Biol 131-lecture notes Dr. R.

Roberts-Hanna

CELL STRUCTURE & FUNCTION
TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
CELL DIVISION
Levels of Organization:
CHEMICAL LEVEL - includes all chemical substances necessary for life
CELLULAR LEVEL
cells are the basic structural and functional units of living things & there are many different types (e.g.,
muscle, nerve, blood)
TISSUE LEVEL
a tissue is a group of cells that perform a specific function e.g. muscle & nervous tissues
ORGAN LEVEL - an organ consists of 2 or more tissues that perform a particular function (e.g., heart,
stomach, stem, leaf)
SYSTEM LEVEL - an association of organs that have a common function e.g. digestive, nervous,
circulatory, etc.
There are two types of cells that make up all living things on earth:
Prokaryotic cells, lacks a true 'nucleus & membrane-bound organelles e.g bacteria
Eukaryotic cells: have a true nucleus + membrane-bound organelles
CELL or PLASMA MEMBRANE
controls the movement of substances into and out of a cell.
It is partially/semi permeable
The current accepted model is the Fluid Mosaic Model.
Proposed in 1972 by Singer & Nicolson
Dynamic structure
CELL or PLASMA MEMBRANE
Fluid because the molecules are always changing position with each other and
mosaic because it is made of different kinds of molecules (lipids, proteins, etc)
Made of proteins & lipids
Biol 131-lecture notes Dr. R. Roberts-Hanna

'phospholipid bilayer : the HEAD is polar (or hydrophilic) and the TAIL is non-polar (or hydrophobic):
Hence its AMPHIPATHIC
Cholesterol: increases membrane fluidity
Functions
a selective barrier :nutrients in and waste products out
Water, non-polar and some small polar molecules can cross (O
2
, steroids, fat vitamins); others use
membrane protein
transport
communication (via receptors)
Recognition (via carbohydrate branches)
Proteins
Functions: can be
Carrier molecules
Ion Channels or pores
Enzymes
Receptor sites ex hormones
Cell Adhesion
Attachment to the cytoskeleton (maintains shape)
Cell Identity Marker ex ABO blood type
Proteins
Peripheral Proteins- found on the outside and are temporarily bound
Integral Proteins- permanently attached to membrane and usually span the entire membrane
Cells, cytoplasm, and organelles:
Cytoplasm consists of a gelatinous solution and contains microtubules ( cell's cytoskeleton, acts as both
muscle and skeleton, for movement and stability)
and organelles
Biol 131-lecture notes Dr. R. Roberts-Hanna

ORGANELLES INCLUDE
NUCLEUS
It communicates with the surrounding via numerous nuclear pores. Inside includes:
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid,) is found in the form of chromosomes
Nucleolus (makes ribosomes, that aid in protein synthesis)
RIBOSOMES
made of rRNA & protein
Either free floating in cytoplasm or attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
responsible for protein synthesis.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) -
A network of interconnected membranes forming channels within the cell.
functions: mechanical support, synthesis and transport
comes in 2 forms: Smooth and Rough;
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
A site for synthesis and metabolism of lipids. Also contains enzymes for detoxifying chemicals including
drugs and pesticides.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
Covered with ribosomes ("rough" appearance) which are in the process of synthesizing proteins for
secretion or transport in membranes.
GOLGI Apparatus/Complex
a series of stacked, flattened sacs (or cisternae)
Vesicles carry materials from the RER to the Golgi to be processed & transported
functions: synthesis (e.g of phospholipids), packaging of materials for transport and production of
lysosomes
Mitochondria
Surrounded by a double membrane with a series of folds called cristae.
Functions in energy (adenosine triphosphate, ATP) production through metabolism.
Biol 131-lecture notes Dr. R. Roberts-Hanna

Lysosomes
degrades proteins and membranes in the cell
& those materials ingested by the cell.
Vacuoles
contains water and storage materials (sugars, salts) in plants.
Aids in osmotic stability
Peroxisomes or Microbodies
Produce and degrade hydrogen peroxide, a toxic compound that can be produced during metabolism.
Centrioles
Animal cells only
paired cylindrical structures located near the nucleus
Vital in cell division
Flagella & cilia
hair-like projections
Cilia: short & numerous (e.g., those lining trachea)
a flagellum: long and typically just one (e.g. tail of sperm)
Movement Across Membranes
1 - Passive processes
- no energy is needed for it to proceed.
Simple diffusion
= net movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
The rate of diffusion is influenced by:
concentration gradient
temperature
molecular weight of a substance
Biol 131-lecture notes Dr. R. Roberts-Hanna

