Poetry readings, specifically those at which poets

read their own works, are gradually gaining

popularity in Japan today. Such readings are held
in small galleries, community centers, and even
large theaters and halls on occasion. Performance
methods are as varied as the settings. For
instance, a poet may read his or her poetry over
background music or as part of an artistic col-
laboration with instrumental accompanists,
dancers, or other performers. Occasionally, a
poet may even provide his or her own musical
accompaniment while reading. Despite the
efforts of some contemporary poets, however,
such performances have yet to attain widespread
popularity due to the prevailing attitude among
modern poets that the best way to appreciate
poetry is still to approach it as text to be read
silently rather than aloud. In this regard, one
should remember that Japanese is a visual, highly
ideographic language that uses Sino-Japanese
characters (kanji) extensively. In this, it differs
considerably from more auditory languages
that employ phonetic symbols, such as characters
of the Latin alphabet. Personally, I not only sup-
port oral poetry reading but also wish to be
actively involved in its promotion and growth. I
am of the opinion that Japanese poetry reading
would advance to a new level if a performance
method that modifies the traditional linguistic
rhythms of Japanese were developed. I myself
have given experimental performances of oral
poetry, or poems composed without pen and
paper. I will discuss this topic further below.
In this article, I will consider the present state
of poetry reading in Japan and problematic
aspects of oral readings of poetry in Japanese.
First, however, let us look briefly at the history of
the written word.
The Power of the Written Word
Invented at various times in ancient Mesopota-
mia, Egypt, China, and India, writing facilitated
the transmission of knowledge over time and
space. The development of writing was undeni-
ably momentous in the history of humankind. It
is not hard to imagine the mystery and fascina-
tion that written characters must have held for
people when writing first reached Japan. In
Japan, the skill with which the imperial family
Katsunori Kusunoki
The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 1
ARK MORI BLDG, 1-12-32 AKASAKA, MINATO-KU, TOKYO 107-6021, JAPAN Tel: +81 (03) 5562-3511 ISSN 0385-2318
VOL. XXVI/NO. 1 MAY 1998
The Current State of Poetry Readings in Japan
Katsunori Kusunoki is a well-known poet
and video auteur. Among his numerous
video series are Kazoku [Family; Studio
ams], Video Zoo (Naoshima Contem-
porary Art Museum), and Toi Oto [Dis-
tant Sound; Film Art Co.]. His books
include Bideo Sakka no Shiten [A Video
Auteurs Perspective; Heibonsha], Pepa Bideo Insutareshon
[Paper Video Installation (a video poetry collection);
Shichosha], and Kore wa Mienai Mono o Kaku Enpitsu
Desu [This Pencil Writes of Unseen Matters; Film Art Co.].
ON OTHER PAGES
CULTURAL HIGHLIGHTS
From the Japanese Press
(March 1April 30, 1998) 5
RESEARCH REPORTS
A Comparative Study on Images of
Modernity 7
Behind the Veil: Shizuko Wakamatsu
and the Freedom of Translation 8
BOOK REVIEWS
Books in Other Languages 11
FOUNDATION ACTIVITIES
The Asian Performing Artists
Co-Production Program 15
wielded the written word is thought to have been
a key determinant of the extent of its power, indi-
cating the written words role as an essential
political instrument. For people who had previ-
ously communicated solely through speech and
gesture, the effect of the new communication
medium must have been incalculable. In those
days, communication with people within the
range of ones voice, though comparable to
modern-day poetry readings, could often be used
only for impromptu conversations, discussions to
reach a common understanding, and the like.
Writing, on the other hand, facilitated communi-
cation over great expanses of time and space and
was therefore perceived as something unprec-
edented and powerful. For nearly all peoples and
cultures worldwide, poetry is said to have served
as the primary means of expressing faith and
other basic human emotions following the devel-
opment of language. Accordingly, from time
immemorial countless poems have been com-
posed to be recited and performed with voice and
gesture. This poetic tradition has been dissemi-
nated more widely since the invention of writing.
It can even be said that images evoked by written
texts often make stronger impressions on readers.
