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LESSONS ON GRAMMAR:
http://grammar.about.com/od/basicsentencegrammar/a/basicstructures.htm
http://grammar.about.com/od/basicsentencegrammar/a/prepphrases.htm
Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves.
It is necessary to know grammar, and it is better to write grammatically than not, but it is
well to remember that grammar is common speechformulated. Usage is the only test.
(William Somerset Maugham, The Summing Up, 1938
Descriptive grammar (de!nition "1 re#ers to the structure o# a language as it$s actuall%
used b% spea&ers and 'riters. Prescriptive grammar (de!nition "( re#ers to the structure
o# a language as certain people thin& it should be used.
)oth &inds o# grammar are concerned 'ith rules**but in di+erent 'a%s. Specialists in
descripti,e grammar (called linguists stud% the rules or patterns that underlie our use o#
'ords, phrases, clauses, and sentences. -n the other hand, prescripti,e grammarians (such
as most editors and teachers la% out rules about 'hat the% belie,e to be the .correct/ or
.incorrect/ use o# language.
0hough certainl% di+erent in their approaches to language, both &inds o# grammar**
descripti,e and prescripti,e**are use#ul to students.
)ut that doesn$t mean that cra#ting an e+ecti,e sentence depends on magic or good luc&.
We$ll begin b% introducing the traditional parts o# speech and the most common sentence
structures. 1or practice in shaping these 'ords and structures into strong sentences,
1) The Parts of Speech
-ne 'a% to begin stud%ing basic sentence structures is to consider the
traditional parts o# speech (also called 'ord classes: nouns, pronouns, ,erbs,
ad2ecti,es, ad,erbs, prepositions, con2unctions, and inter2ections. 34cept #or
inter2ections (5ouch65, 'hich ha,e a habit o# standing b% themsel,es, the parts o#
speech come in man% ,arieties and ma% sho' up 2ust about an%'here in a sentence.
0o &no' #or sure 'hat part o# speech a 'ord is, 'e ha,e to loo& not onl% at the 'ord
itsel# but also at its meaning, position, and use in a sentence.
Parts of Speech
PART OF
SPEECH
BASIC FUNCTION EXAMPLES
noun names a person, place, or thing pirate, Caribbean, ship
pronoun takes the place of a noun I, you, he, she, it, ours,
them, who
,erb identifies action or state of being sing, dance, believe, be
ad2ecti,e modifies a noun hot, lazy, funny
ad,erb modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb softly, lazily, often
preposition shows a relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and
other words in a sentence
up, over, against, by, for
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con2unction joins words, phrases, and clauses and, but, or, yet
inter2ection expresses emotion ah, whoops, ouch
Proo!s
Pronouns are 'ords that ta&e the place o# nouns in a sentence. 7n the second sentence
belo', the pronoun she stands #or erdine:
Merdine danced on the roo# o# the barn during the thunderstorm.
She 'as 'a,ing an 8merican 9ag.
8s the second sentence sho's, a pronoun (li&e a noun ma% ser,e as the sub2ect o# a
sentence. 0he common sub2ect pronouns are I, you, he, she, it, we, and they.
O"#ects
7n addition to ser,ing as sub2ects, nouns ma% also #unction as ob2ects in sentences. 7nstead
o#performing the action, as sub2ects usuall% do, ob2ectsreceive the action and usuall% #ollo'
the ,erb. See i# %ou can identi#% the ob2ects in the short sentences belo':
0he girls hurled stones.
0he pro#essor s'igged co+ee.
:us dropped the a;uarium.
0he ob2ects**stones, co!ee, a"uarium**all ans'er the ;uestion what: What 'as hurled< What
'as s'igged< What 'as dropped<
8s the #ollo'ing sentences demonstrate, pronouns ma% also ser,e as ob2ects:
)e#ore eating the bro'nie, =anc% sni+ed it.
When 7 !nall% #ound m% brother, 7 &issed him.
0he common ob2ect pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us, and them.
