530 Manufa(.-ruring Processes for Engl!

1eenng Materials
9.4 I Mechanics of Grinding
Grindingi ba icallyachip removal process in which thecuttingrool is an individ-
ual abra ivegrain.Thefollowingaremajorfactor thatdifferentiate th action ofa
singlegrain from thatofasingle-pointcurringroo1 (seeFig. 8.2) :
1. TI1e individual grain ha anirregulargeometry and is spaced randomly along
the peripheryofthewheel(Fig. 9.6).
2. Theaverage rakeangleofthegrains is highJy negative,typically - 60
0
oreven
lower;consequently,the hearanglesarevery low(see Section8.2.4).
3. Thegrainsin the peripheryofagrindingwheel havedi fferentradialposition.
4. TheclIffing speed ofgrinding wheels are ery high (Table 9.2), typically on
theorderof 30mI'.
An example of chip formation by an abra ive grain is hownIn Fig. 9.7. Note
th negati e rak angle, the low shearangle, andthe verysmall size ofthechip(see
also Example 9.1). Grinding hip are ea ily collt:cted on a piece ofadhe ive tape
heldagainstthesparksof agrindingwheel. Fromdirectobservation itwilJ benoted
thata ariery f metalchipscan beobtainedin grinding.
The mechanics ofgrindingand the variables involvedcan best be studied by
analyziogthesurface-grinding operation shownin Fig. 9.8.Iniliisfigure, agrinding
wheel ofdiameter Di removinga layerofmetal ata depthd known as thewheel
depthofcut.An individualgrainontbeperipheryofthewheeli movingatatangen-
tial velocity V(uP orcOl1l1ention.al, grinding, a hown inFi . 9.8. see alsomilling,
eetion8.10.1),an theworkpiecei movingata elociryll.Thegrain is removinga
ChlP with an Imdeformed thickness (grain depth of cut) t, and an undeformed
length I. FortheconditionofII V, (hetmdeformed-d1ip length, I is approximately
1==Ji5J. (9.1 ).
FIGURE 9.6 Thegrinding
urfaceof anabrasive wheel
( 46-j8V), howi nggrain' ,
porosiry,wearlacs on
grains (see a lso Fig. 9.7b),
andmetalchJPs from the
workpiece adheringro rhe
grain .Notethe random
distrib Irion andshapeof
theabrasivegr:1in .
Magnificarion: SOx.
TABLE 9.2
Typical Ranges of Speeds and Feeds for Abrasive Processes
Process Convenrional Creep-feed
variable gnnding grinding Buffing Polishing
Wheel ' peed (m/min) 1500- 3000 110U- 3000 1800-3600 1500-2400
Work spee (m/min) 10- 60 .I-'J
ecd (mmJpas5) 0.OJ-O.05 1-6
Material-Removal Processes: Abrasive, Chemical, Electrical, and High-Energy Beams 531
Wear Itat
Workpiece
10loLm
(a) (b)
I I
WorkpIece
FIGURE 9.7 (a) Grinding chip being produced by a single abrasive grain. Note the large
negative rake angle of the grain. (b) illustration of chip formation by an abrasive
grain. Note the negative rake angle, the small shear angle, and the wear flat on t he grain.
Source: (a) After M.E. Mercham.
Grains
________
FIGURE 9.8 Basic variables in
urface grinding. lo aemaJ grindin
operations, the wheel depth of cur,
d, and contact lengtb, I, are much
smaller than the wheel diameter, D.
1.
The dImension t called rhe grain
d
depth of cut.

Workpiece
For external (cyli11drical) grmdillg (see Section 9.6),
Dd
1= (9.2)
1+(D1Dw)'
and for internal grillding,
Dd
- I )'
(9.3)
/ - l-(DID" ,
where Dw is the diameter of the workpiece.
The relationship between t and other process variables can be derived as fol-
lows: Let C be the number of cutting points per unit area of wheel surface, and 11 and
V the surface speeds of the workpiece and rhe wheel, respectively (Fig: 9.8). Assuming
the width of the workpiece to be uniry, the number of grinding chips produced per
unit time is VC, and the volume of material removed per unit time is vd.
Letting" be the ratio of the chip vvidtb, w, to the average chip rhickness, the
volume of a chip with a rectangular cross-sectional area and constam width along
irs length is
Vol = wtl
"hlp -=-
(9.4)
2 4
---- --
532 Manufacturing Proce es for Engineering Materials
The volume of material removed per unit time i the product of the volume of each
chip and the number of chips produced per unit time. Thu ,
2
VC rt / =vd
4
and because / = .JDd, the undeformed chip thickne in surface grinding is
(9.5)
Experimeutal ob ervarions indicate the value of C to be approximately on the order
6f 0.1 to 10 per mm
2
; the finer the grain ize of the wheel, the larger is thi number.
