Atomic and Nuclear Physics

The Rutherford Model of the Atom

In 1911 Rutherford proposed the nuclear model of atomic structure. He suggested that an atom consists
of a central nucleus (where most of the mass of the atom is concentrated) having a positive charge,
surrounded by moving electrons carrying negative charge. Geiger and Marsden carried out an
experiment to verify his proposal.
The Geiger/Marsden a Particle Scattering Experiment
The apparatus is illustrated in the diagram below.

The apparatus was in an evacuated container. The detector was a ZnS screen observed through a low
power microscope. Each time an alpha particle hit the screen, a small flash of light was produced.
The detector was mounted on a support such that it could be rotated to measure the angular deflection of
the alpha particles as they passed through a very thin sheet of gold. They measured the numbers of
particles deflected through various angles.
It was found that most of the a particles pass through the gold undeflected; only a relatively small
number are deflected (scattered).
Their results were considered to confirm Rutherfords model and allowed them to estimate the size of the
nucleus (10
-14
m) and the size of the atom (10
-10
m), thus producing the slightly surprising conclusion
the most of the space occupied by an atom is empty space!
Closest Approach of an Alpha Particle to a Nucleus
For a given speed of alpha particle, the closest approach to a nucleus, r
min
, will occur when the initial
direction of motion of the particle is along the line joining the centres of particle and nucleus.

In this case, at the point of closest approach, the speed of the particle is zero.
As the particle approaches the nucleus, kinetic energy is being converted to electrical potential
energy.
K.E. lost = E.P.E. gained
Electrical potential at a distance r from a point charge Q is given by

For a nucleus of atomic number Z, the charge is Ze, where e is the magnitude of the charge on one
proton (the same as the magnitude of the charge on an electron).
The magnitude of the charge on an alpha particle is 2e
Therefore, the energy, w, possessed by an alpha particle placed at distance, r
min
, from a charge Ze is
given by

So, we have


which gives


Millikans Experiment to Measure the Charge on one Electron
The diagram below is a very simplified representation of Millikans apparatus.
.....

Small drops of oil were allowed to fall into a region between two metal plates, (the top plate had a hole in
it).
Some of the drops became charged by friction. Further ionisation was caused by a beam of x rays.
Millikan measured the terminal speed of a drop as it fell through the air, with V = 0. From this he could
calculate the radius of the drop (and hence its mass). He then applied a voltage, V, to the plates and
measured the new terminal speed of the same drop.
The change in the terminal speed of the drop was used to calculate the magnitude of the charge on the
drop.
.......
When many measurements had been done, all the charges were found to
be integral multiples of a basic unit of charge, assumed to be the charge on one
electron.
The value, e, is approximately -1610
-19
C.
A simplified version of Millikans experiment can be done by finding the voltage needed to just hold an oil
drop stationary between the two plates.
Consider a drop having a charge q and mass m.

If the drop is stationary, then the two forces acting on it have equal magnitudes.
Eq = mg
where E is the field strength.
Now, E = V/d, where d is the distance between the plates,



In practice, it is still necessary to make a measurement of the terminal speed of the drop in order to find
its radius and hence its mass.
The Electron Volt (eV)
The electron Volt is a unit of work (or energy) much smaller than the Joule.
If 1electron moves through a potential difference of 1V then 1eV of work is done.
Relation between the Joule and the electron Volt
Potential difference is work done per unit charge so, W = Vq.
1J is the work done when 1C moves through a p.d. of 1V
The charge on one electron is (-)1610
-19
C.
Therefore
1eV is the work done when 1610
-19
C moves through a p.d. of 1V.


To convert energy in J to energy in eV

Relation between Photo-Current and Intensity of Light
The intensity of light at a distance, r from a point (small) light source is inversely proportional r
2
.