The $asic Setece %it
>ou should no' be able to identi#% the main parts o# the basic sentence unit: S?)@3A0 plus
B3C), or S?)@3A0 plus B3C) plus -)@3A0. Cemember that the sub2ect names 'hat the
sentence is about, the ,erb tells 'hat the sub2ect does or is, and the ob2ect recei,es the
action o# the ,erb. 8lthough man% other structures can be added to this basic unit, the
pattern o# S?)@3A0 plus B3C) (or S?)@3A0 plus B3C) plus -)@3A0 can be #ound in e,en the
longest and most complicated structures.
Practice i &'etif(ig S!"#ects) *er"s) a' O"#ects
#or each of the following sentences, identify the word in bold as a sub$ect, a verb, or an
ob$ect. %hen you&re done, compare your answers with those at the end of the exercise.
1. Mr. )uc& 'oate' a 'ishbone to the Museum o# =atural Distor%.
(. 8#ter the !nal song, the 'r!mmer hurled his stic&s at the cro'd.
3. :us smashed the electric g!itar 'ith a sledge hammer.
E. 1eli4 stunned the gira+e 'ith a radar gun.
F. Ber% slo'l%, Pa'ora opened the bo4.
G. Ber% slo'l%, Pandora opee' the bo4.
H. Ber% slo'l%, Pandora opened the "o,.
8. 0homas gave his moonpie to )engie.
9. 8#ter brea&#ast, *era dro,e to the mission 'ith 0ed.
1I. 3,en though it rarel% rains here, Pro#essor Jegree carries his umbrella 'here,er he
goes.
As-ers
1. ,erbK (. sub2ectK 3. ob2ectK E. ob2ectK F. sub2ectK G. ,erbK H. ob2ectK 8. ,erbK 9. sub2ectK 1I.
Berb
8s sho'n in )asic Sentence Structures, a common 'a% o# e4panding a simple sentence is
'ithmodi!ers**'ords that add to the meanings o# other 'ords. 0he simplest modi!ers are
ad2ecti,es and ad,erbs. 8d2ecti,es modi#% nouns, 'hile ad,erbs modi#% ,erbs, ad2ecti,es,
and other ad,erbs. 1or instance, in the sentence belo', the ad2ecti,e sad modi!es the
noun smile(the sub2ect o# the sentence.
0he clo'n$s sa' smile touched us 'eep.(.
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7n this same sentence, the ad,erb deeply modi!es the ,erb touched. ?sed care#ull%,
ad2ecti,es and ad,erbs can ma&e our 'riting clearer and more precise.
Arragig A'#ectives
8d2ecti,es most o#ten appear 2ust in #ront o# the nouns that the% modi#%:
0he o.') cra/( careta&er re#used to ans'er our ;uestions.
=otice that 'hen t'o (or more ad2ecti,es precede a noun, the% are usuall% separated b%
commas. )ut occasionall% ad2ecti,es #ollo' the nouns the% modi#%:
0he careta&er, o.' and cra/(, re#used to ans'er our ;uestions.
Dere the commas appear outside the pair o# ad2ecti,es, 'hich are 2oined b%
the con2unction and. Placing the ad2ecti,es a#ter the noun is a 'a% o# gi,ing them
added emphasis in a sentence.
8d2ecti,es sometimes appear in a third position in a sentence: a#ter a lin&ing ,erb such
as am, are, is, was, or were. 8s their name implies, these ,erbs lin& ad2ecti,es 'ith the
sub2ects the% modi#%. See i# %ou can identi#% the ad2ecti,es in the sentences belo':
Dis ,oice 'as rough.
>our children are cruel.
0his seat is 'et.
7n each o# these sentences, the ad2ecti,e (rough, cruel, wet modi!es the sub2ect but #ollo's
the lin&ing ,erb (was, are, is.
Arragig A'ver"s
8d,erbs usuall% #ollo' the ,erbs the% modi#%:
7 dance occasioa..(.
Do'e,er, an ad,erb ma% also appear directl% in #ront o# the ,erb or at the ,er% beginning o#
a sentence:
7 occasioa..( dance.
Occasioa..( 7 dance.
)ecause not all ad,erbs are this 9e4ible in all sentences, %ou should tr% them out in di+erent
positions until %ou !nd the clearest arrangement.
