %oasts in
the Re# Sea to o%%"!y an# ta&e !ossession of its great fort"ne) an# to #estroy the thie,es an# the !irates an#
ma&e the Re# Sea) a Roman Sea) as he !"t it$
The e'!e#itionary for%e +as assembe# in Egy!t$ It %onsiste# of ten tho"san# so#iers) Egy!tians an# 3ree&s
an# others$ They boar#e# shi!s in a !ort on the Egy!tian %oast of the Re# Sea$ They +ere to be trans!orte# to
the !ort of L"i%a C"ma on the %oast of the Arabian (enins"a) an# then they +ere to tra,e by an# to Yemen$
B"t the e'!e#ition +as neither organi/e# nor s"ffi%ienty !re!are# beforehan#$
Most of the shi!s +ere +re%&e# +hie attem!ting to %ross the sea$ Many of the so#iers #ie# in the #esert of
the Arabian (enins"a) an# the rest %ame ba%& a#en +ith fai"re$ Ho+e,er) the Romans &e!t their %ontro o,er
the !ort of A#"is an# the other !orts on the +estern %oasts of the Re# Sea) the !rote%tion of +hi%h from the
atta%&s of the Be*a tribes %ost them #eary$
The Roman historian) Estrabon) in#i%ates that the Romans &e!t sen#ing shi!s to In#ia a%ross the Re# Sea$ They
ma#e %ommer%ia treaties +ith the &ing#om of A&s"m an# e,en forme# an o%%asiona aian%e +ith it against
the so"thern Arabian (enins"a an# the (ersians) as +i be #etaie# in another !a%e$ The a"thor of .Tra,eing
aro"n# the Re# Sea. s!ea&s of the Roman o%%"!ation of A#en$ Some resear%hers thin& that the Romans
o%%"!ie# A#en by +ay of the sea after the fai"re of Ui"s 3a"s2 e'!e#ition against Yemen aro"n# NH A$7$
After the o%%"!ation of A#en) it +as !ossibe for Roman shi!s to %a on an# sai from it to In#ia an# the Afri%an
%oasts) an# to ret"rn to it before hea#ing to their ne't sto!) A#"is on the o!!osite %oast of the Re# Sea$ The
Romans statione# a garrison in A#en) as they #i# in A#"is) to ens"re the safety of the Romans in the region$
They aso assigne# some shi!s +ith Roman ar%hers on boar# to !rote%t shi!s from the atta%&s of the !irates)
+ho fie# the seas$ In Crater) A#en) there2s a big %istern +hi%h #ates ba%& to the birth of Christ$ It has a
%a!a%ity of t+enty miion gaons of +ater$ It +as "se# for storing rain+ater to !ro,i#e the !ort +ith #rin&ing
+ater in that age$
The De+ish &ing Th" Na+as enters into an aian%e +ith the (ersians against A&s"m an# the Romans$
8ith the entry of Christianity into the Habashite &ing#om of A&s"m at the han#s of &ing E/ana in O9A A$7$ an#
the aian%e of this &ing#om +ith the Romans) ne+ eements +ere intro#"%e# into the str"gge in the Re# Sea$
It ha!!ene# that a gro"! of De+s sette# in Yemen after feeing to Arabia to es%a!e the !erse%"tion of the
Roman Em!erors) es!e%iay after the #estr"%tion of Der"saem in :A A$7$ H"n#re#s of them +ere sain an# a
arge n"mber fe# to the bo"n#aries of the o# +or#$ They fo"n# themse,es "n#er the !rote%tion of the
(ersians) the mighty ri,as of the Romans) +hose he! +as in,o&e# by the Himyarites against the Romans an#
their aies) the &ings of A&s"m$
A&s"m) +hi%h ha# been fo"n#e# by Sabaean an# Himyariti% migrants from Yemen) ha# %rosse# the sea an#
in,a#e# Yemen$ Some historians mention its first in,asion in the reign of &ing E/ana +ith the he! of Roman
shi!s as A&s"m +as not a na,a state$ E/ana2s ins%ri!tions %onfirm the %oming of Yemen "n#er the r"e of A&s"m
as he %as himsef the &ing of A&s"m) Hemyar) Rai#an) Saba) Samien) Si#amo) Be*a an# Cass"$ The si'th
%ent"ry A$7$ is f" of the ne+s of the Habashite A&s"m an# its reations +ith Yemen) an# !re%io"s ins%ri!tions
+hi%h #ate ba%& to this %ent"ry ha,e been fo"n#$ (robaby) the most im!ortant boo&s re%or#e# areM