The magnirude o f r is between 10 and 20 for most grinding operations. ubsrituting
typical values for a grinding operation into Eqs. (9.1) through (9.5), it can be noted
that I and t are very mall quantities. For example, typical values for t are in the range
of 0.3-0.4 }Lm.
EXAMPLE 9.1 ChIp dimen Ion in grinding
Estimate the undeformed chip length and the undef rmed hip thi knes for a typil.:al
surfa e-grinding operatIon. Let D = 150 mm, d =0.03 nun, C = 3 per mm:!, and
r = 12 mm.
Solution. The formulas for undeformt::d length and thicknes , re pectively, are
411 (d
/ = JDJ and VCr 'fE' t=
Fr m Table 9.2 the following value' are elected:
1I = 0.4 m/ and V = 25 m/
Therefore,
f = 150)(0.03) = 2.12 mm.
and
(4)(0.4) JO.03 =0.00- mm.
t=
(25)(3)(12) 150
ote tbat because f plastic d formation. the acruallength of the chip horter
and the thicknes greater than the e values. (See fig. 9.7.)
9.4.1 Grinding forces
knowledge of forces i essential not only in the de ign of grinding machine and
workholding devices, but also in determining the deflections that the workpiece and
the machine wi ll undergo. Deflections, in turn adver ely affect dimensional accuracy
of the workpiece, which is especially critical in preci ion grinding.
If we assume that the force n the grain (see the discllssion of cutting force, Fe
in ection 8. 2.3) i proportional to tbe cro - ectional are of the wl deformed chip,
it can be shown that th relative grain force is given by the expression
Relat ive grain force 'X ;C H;. (9.6)
The actual force i then the pr duct of the relative grain force and the strength of the
metal being ground.
Materiill-RemovalProcesses; Abrasive,Chemical,Electrical,andHigh-EnergyBeams 533
Ridges FIGURE 9.9 Chipformation
andplowing(plasticdeformation
withoutchipremoval) ofthe
workpiecesurface by anabrasive
grain.
The specific energy consumed in producing a grinding chip consists oftruee
components:
u =UclUp +UpJowing +Usliding'
(9.7)
Thequantityuchip isthespecificenergyrequiredforchipformation byplasticdeforma-
tion,up!nwmg is thespecificenergyrequiredforplowing,whichisplasticdeformation
withoutchipremoval (Fig. 9.9),andthelastterm,Uslidrng' canbestbe understood by
observing the grain in Fig. 9.7b. The grain develops a wear flat as a resultofthe
grindingoperation(similartoflankwearin cuttingtools;seeSection8.3).Thewear
flatis incontactwiththesurfacebeingground and,becauseoffriction, requiresen-
ergy forsliding. Thelargertbewearflat, the higheris thegrinding force.
Typical specific-energy requirements in grinding are given in Table 9.1. Note
thattheseenergylevelsaremuchhigherthanthoseincuttingoperationswithsingle-
pointtools, asgiven in Table 8.3. This difference has beenattributed to thefollow-
ingfactors:
1. Size effect. As previously stated, the size ofgrindingchips is very smail, as
comparedwithchipsproducedin othercuttingoperations,by abouttwoorders
ofmagnitude. As described in Section 3.8.3, the smaller the size ofa piece of
metal.thehigherisitsstrength;consequently,grindinginvolveshigherspecific
energy than machiningoperations.Studieshaveindicatedthatextremelyhigh
dislocationdensities(seeSection3.3.3)occurin theshearzoneduringchipfor-
mation, thus influencingthegtindmgenergies by virtueofincreasedstrength.
2. Wear flat. A wear flat (see Fig. 9.7b) requires frictional energy for sliding;
this energycontributessignificantlytothe total energyconsumed.Thesize of
the wear flat ingrindingis muchlargertllan thegrindingchip,unlike in metal
cuttingbyasingle-pointtool,whereflankwearlandissmallcomparedwiththe
sizeofthechip (see Section 8.3).
3. Chip morphology. Because theaveragerakeangleofa grain is highlynega-
tive (see Fig. 9.7), the shear strains in grinding are very large. This indicates
thattheenergy required for plastic deformation toproducea grindingchip i
higher than in other machining processes. Furthermore, note that plowing
consumesenergywithoutcontributingtochip formation (see Fig. 9.9).