Practice i A''ig A'#ectives
Man% ad2ecti,es are #ormed #rom nouns and ,erbs. 0he ad2ecti,e thirsty, #or e4ample, comes
#rom thirst, 'hich ma% be either a noun or a ,erb. Aomplete each sentence belo' 'ith the
ad2ecti,e #orm o# the italiciLed noun or ,erb. When %ou$re done, compare %our ans'ers 'ith
those on page t'o.
1. 7n (IIF, Durricane Matrina brought great destruction to the :ul# coast. 7t 'as one o#
the most NNNNN hurricanes in recent decades.
(. 8ll o# our pets en2o% good health. -ur collie is e4ceptionall% NNNNN, despite its
ad,anced age.
3. >our suggestion ma&es a great deal o# sense. >ou ha,e a ,er% NNNNN idea.
E. :oogle made record pro'ts last %ear. 7t is one o# the most NNNNN companies in the
'orld.
F. Or. Mra#t$s 2ob re;uires patience and s&ill. De is a NNNNN negotiator.
G. 8ll through high school, :iles rebelled against his parents and teachers. =o' he has
three NNNNN children o# his o'n.
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H. 0elling 2o&es that 'ill not o!end others can be diPcult. Some comedians are
deliberatel% NNNNN.
#or additional practice, go to this exercise( ?sing 8d2ecti,es 1ormed 1rom =ouns and Berbs
Practice i A''ig A'ver"s
Man% ad,erbs are #ormed b% adding )ly to an ad2ecti,e. 0he ad,erb softly, #or instance,
comes #rom the ad2ecti,e soft. =ote, ho'e,er, that not all ad,erbs end in )ly. *ery, "uite,
always, almost, and often are some o# the common ad,erbs that are not #ormed #rom
ad2ecti,es. Aomplete each sentence belo' 'ith the ad,erb #orm o# the italiciLed ad2ecti,e.
When %ou$re done, compare %our ans'ers 'ith those on page t'o.
1. 0he e4am 'as easy. 7 passed NNNNN.
(. Jero%$s careless act set the 'arehouse on !re. De NNNNN tossed a cigarette into a tan&
o# gasoline.
3. Paige is a brave little girl. She #ought NNNNN against the poltergeists.
E. Do'ard is a graceful dancer. De mo,es NNNNN.
F. 0om$s apolog% sounded ;uite sincere. De said that he 'as NNNNN sorr% #or misusing the
ta4 #unds.
G. Paula made a generous contribution to the 7ndependent -rder o# -dd 1ello's. She
gi,es NNNNN e,er% %ear.
H. 0he lecture 'as brief. Or. Jegree spo&e NNNNN about the importance o# 9ossing a#ter
e,er% meal.
Ji&e ad2ecti,es and ad,erbs, prepositioa. phrases add meaning to
the nouns and ,erbs in our sentences. 0here are t'o prepositional phrases in the #ollo'ing
sentence:
0he steam% air in the kitchen ree&ed of stale food.
0he !rst prepositional phrase**in the kitchen**modi!es the noun airK the second**of stale
food**modi!es the ,erb reeked. 0he t'o phrases pro,ide in#ormation that helps us
understand the sentence.
The T-o Parts of a Prepositioa. Phrase
8 prepositional phrase has t'o basic parts: apreposition plus a noun or a pronoun that
ser,es as the ob2ect o# the preposition. 8 preposition is a 'ord that sho's how a noun or a
pronoun is related to another 'ord in a sentence. 0he common prepositions are listed in the
table at the bottom o# this page.
$!i.'ig Seteces -ith Prepositioa. Phrases
Prepositional phrases o#ten do more than 2ust add minor details to a sentence: the% ma% be
needed #or a sentence to ma&e sense. Aonsider the ,aguenesso# this sentence 'ithout
prepositional phrases:
0he 'or&ers gather a rich ,ariet% and distribute it.
=o' see ho' the sentence comes into #ocus 'hen 'e add prepositional phrases:
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#rom many sources, the 'or&ers at the +ommunity #ood ,ank gather a rich ,ariet% of
surplus and unsalable food and distribute it to soup kitchens, day)care centers, and homes
for the elderly.