Therefore,


This means that 1eV = 1610
-19
J

If the photo-current, I
p
, is measured with the light source at different distances, r, we find I
p
is
proportional to 1/r
2
.
We therefore conclude that the photo-current is directly proportional to intensity of light
*
.
* or other electro-magnetic radiation; ultra-violet, infra-red etc.
Relation between Photo-electric Emission and Colour of Light
In the wave model of electro-magnetic radiation, different colours of light correspond to different wavelengths (or frequencies).

In the diagram above, the arrow representing the current, I
p
, is drawn in the sense of electron current (not
conventional current).
The coloured filter allows a narrow range of wavelengths to pass through it. A variable voltage supply is
connected in opposition to the photo-electric cell.
A coloured filter is put in place. The voltage of the supply is gradually increased until I
p
is reduced to
zero. This voltage is called the stopping voltage, V
s
.
Knowing this voltage allows us to calculate the kinetic energy (K.E.
max
) with which the most energetic
electrons were emitted from the photo-emissive surface.
It is found that
i) V
s
increases as the wavelength of the light decreases
ii)
there is a maximum wavelength, above which no photo-emission occurs no matter how
intense the radiation.
These observations are summarised in the laws of photo-electric emission.
The Laws of Photo-Electric Emission
i) The number of electrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of the radiation.
ii) The maximum kinetic energy of the electrons emitted increases with the frequency of the radiation.
iii) There is a minimum frequency below which no emission occurs.
A graph of K.E.
max
of photo-electrons against frequency of radiation has the following form.

The minimum frequency for photo-electric emission is called the threshold frequency, f
o
.
Quantum Theory
Max Planck was attempting to derive mathematical equations to describe the spectrum of the radiation
given out by a hot body.
He found that his equations could not be made to agree with experimental data as long as he considered
electro-magnetic radiation to be continuous.
He made the following suggestions
i) that electro-magnetic radiation is quantised (radiated in "packets" of
energy called quanta or photons)
ii) that the amount of energy carried by each quantum is directly
proportional to the frequency of the radiation.

The energy possessed by a quantum is given by
E = hf
or, in terms of wavelength

where h is now called Plancks constant.
From these simple sounding statements developed what has been described as "the most successful
scientific theory of all time": quantum mechanics.
Spectra and Energy Levels in Atoms
Balmer measured the wavelengths of visible light emitted by hydrogen atoms. He found that they
could be described by the following formula (now called the Balmer series).

is wavelength, R is a constant (the Rydberg constant) and n = 3, 4, 5, etc.
In order to explain the Balmer series, Bohr made the following suggestions
1. Electrons in atoms can only have certain "allowed" energies.
2. An electron can be excited from one energy level to another by a collision with another particle or
by absorbing a quantum of electro-magnetic radiation.
3. When an electron falls from one energy level to a lower level, it emits one quantum of electro-
magnetic radiation.
4. The energy possessed by the quantum, is the difference between the initial and final energy
levels of the electron.
hf = E
final
E
initial


Energy transitions in atoms are often represented by diagrams like the one below. The lowest energy is
called the "ground state".

The Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
Balmer studied the visible spectrum of hydrogen atoms and found that the wavelengths emitted could be
described by the following equation

where n = 3, 4, 5 etc. This is now called the Balmer series.
Bohr suggested that the electron in the atom moves in such a way that it possesses 1, 2, 3 etc units
of angular momentum (L).
In other words, he suggested that the angular momentum possessed by an electron in an atom
is quantised. As an equation this can be written:
L = n (basic unit of angular momentum)
From this he showed that the energy, E
n
possessed by an electron which has n units of angular
momentum, is given by

where k is a constant.
So, the energy possessed by the electron in the atom is proportional to 1/n
2
(more detail).
The values of energy given by this equation are called the energy levels of the atom.
Now, if an electron falls from energy level E
initial
to level E
final
, the energy of the quantum of electro-
magnetic radiation emitted will be E = E
final
- E
initial
.
From Plancks formula, the energy possessed by a quantum of electro-magnetic radiation is hc/ ,
therefore


Which has the same form as the Balmer series, if n
final
= 2 and
k = R/hc. Thus, the Bohr model of the atom correctly predicts the wavelengths emitted by hydrogen
atoms.
Other series in the hydrogen spectrum have been studied by Lyman (U.V.) and Paschen (I.R.).
The Bohr model predicts these series correctly if we put n
final
= 1 (for the Lyman series) and n
final
= 3 (for
the Paschen series).