;5 The boo& of the +or&s of the saint A1Hareth .A%ta#i Aretae.$ This is one of the o#est Latin te'ts +hi%h
reate# to "s the e,ents that too& !a%e in Yemen) the ne+s of the &ing of Himyar an# his saying the Christians
hea#e# by A1Hareth) the ea#er of Na*ran) an# the inter,ention of A&s"m an# the m"r#er of the De+ish &ing$
N5 The boo& of the Himyarites .@athafa# Himyarya.$ This boo& %onsists of ,ery o# !a!ers +ritten in Syria% at a
time amost %ontem!orary +ith the martyrs of Na*ran aro"n# 9N9 A$7$
O5 8hat +as +ritten by Roman historians s"%h as (ro&ob"s) Cosmas) Lamaas an# others$ These historians &ne+
of the reigio"s tro"bes +hi%h too& !a%e in Yemen at the time) an# &ne+ of the battes that +ere ha!!ening
bet+een A&s"m an# Yemen$ They s!o&e of the Roman Em!eror2s inter,ention$ Cosmas s!ea&s of +hat he
+itnesse# in A#"is aro"n# 9N9 A$7$ of Roman shi!s !re!aring to trans!ort the A&s"mite e'!e#ition "n#erta&en
by the &ing 2EI Asbaha2 against the an# of Hemyar$ The Roman Em!eror an# sent his emissary) N"n"/"s) to the
&ing of A&s"m$ N"n"/"s +rote a re!ort abo"t the e'!e#ition)$
A%%or#ing to most re!orts) +hat e# to this A&s"mite e'!e#ition +as the !erse%"tion of the Christians of Na*ran
an# b"rning them ai,e in a fiss"re in the earth) a%%or#ing to the @oran) by the De+ish &ing of Hemyar) Th"
Na+as$ B"t the rea moti,e for this great e'!e#ition +as ony seemingy reigio"s0 in a%t"a fa%t it +as the
str"gge bet+een the t+o mightiest em!ires) the Roman an# the (ersian) for the ro"tes of internationa
%ommer%e in the Re# Sea$
On%e the De+s ass"me# !o+er in the an# of Himyar) they starte# a,enging themse,es on the Roman Christians
!assing +ith their goo#s thro"gh the an# of Yemen an# Bab e Men#eb to A#"is an# Egy!t) +hi%h !ro,o&e# the
anger of the Romans an# aro"se# their fear o,er their %ommer%ia interests) es!e%iay sin%e the (ersians
s"!!orte# the Himyarites$
Arabi% boo&s +hi%h s!ea& of D"#ai/ation of some Himyariti% &ings say that Thian Asa2a# Aba @arb +as the first
D"#ai/e# Himyariti% &ing$ He ha# three %hi#ren) Hassan) Amr an# Bara2a$ It is sai# that Bara2a is Th" Na+as) the
ast of the &ings of Himyar) +ho) a%%or#ing to one narrati,e) r"e# from 9NA A$7$ to 9OA A$7$) an# +hose %a!ita
+as B"far 4Rai#an5$
It is generay "n#erstoo# that Christianity %reate# a strong tie bet+een Christiani/e# %o"ntries an# the Roman
state$ In other +or#s) %on,ersion to Christianity +as a means of s!rea#ing the Roman inf"en%e$ The Romans
gaine# the frien#shi! of A&s"m after the s"%%ess of Christianity in it$ B"t the mission of the Roman Theo!hi"s
to Christiani/e Yemen faie# be%a"se the o!!osing mo,ements +ere too strong to be resiste#) sin%e the
(ersians ha# a %onsi#erabe inf"en%e in it$
It is reate# that 27imyanos2 or 27imnos ) the De+ish &ing of Himyar) ha# or#ere# the &iing of one or more
%ara,ans of Romans tra#ers +ho +ere !assing thro"gh his &ing#om to A#"is an# A&s"m a%ross the Re# Sea$ This
s!ite# the &ing of A&s"m) Ab#"*) an# the em!erorof Rome$ These t+o +age# a %am!aign against the
De+ish&ing) +hi%h %"minate# in his #efeat an# m"r#er$ The Romans an# the A&s"mites !a%e# a Christian
!rin%e at the hea# of Himyar) b"t he #i# not s"r,i,e ong$
The De+s) ha,ing regaine# some of their strength) sei/e# the o!!ort"nity to reinstate a De+ o,er them) so they
%ro+ne# the De+ish Th" Na+as &ing o,er Himyar$ Mer%hants ha# gi,en "! the Yemen ro"te o"t of fear for their
i,es) +hi%h %a"se# stagnation an# re%ession in the fo+ of tra#e in the Re# Sea) the !ort of A#"is) an# the
!orts of Egy!t$ 4!$ =:5