=otice ho' these added prepositional phrases gi,e us more in#ormation about certain nouns
and ,erbs in the sentence:
Which 'or&ers<
0he 'or&ers at the +ommunity #ood ,ank.
What did the% gather<
8 rich ,ariet% of surplus and unsalable food.
Where did the% gather the #ood<
#rom many sources.
Who did the% distribute it to<
To soup kitchens, day)care centers, and homes for the elderly.
Ji&e the other simple modi!ers, prepositional phrases are not merel% ornamentsK the% add
details that can help us understand a sentence.
PRA0T&0E: $!i.'ig -ith Simp.e Mo'i1ers
?se ad2ecti,es, ad,erbs, and prepositional phrases to e4pand the sentence belo'. 8dd
details that ans'er the ;uestions in parentheses and ma&e the sentence more interesting
and in#ormati,e.
@enn% stood, raised her shotgun, aimed, and !red.
(%here did -enny stand. /ow did she aim. %hat did she 're at.
0here are, o# course, no single correct ans'ers to the ;uestions in parentheses. Sentence*
e4panding e4ercises such as this one encourage %ou to use %our imagination to build
original sentences.
0ommo Prepositios
about behind e4cept outside
abo,e belo' #or o,er
across beneath #rom past
a#ter beside in through
against bet'een inside to
along be%ond into under
among b% near until
around despite o# up
at do'n o+ 'ith
be#ore during
2) S!"#ects) *er"s) a' O"#ects
0he basic parts o# a sentence are the sub2ect, the ,erb, and (o#ten, but not al'a%s
theob2ect. 0he sub2ect is usuall% a noun**a 'ord that names a person, place, or thing.
0he ,erb (or predicate usuall% #ollo's the sub2ect and identi!es an action or a state
o# being. 8n ob2ect recei,es the action and usuall% #ollo's the ,erb.
3) A'#ectives a' A'ver"s
8 common 'a% o# e4panding the basic sentence is 'ith modi!ers**'ords that add to
the meanings o# other 'ords. 0he simplest modi!ers are ad2ecti,esand ad,erbs.
8d2ecti,es modi#% nouns, 'hile ad,erbs modi#% ,erbs, ad2ecti,es, and other ad,erbs.
4) Prepositioa. Phrases
Ji&e ad2ecti,es and ad,erbs, prepositional phrases add meaning to the nouns and
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,erbs in sentences. 8 prepositional phrase has t'o basic parts: a preposition plus a
noun or apronoun that ser,es as the ob2ect o# the preposition.
5) Four Basc Se!te!ce Structures
There are four basic sentence structures in English:
i. simple sentence is a sentence with just one independent clause (also called a main clause): Judy
laughed..
ii. compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses: Judy laughed and Jimmy cried.
iii. complex sentence contains an independent clause and at least one dependent clause: Jimmy
cried when Judy laughed.
iv. compound)complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses and at least one
dependent clause: Judy laughed and Jimmy cried when the clowns ran past their seats.
Su"#ects a!$ %er"s
sentence is commonl! defined as "a complete unit of thought." #ormall!, a sentence expresses a
relationship, conve!s a command, voices a $uestion, or describes someone or something. %t begins
with a capital letter and ends with a period, $uestion mark, or exclamation mark.
The basic parts of a sentence are the subject and the verb. The subject is usuall! a noun&&a word that
names a person, place, or thing. The predicate (orverb) usuall! follows the subject and identifies an
action or a state of being. 'ee if !ou can identif! the subject and the predicate in each of the following
short sentences:
The hawk soars.
The widows weep.
(! daughter is a wrestler.
The children are tired.
%n each of these sentences, the subject is a noun:hawk, widows, daughter, and children. The verbs in
the first two sentences&&soars, weep&&show action and answer the $uestion, ")hat does the subject
do*" The verbs in the last two sentences&&is, are&&are called linking verbs because the! link the
subject with a word that renames it (wrestler) or describes it (tired).
+) 0oor'iatio
8 common 'a% to connect related 'ords, phrases, and e,en entire clauses is
to coordinatethem**that is, connect them 'ith a basic coordinating con2unction such as
5and5 or 5but.5
5) A'#ective 0.a!ses
0o sho' that one idea in a sentence is more important than another, 'e rel%
onsubordination**that is, treating one 'ord group as secondar% (or subordinate to another.