The ancient oral-poetry tradition can be truly
revived only when the written word is vocalized
in our minds. When the sense of hearing is thus
stimulated by the sense of sightthat is, when
the essence of verse is impartedthen, and only
then, is poetry internalized by the individual
reader. This is because the written word, whose
chief attribute is universality, cannot be separated
from speech. At first, this might seem contradic-
tory in the case of written Japanese, which
employs kanji, each having a specific meaning. If
one approaches kanji solely in these terms, their
meanings do appear to be unrelated to the spoken
word. The relationship between the written word
and speech becomes more obvious when one
turns to China, the birthplace of kanji. Since
ancient times, Chinese poets have composed with
a dual emphasison both the meaning and the
sound of charactersas is indicated by the fact
that a fundamental element of any Chinese poem
is its rhyme scheme. The intimate relationship
between the written word and speech becomes
even more obvious when one considers the great
number of peoples who write with phonetic char-
acters, such as those of the Latin alphabet. When
we read poetry recorded in phonetic characters,
we are considerably more sensitive to the sound
of the characters than we are when reading Japa-
nese poetry. This is attributable to the manner of
reading inevitably demanded by the Latin alpha-
bet and other phonetic scripts.
The Written and Spoken Word Meet
The poet and literary critic Makoto Ooka
(b. 1931) relates an interesting tale in his book
Koe de Tanoshimu Utsukushii Nihon no Shi
Kin-Gen-dai Shi Hen [Beautiful Japanese Poems
to Enjoy Reading Aloud: A Modern Poetry Col-
lection; Iwanami Shoten, 1990]. In the Murasaki
Shikibu Nikki [The Diary of Murasaki Shikibu],
there is a scene in which Emperor Ichijos con-
sort Shoshi returns to the mansion of her father,
Fujiwara no Michinaga, and gives birth to a
prince. Murasaki Shikibu [fl. ca. 1000], one of
the court ladies who served drinks at the banquet
celebrating the princes birth, wrote in her diary
that she composed a congratulatory poem for the
banquet, which she attended with the intention of
reciting the poem while pouring drinks for
guests. She wrote that when court ladies saw
Shijo Dainagon [Major Counselor] Fujiwara no
Kinto among the many distinguished guests in
attendance, they remarked in unison, Oh, no!
How embarrassing! I dont really care whether
my poem is good or bad, but I dont think I can
recite in front of him without my voice faltering.
Kinto, considered the preeminent poet and poetry
scholar of his day, compiled the famous anthol-
ogy Wakan Roeishu [Collection of Chinese and
Japanese Poems for Singing; 1013] and was
an important member of the Fujiwara clan. In
addition to being talented at composing waka
[Japanese-style poems] and Chinese poems, he
was also an accomplished extemporaneous poet
and skilled player of various string and wind
instruments. According to Murasaki Shikibus
diary, upon seeing Kinto, the court ladies became
extremely nervous at the prospect of being cho-
sen to serve sak and recite their own poems to
him. It is interesting to note that the women were
more concerned about the actual act of reciting
aloud than about the quality of their poems.
Although Murasaki Shikibu had sufficient confi-
dence in the poem she had prepared for that
evening to record it in her diary, she seems to
have been intimidated by the thought of actually
reciting it in front of Kinto.
This emphasis on vocal quality over the quality
of the poem is an extremely interesting concept.
In modern-day Japan, there appears to be little
concern over whether someones voice is good or
bad. This is because electronically altered voices,
rather than natural voices, have become the norm
as a result of advances in telephony and other
The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 2
POETRY READINGS IN JAPAN
communications technologies. Even at poetry
readings, most poets use a microphone, deliver-
ing their electronically amplified voices to the
audience through a speaker system. Though such
amplification may well suit modern performance
spaces, I sometimes try to find voices capable of
carrying in such spaces without the aid of micro-
phones. This habit stems from my fondness for
natural voices that can project a living, vibrant
persona.
Ooka also noted several fundamental points
about written Japanese. Matsuo Basho
[164494], the unrivaled haiku master of the
Genroku era [16881704], often told his disciples
that the secret of writing haiku is to say it aloud
again and again. One would be hard pressed to
make the point more concisely that the essence of
verse is inseparable from speech. Since the past,
there were numerous different forms of Japanese
verse, most notably tanka (consisting of lines of
5, 7, 5, 7, and 7 syllables) and haiku (with lines
of 5, 7, and 5 syllables). One of the primary
attractions of certain modern poetry that has been
influenced by these ancient forms is the beauty of
the harmony and interaction between the lines of
five and seven syllables. When such poems were
collected in written texts, punctuation marks
were not used. Poetry collections published as
modern, typeset books sometimes include punc-
tuation marks, but these have been added for the
benefit of modern readers. Punctuation marks
were formerly omitted because people were able
to understand those tanka, haiku, and other
poems without them.