EXAMPLE 9.2 Forcesin surfacegrinding
Assumetharyouareperformingasurface-grindingoperationonalow-carbonsteel
workpieceusingawheel ofdiameterD =200 mm thatrotatesatN = 3600rpm.
Thewidth ofcutis W ,= 20 mm,depth ofcutis d = 0'.04 nun, and the feed ratc
oftheworkpieceis v = UDO ml11imin. CalculatetheCUrling force, Fe (the forcetan-
genttaltorhewheel).andthethrustforce. F" (the force normaltotheworkpiece).
534 Manufa turingPro esses for EngineeringMarenais
TABLE 9.3
Approximate Specific-Energy Requirements for Surface Grinding
Wurkpiece matfriaJ llardnes Sp ci ficenergy(W-s/mm")
Aluminum 1)0HE
7- 27
Casr Iron ( loss 4U) 21S HB
12-6
low-carbon teel (1020) IIOHB 14-68
Tiraniumall } (0HB 16--5
"Ii 01 steel (T 15) 67HR 18- 82
We firstdetermine th material remoyal rateas follow :
MRR = dWI) =(0.04)(20)(1200) = 600mm
3
/min.
powercon umed I given b}
P wer =(It)(J tRR)
whereIt is the pel.:ific ent:'rgy. a btaineJ from Table 9, . For low-earbIn steel,
ler' eSlimatelit bt41 W-s/mm1. Hence,
(
9600)
Power=(41) 60 = 6.56kWor6.56kJls.
SincepowerIS defined a
Power= Tw,
whereT i [hetorqu and equalto (Fr ) (DI2) andw is therotational 'peedofthe
wheel in perminute,w al' 0 have w - 2rrN. Thus
andtherefore,F = 174 Thethrustforce, f", can becalculated by nOlingfrom
experimentaldara In the technicalliteramre.tharit IS abour 30% higher [han the
urting force F,. Consequently
FII = (1.3)( J74) = 226 N
9.4.2 Temperature
Temperature rise in grindingis an importantconsideration because it can adversely
affectsurface properties and causeresidual tres es on the workpiece. Furthermore,
temperarure gradienrs in the workpiececau e distortions dueto thermal expansion
andcontraction.When orneoftheheatgeneratedduringgrindingi conducted into
the workpiece, the heat xpands the part being ground rhu m ki ng it difficult ro
control dimensional accuracy. The work xp nded in grinding i m inly converted
inro hear. Thesurface temperature rise, .1T, ha beenfound to be a function ofthe
ratio oftile tOtal en rgyinputtot hesurfaceareaground. Thus, insurface grinding,
if w is thewidth and Lis the lengthofthesurfacearea groWld then
\T muLd d
...1 oc: --:x: u.
(9.8)
wL
Material-RemovalProcesses; Abrasive, Chemi cal, Electrical, andHigh-EnergyBeams 535
Ifwe intr oduce size effect and assume thatu varies inversely with the undeformed
chipthickness t, then thetemperarure rise is
> (V)12
Temperaturerise x D'4d
J
4 -;; (9.9)
TIle peak temperatures in chip generation during grinding can be as high as
1923 K. However, the time involved in producing a chip is extremely short(on the
order ofmi croseconds); hencemel tingofthechipmayormaynotoccur.Because, a
in machining, thechipscarryawaymuchof the heatgenerated (see Fig. S.18), only
a small fracti on of the heatgenerated is conducted to theworkpiece. Experiments
indicate that as much as one-half the energy dissipated in grinding is conducted to
t hechip, a percentagethatis higherthant hat in machining(seeSection 8.2).Onthe
otherhand, the heat generated bysliding andplowingis conducted mostly into the
workpiece.
Sparks. Thespar ks observed in grinding metals are actua ll y glowi ng chips .The
glowing occurs because oft he exothermicreaction of thehotchipswith oxygen in
theatmosphere;sparkshavenotbeenobserved with any metalgroundinanoxygen-
free environment.Thecolor, intensity, and shapeofdle sparks depend on thecom-
position ofthemetalbeing ground.Ifthe beargenerated by theexothermic reacti on
issufficiently high, thechi p may melt and, because ofsurface tension,solidify as a
shiny spherical parti cle. Observation of these particles under scanning elect ron
microscopyhasreveal ed t hattheyarehollowandhavea fine dendriticstructure(see
Fig. 5.8), indicatingthattheywereoncemolten(byexothermicoxidarionofhotchips
inair )and they resolidiiied rapidly. Ithas been suggested thatsome ofthe spherical
particles may also be produced by plastic deformation and roiling ofchips at me
grain-workpiece interface duringgrinding.