-ne common #orm o# subordination is the ad2ecti,e clause**a 'ord group that modi!es a
noun. 0he most common ad2ecti,e clauses begin 'ith one o# these relati,e
pronouns: who,which, and that.
6) Appositives
8n appositi,e is a 'ord or group o# 'ords that identi!es or renames another 'ord in a
sentence**most o#ten a noun that immediatel% precedes it. 8ppositi,e constructions o+er
concise 'a%s o# describing or de!ning a person, place, or thing.
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7) A'ver" 0.a!ses
Ji&e an ad2ecti,e clause, an ad,erb clause is al'a%s dependent on (or subordinate to
anindependent clause. Ji&e an ordinar% ad,erb, an ad,erb clause usuall% modi!es a ,erb,
though it can also modi#% an ad2ecti,e, an ad,erb, or e,en the rest o# the sentence in 'hich
it appears. 8n ad,erb clause begins 'ith a subordinating con2unction**an ad,erb that
connects the subordinate clause to the main clause.
18) Participia. Phrases
8 participle is a ,erb #orm used as an ad2ecti,e to modi#% nouns and pronouns. 8ll present
participles end in )ing. 0he past participles o# all regular ,erbs end in )ed. 7rregular ,erbs,
ho'e,er, ha,e ,arious past participle endings. Participles and participial phrases can add
,igor to our 'riting as the% add in#ormation to our sentences.
11) A"so.!te Phrases
8mong the ,arious &inds o# modi!ers, the absolute phrase ma% be the least common but
one o# the most use#ul. 8n absolute phrase, 'hich consists o# a noun plus at least one other
'ord, adds details to an entire sentence**details that o#ten describe one aspect o# someone
or something mentioned else'here in the sentence.
12) 9o!r 9!ctioa. T(pes of Seteces
0here are #our main t%pes o# sentences that can be distinguished b% their #unction and
purpose:
i. 8 declarative sentence ma&es a statement: ,abies cry.
ii. 8n interrogative sentence poses a ;uestion: %hy do babies cry.
iii. 8n imperative sentence gi,es instructions or e4presses a re;uest or demand: 0lease be
"uiet.
i,. 8n exclamatory sentence e4presses strong #eelings b% ma&ing an e4clamation: Shut up1
ON GER%NDS:
8 traditional grammatical term #or a ,erbal that ends in )ing and #unctions as a noun.
8d2ecti,e: gerundial.
8 gerund (also &no'n as an )ing #orm 'ith its ob2ects,complements, and modi!ers is called
a gerund phrase, or simpl% a noun phrase.
Ji&e nouns, gerunds and gerund phrases can #unction as sub2ects, ob2ects, and
complements. Do'e,er, unli&e nouns, gerunds do not ta&e in9ectionsK in other 'ords, the%
do not ha,e distinct plural #orms.
Berbal =oun
Et(mo.og(:
1rom the Jatin, 5to carr% on5
E,amp.es a' O"servatios:
5#eeling gratitude and not expressing it is li&e wrapping a present and not giving it.5
(William 8rthur Ward
)in4 )olling, the hero o# Wal&er Perc%$s The oviegoer, en2o%s riding the bus that
runs #rom :entill% do'n 3l%sian 1ields and into the 1rench Quarter o# =e' -rleans.