Despite the obvious benefits of punctuation in
terms of increased clarity, the use of punctuation
in Japanese literary expression dates back only
about a century; it was first introduced into the
Japanese language early in the Meiji era
(18681912) as a means of facilitating compre-
hension of meaning. At around the same time,
numerous translations of Western books became
available, further promoting the use of punctua-
tion. Its use in poetry is said to have come about
during the Taisho era (191225). Though there
are some poets who used punctuationincluding
Bokusui Wakayama (18851928) and Yugure
Maeda (18831951), both of whom used it dur-
ing a brief phase in their careers, and Shaku
Choku (Shinobu Orikuchi; 18871953), who
used it over a longer periodthey are rare in the
world of tanka.
Even today, punctuation is hardly ever used in
tanka, much less in haiku. In contrast, in free
verse (modern poetry) written since the Taisho
era, the use of not only commas and periods but
also quotation marks, question marks, and excla-
mation points has become the norm. Needless to
say, punctuation was introduced into poetry as a
phenomenon inseparable from the increased
emphasis on logical elements and the priority
placed on meaning in poems. The use of punctua-
tion is a major difference between modern poetry
and traditional, fixed-form poetry, such as haiku
and tanka. Moreover, we can surmise that this
difference is closely related to the prevailing atti-
tude among modern poets that modern poetry
must be read silently. While there may be some
basis for this view, I do not feel many poems
merit being read only silently. Ooka went so far
as to say, If there is even a single verse of such
poetry, it should be acclaimed as a remarkable
accomplishment, for it would defy the very
essence of language. Indeed, it would be a
miraculous work that should be regarded with
wonder. Ookas thoughts on this topic mirror
my basic attitude toward oral poetry reading.
Another poet who has profoundly influenced
my view of oral poetry reading is Takaaki
Yoshimoto (b. 1924). As a literary critic and
prominent intellectual, Yoshimoto has influenced
many peoples views on not only Japanese litera-
ture but also Japanese politics and ideology. His
recent book Isho [Testament; Kadokawa Haruki
Jimusho, 1998] prompted me to consider the
innate rhythms of the Japanese language. The
vast majority of modern poets merely express
poetic sentiments that were originally expressed
in tanka or haiku, but instead of employing those
traditional Japanese forms of poetic expression,
they go out of their way to present their senti-
ments in the style of modern Western literature.
As Yoshimoto pointed out in Isho, if one com-
pares the poetry of two modern poets, there will
most likely be no discernible differences. Modern
poets lack individuality. They seem to feel that
poetry consists in the act of taking something that
is properly suited to a traditional literary style,
adapting it, and placing it in a modern Western
context. This fallacious belief has tainted nearly
all modern poets, and only a handful have been
able to free themselves from its harmful influ-
ence. Indeed, these modern poets regard the
adaptation of Japanese poetry to fit a Western
context as an avant-garde experiment. Such an
approach could never yield original, innovative
work, and if the result is gratuitously called
poetry, it is poetry in name only. Yoshimoto also
discussed the potential of Japanese poetry in the
same work.
The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 3
POETRY READINGS IN JAPAN
The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 4
POETRY READINGS IN JAPAN
The poetry of Takashi Okai [b. 1928] and
other modern poets, particularly their experi-
ments with free meter and rhythms and meters
that are unrelated to the poetic subject, remains
faithful to Japanese poetic traditions while
exploring innovative concepts. Takashi Okai is
attempting to determine how much modernity
can be injected into the traditional literary styles
of haiku and tanka. Representing a slight depar-
ture from traditional Japanese literary styles,
Okais work retains only their meter and innate
rhythm. The nature of the relationship between
poetry and prose remains unclear, since it has
proved extremely difficult to reconcile aspects of
traditional Japanese prosody and metrics with
those of modern Western languages. I am unable
to say authoritatively how Japanese literary styles
should be transformed and applied to new areas
without losing their intrinsic qualities, but Soseki
Natsume [18671916] is one author who was
able to develop such a prose style, while Gozo
Yoshimasu [b. 1939] was a pioneer in terms of
his poetic style.