9.4.3 Effects of temperature
The majoreffects oftemperature in grindi ngare
1. Tempering. Excessive temperature rise caused by grinding can temper
(Section 5.11.5)and soften the surfaces ofsteel components,which are often
ground in the hear-treated and hardened state. Grindi ng process parameters
musttherefore bechosencarefuIJ}' toavoidexcessive temperature rise. Grinding
fl uids (Section 9.6.9)caneffectivelycontrol temperatures.
2. Burning. Ifthetemperatureriseisexcessive,theworkpiecesurface mayburn.
Burning produces a bluish coloron steels, which indicates oxidation at high
temperatures.A burn may notbeobjectionable in itself;however, the surface
layers may undergo metall urgical transformations, with martensiteformation
in high-carbon steels from reaustenization followed by rapid cooling (see
Section 5.11) .Thiseffectis knownasmetallurgicalbunt,whichisanespeciall y
serious concern with nickel-basealloys.
3. Heat cheddng. High temperaturesin grindi ng lead to thermal stresses and
may cause mermalcrackingoftheworkpiecesurface,knownasheatchecking.
(See also Section 5.10.3.) Cracks are usually perpendi cular to the grinding
directi on. Under severe grinding conditions, however, parall el cracks may
also develop. Heat checking is detrimental from fat igue as well as aesthetic
standpoints.
4. Residual stresses. Temperaturechangeandgradientswithint heworkpiece
aremainlyresponsibleforresidualstressesingrinding.Othercontributingfac-
torsaretbephysicalimeractionsoftheabrasivegraininchipformationandthe
536 ManufacturingPr es es for EngineeringMaterials
Soluble oil (1 :20)
Highly sulfurized oil
5% KN0
2
solution
o 0.05 0.10 0.15
Depth below surface (mm)
(a)
c
o
<ii
c
200

Ul
Ul - 200

1ii
til
::J
-400
C
Q)
a:
-600
a.
E
8 ____-L____ ______
o 0.05 0.10 0.15
Depth below surface (mm)
(b)
FIGURE 9.10 Residual stre se developed onrhe workpiecesurfa ein grindingrung ren:
(a)eHeerofwheelspeedand (b)effectoftype fgrinding Fluid. Tensile re idual rre ses ona
urfacearederrimenta ltorhe fa 'gueliFe gr undcomponents.Thev riables in grinding
can beconrrolledco minimize residualsere ses, aprocessknownaslow-stress grindirlg.
mace: After N.Zlatin.
lidingofthewearflatalongtheworkpiecesurface,cau ingplasticdeformation
f the surface. Two exan,lple f residual stre e in grinding are shown in
Fig. 9.10, demonstrating the effect ofwheel peed and the rype ofgrinding
fluid u ed. The method anddirectionofrhe applicationofgrinding fl uid also
canhaveasignificanteffecron residualstresse .Becauseofthedeleteriou effect
oftensileresidual stres es onfatigue strength ( ection3.8.2) proce sparame-
ter hould be ho en properly. Residual stre ses canusuaUy be lowered by
u ingsoftergradewheel. (free-cutting wheels), lowerwheelspeeds,andhigher
work peeds,a procedureknown a low-stres,orgentle,grinding.
9.5 I Grinding Wheel Wear
Grinding wheelwear i .an important can ideration because it adver ely affect the
hapc and accuracy ofground urfaces, a situation imilar to wear ofcutting tool
( ection8.3) .Grindingwheel wearbythreedifferent asdescribed next.
1. Attrltlouswear. The uttingedgesofasharpgrain becomedull byattrition
(known asattricious wear), developinga wear flat (see Fig. 9.7b)thatis imi -
larto flankwearin cuttingrool .Weariscau ed by theinteractionofthegrain
withtheworkpiecematerial,resulting in complexphy ical andchemical reac-
tions.Thesereactionsinvolvediffusion chemicaldegradationordecompo ition
ofthegrain, fracture ata microscopicscale,pLasticdeformation,and melting.
Attritiouswear i I w when the nvo materials are chemically inertwith
re pect to each other mu h like with the use ofcutting tools.Themore inert
thematerials,theLowerwi ll betheten encyfor reactionandadhe iontooccur
betweenthegrainand rhe workpiece eingground. orexample, becau ealu-
minumoxideis relativelyinertto iron,it rateofacrritiouswearwheniti used