Diffusion distance
Simple diffusion
Examples include
O
2
, CO
2
, steroids, fat-soluble vitamins, small alcohols, ammonia
Polar molecules: water and urea
Facilitated diffusion =
requires the use of a membrane protein or 'carrier'.
binding to protein, causes an 'opening' in the protein through which a substance can pass.
Ex. Glucose, fructose, galactose
Osmosis = diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of high water
concentration to an area of low water concentration
Water passes through the cell membrane in two ways:
By moving through the lipid bilayer
By moving through AQUAPORINS (integral proteins = water channels)
TONICITY
the relative solute concentration of TWO fluids
When 2 fluids differ in solute conc. The 1 having fewer solutes = HYPOTONIC
The other with more = HYPERTONIC
If they have the same concentration = ISOTONIC
If Animal cell = swell & burst
If Plant cell = becomes turgid does not burst
Why?
If Animal cell = shrink & crenate
If Plant cell =becomes flaccid /plasmolysis
No net movement occurs
No change in cell size or shape
Biol 131-lecture notes Dr. R. Roberts-Hanna

2 - Active processes
requires energy to proceed.
Active transport= movement of a substance across a cell membrane from an area of low concentration
to an area of high concentration
Example: The sodium potassium pump
It pumps 3Na onto the outside for every 2K it pumps on the inside
Maintains normal cell volume and
If Stimuli change this ratio it results in a nervous impulse being conducted.
Examples of substances active transported..
Na
+
, K
+
, Ca
2+
, H
+
and
other ions
Two processes move larger substances into or out of cell without crossing the cell membrane-they use
Vesicles
1. Endocytosis moving material into cell
3 types:
a) Receptor-Mediated- receptors bind specific substances or ligands
and they are drawn into the cell
Ex. Cholesterol molecules entering cells
b) Phagocytosis- cell-eating; membrane engulfs solids from surroundings
Ex. White blood cell engulfing bacteria
c) Pinocytosis: cell-drinking ; membrane engulfs droplets of liquid from surroundings
Ex. Solutes in extracellular fluid
2. Exocytosis moving material out of cell via
Vesicles fusing with membrane
It results in secretion
Ex. Hormones, mucus, digestive enzymes, neurotransmitters
Biol 131-lecture notes Dr. R. Roberts-Hanna

CELL DIVISION
The Cell Cycle
The division (mitosis) and resting (interphase) of cells is called the CELL CYCLE.
Interphase - the cell is replicating its DNA and growing in size
divided into 3 steps: Gap 1 (G1), S (synthesis) phase, Gap 2 (G2).
M phase or MITOSIS
IMPORTANCE:
Needed for growth & repair
Occurs in somatic cells
Conserves chromosome number
TWO daughter cells are produced
Daughter cells are genetically identical to parent cell
MITOSIS
Prophase: chromatin (replicated DNA + proteins) condenses into chromosomes.
Each chromosome has two sister or identical chromatids
Metaphase: the nuclear envelope breaks down
spindle fibers move chromosomes to the center of the cell.
Anaphase: Spindle fibers shorten and the chromatids separate and begin moving to opposite poles.
Telophase: The chromosomearrives at the poles and the spindle fibers disappear.
Cytokinesis: the cell and cytoplasm splits into two daughter cells.
Marked by cleavage furrow in animal cells or cell plate in plants.
return to interphase.
MITOSIS. In motion
MEIOSIS
Two divisions occur: MI & MII
Biol 131-lecture notes Dr. R. Roberts-Hanna

Occurs in the gonads (anther, ovary, testes) to produce sex cells (eggs, sperm, pollen)
FOUR daughter cells produced- each with HALF the number of chromosomes
each is genetically different from each other & from the parent cell
INTERPHASE IS THE SAME AS IN MITOSIS
Prophase I:
Homologous pairs align to create "TETRADS", non-sister chromatids connect and trade sections at a
"CHIASMA", a process called "CROSSING OVER"
each chromosome has a match, called a homolog
one from MOMMY and the other from DADDY
They are similar in shape and size, and the genes they carry
But they are not necessarily identical
Metaphase I: SPINDLE FIBERS attach to each pair
and aligns them at the cell equator.
Independent Assortment also adds to genetic diversity
Anaphase I: Chiasmata break apart and homologous chromosome separate
Telophase I: CLEAVAGE FURROW /CELL PLATE forms starting CYTOKINESIS
Resulting daughter cells are HAPLOID (N).
Meiosis II is simply a mitotic division of each of the haploid cells produced in Meiosis I.
There is no Interphase between Meiosis I and Meiosis II and the latter begins with:
MII: Identical to MITOSIS
Prophase II: Spindle formation begins and chromosomes begin moving toward poles.
Metaphase II: spindle fibers aligns chromosomes at the metaphase plate.
Anaphase II: CHROMATIDS separate and begin moving to the poles.
Telophase II: CLEAVAGE FURROW/CELL PLATE forms beginning CYTOKINESIS.