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57 ne,er belie,e nor disbelie,e. 7# %ou 'ill e4cuse m% speaking #ran&l%, 7 mean to
obser,e %ou closel%, and to decide #or m%sel#.5
(Wil&ie Aollins, 0ercy and the 0rophet, 18HH
50he% cut do'n elms to build as%lums #or people dri,en mad b% the cutting down o#
elms.5
(:eorge )ar&er, The 2ead Seagull, 19FI
5Shooting paintballs is not an art #orm.5
()art Simpson, The Simpsons
5Dumor is laughing at 'hat %ou ha,en$t got 'hen %ou ought to ha,e it.5
(Jangston Dughes, 58 =ote on Dumor,5 19GG
58ll tal& o# winning the people b% appealing to their intelligence, o# con"uering them
b% impeccable s%llogism, is so much moonshine.5
(D. J. Menc&en, ;uoted b% Aarl )ode in encken, 19G9
Ger!'s a' *er"a. No!s
5)ecause the% are nounli&e, 'e can thin& o# ger!'s as names. )ut rather than
naming persons, places, things, e,ents, and the li&e, as nouns generall% do, gerunds,
because the% are ,erbs in #orm, name acti,ities or beha,iors or states o# mind or
states o# being.5
(Martha Molln and Cobert 1un&, Understanding 3nglish Grammar. 8ll%n R )acon,
1998
58 ger!' is deri,ed #rom a ,erb b% adding the suP4 )ing. 0he result is still a ,erb,
and it e4hibits ordinar% ,erbal properties, such as ta&ing ob2ects and ad,erbs.
34ample: In football, deliberately tripping an opponent is a foul. Dere the
,erb trip occurs in its gerund #ormtripping, but this tripping is still a ,erb: it ta&es the
ad,erb deliberately and the ob2ect an opponent. Do'e,er, the entire
phrase deliberately tripping an opponent, because o# the gerund 'ithin it, no'
#unctions as a noun phrase, in this case as the sub2ect o# the sentence. So, a gerund
is still a ,erb, but the phrase built around it is nominal, not ,erbal.
5Ber% di+erent is a ,erbal noun constructed 'ith )ing. 0hough deri,ed #rom a ,erb, a
,erbal noun is strictl% a noun, and it e4hibits nominal properties . . ..5
(C.J. 0ras&, ind the Ga!e1 Darper, (IIG
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Di+ereces $et-ee Ger!'s a' Particip.es
5)ecause some SparticiplesT are identical to ger!'s, the% can get con#using:
Bisiting relati,es can be #un.
Ooes this mean that the act o# ,isiting (visiting as a gerund can be #un, or that relati,es 'ho
are ,isiting (visiting as a modi!er can be #un< We don$t &no'.5
(@une Aasagrande, It %as the ,est of Sentences, It %as the %orst of Sentences. 0en Speed
Press, (I1I
5Present participles and ger!'s loo& similar as 'ords, and the% also loo& similar as
phrases. 8gain, it is the )ing ,erbal #orm that causes this problem. 0o clearl% distinguish
these, 'e need to consider their grammatical #unctions. 8 present participle #unctions as
anon*!nite #orm o# a ,erb phrase, a#ter ,erbs o# motion and positionK it can be
an ad,erb complement a#ter these ,erbsK it can ;uali#%/modi#% as an ad2ecti,e does. 7n
contrast, gerunds li&e nouns ha,e naming roles and can occup% the place o# nouns in man%
o# their grammatical #unctions. ?nli&e nouns, the% do not name persons, places, things, or
e,entsK the% name actions, states, and beha,iors.5
()ernard -$O'%er, odern 3nglish Structures( #orm, #unction, 4nd 0osition, (nd ed.
)road,ie', (IIG
5Do' do linguists decide unusual or borderline cases< 0he% test diPcult e4amples against
,arious protot%pical patterns and decide 'hich pattern the case at hand most resembles. 7n
the #ollo'ing e4amples, is listening a ger!' or an ad,erbial participle<
EFa. %hile listening to the concerto, Marcia decided to stud% music.
EFb. 4fter listening to the concerto, Marcia decided to stud% music.
5istening is a participle in (EFa, and the phrase is ad,erbial. 7t is a reduced #orm o# the
ad,erbial subordinate clause %hile she was listening to the concerto. 5istening in (EFb has
a di+erent origin. 7t cannot be deri,ed #rom 4fter she was listening to the concerto. 7n
#act,after is a preposition in (EFb and listening to the concerto is a gerund phrase that can
be replaced b% the pronoun that.5
(0homas P. Mlammer, Muriel C. SchulL, and 8ngela Oella Bolpe, 4naly6ing 3nglish Grammar,
Eth ed. Pearson, (IIE
5What 7 li&e doing most o# all in the e,enings, these da%s, is sitting in a gormless stupor in
#ront o# the tele,ision, eating chocolate.5
NNNNNNNNNNNNNN