This diagram shows only the first 3 lines of each series.
Production and Properties of X Rays
X rays are produced when fast moving electrons hit a piece of metal (called the target).

Electrons are thermionically emitted by the filament (cathode).
The accelerating voltage is about 100kV.
Less than 1% of the kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into x rays so the anode (target) must
be cooled during operation.
X rays are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields but can be diffracted suggesting that they have
wave-like properties.
X rays are electro-magnetic radiations having wavelengths in the range 10
-11
m to 10
-8
m.
X rays cause certain substances to fluoresce, they affect photo-graphic emulsions and can ionise
atoms. These three properties can be used to detect x rays.
The intensity of the beam of x rays (Wm
-2
) depends on the number of electrons hitting the target per
unit time. This depends on the temperature of the filament.
The penetrating power of the beam of x rays depends on the kinetic energy of the electrons. This
depends on the accelerating voltage.
X Ray Spectra
A typical x ray spectrum is shown below.

The graph shows the relative intensity of x rays emitted at different wavelengths. It can be divided into
two parts, a continuous spectrum (the curve) and a line spectrum (the peaks).
Continuous Spectrum

When a bombarding electron passes close to a nucleus it is deflected (see diagram below). The change
of direction means that the electron has been accelerated. Anaccelerating charged particle emits
electro-magnetic radiation. If the acceleration is great enough, the quantum of radiation emitted is an x
ray.

If an electron passes very close to a nucleus (for example, electron e
3
in the diagram) it can be
accelerated so much that it gives out all its energy in one quantum. This is therefore the biggest
quantum (shortest wavelength) x ray emitted. The minimum wavelength therefore depends on the
accelerating voltage. If the accelerating voltage is V, then the kinetic energy possessed by an electron
when it reaches the target is eV.
Therefore, the minimum wavelength,
min
, is given by

Line or Characteristic Spectrum

An electron in the beam can have a collision with an electron in an atom of the target metal. If an electron
in a low energy level is excited to a higher energy level, an x ray quantum can be emitted when an
electron falls to fill the "space" in the lower energy level.
The wavelengths at which the peaks in the spectrum occur thus depend on the material of the target.
These "lines" in the spectrum are named after the energy level to which an electron falls, as shown
below.

The Discovery of the Neutron
The diagram below represents the apparatus used by Chadwick (in 1932) which led to his discovery of
the neutron.

......
Alpha particles from the polonium hit the beryllium and caused it to emit a very penetrating
radiation. The "penetrating power" was measured by finding the thickness of metal needed to absorb the
radiation.

When the radiation hit paraffin wax (or any other substance containing hydrogen), protons were
emitted. The maximum energy of the protons was estimated using the absorber sheets and found to
correspond to a speed, u = 3310
7
ms
-1
.
Chadwick proposed the following reaction:

where represents the "new" particle, the neutron.
It was then found that when the radiation collided with nitrogen atoms they moved with a maximum speed
of V = 4710
6
ms
-1
.
When a particle of mass m moving at speed u has a "head-on" elastic collision with a stationary particle of
mass M, it can be shown that the particle of mass M has a speed V, after the collision, given by

Chadwick assumed that the protons emitted by the paraffin wax were the nuclei of hydrogen atoms which
had been hit by neutrons. A nitrogen atom has a mass of about 14 times the mass of a proton.
From the collision between neutrons and protons

From the collision between neutrons and nitrogen nuclei

This gives the mass of a neutron, m 115 times the mass of a proton.