The Power of the Spoken Word
Not only were Yoshimasus text poems uniquely
innovative but he also developed a unique per-
formance method, not unlike that of a witch
chanting incantations, which has demonstrated
considerable potential for promoting readings of
Japanese poetry. I agree with his view that the
future of Japanese poetry lies with a return to
basics, that is, accepting the five-seven and
seven-five syllabic meters of haiku and tanka as
the standard forms of Japanese verse, adopting
these traditional forms as the underlying poetic
meter, and then gradually modifying them.
Yoshimoto makes a similar point in Gengo ni
totte Bi to wa Nani ka [What Is Beauty with
Respect to Language?] in volume 6 of the
Yoshimoto Takaaki Zen Chosaku Shu [Complete
Works of Takaaki Yoshimoto; Keiso Shobo,
1976]. In a passage on poetic meter, he takes as a
specific example the following tanka: Kokkyo
owareshi / Karu Marukusu wa / tsuma ni okurete /
shininikeru kana (Pursued to the border / Karl
Marx / Will he outlive his wife, I wonder).
In the poems first line, Kokkyo owareshi, the
author has assumed the persona of Karl Marx,
who is being chased to a countrys border. With
Karu Marukusu wa, the author steps into the role
of an objective narrator describing a historical
event. In the line tsuma ni okurete, the author
seems to resume his own persona when he says
that Marx has died in exile after having outlived
his late wife. In the line shininikeru kana, the
author comes full circle, returning to the original
perspective as he is overcome by Marxs death.
While on the surface this poem merely presents
an objective account of a historical event, if it is
viewed as a series of high-speed photographs
while analyzing the authors choice of expres-
sions, it becomes clear that the poem accom-
plishes complex shifts in viewpoint, from Marx
being chased to the border to objective narrator to
author, who expresses emotions at Marxs death.
Whether this shifting of viewpoint is conscious or
unconscious is irrelevant. If the shift is uncon-
scious, the author was merely following the con-
ventions dictated by traditional syllabic meter. In
such a case, concerns relating to the traditional
meter take precedence over the authors inten-
tions. I believe that it is most important to
develop Japanese poetry while maintaining
proper emphasis on traditional syllabic and met-
ric forms, thereby preserving the innate rhythms
of the Japanese language. In addition to poetry
performance methods imported directly from the
West, I believe we also need to experiment with
the creation of original performance methods in
Japanese.
One possible solution, in my opinion, is the
previously mentioned oral poetry. Though an
extremely difficult experiment, it is not without
promise. In my personal attempts to compose
oral poetry, I have found Makoto Ookas idea
that poems must be vocalized to be extremely
edifying. Likewise, Takaaki Yoshimotos idea
that the innate rhythms of Japanese cannot be
ignored when composing oral poetry. Similarly,
my quest to create an oral poetic tradition cannot
be divorced from the influence of the traditional
rhythms to which I have been exposed, both con-
sciously and unconsciously. These rhythms per-
meate my being and have naturally influenced
the way I communicate with others through
verse. The process of creation has led me to ask
myself anew, What is poetry? When I vocalize,
I experience a flash of hope that just maybe I can
create oral poetry by shedding and transforming
aspects of traditional Japanese literary styles,
sometimes intentionally, other times uncon-
sciously. For example, one approach to creating
innovative oral poetry may be to compose while
internalizing two, three, or more subjective
beings within myself. By no means does this
entail uttering words in a schizophrenic state of
mind; rather, it means approaching themes from
multiple viewpoints. This is one of the literary
experiments currently underway in Japan.
AWARDS
Spring Honors
The Japanese government announced the names
of 4,514 people to be honored in the spring 1998
conferment of decorations. Prominent among the
honors were the Grand Cordon of the Order of
the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers to be
conferred on former chief justice of the Supreme
Court Ryohachi Kusaba, 72, and the Grand
Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun to be con-
ferred on Nobel Prize winner for physics Reona
(Leo) Esaki, 73, former president of the Univer-
sity of Tsukuba. The twenty-six foreign nationals
to be honored include former prime minister of
France Raymond Barre, 74, and former manager
of the Chunichi Dragons professional baseball
club Wally Kaname Yonamine, 72. (S: Apr. 29)
HISTORY
Kitora Tomb Murals Discovered
Representations of constellations, or seishuku
(celestial maps), were discoverd on the ceiling of
the late-seventh- or early-eighth-century stone-
chambered Kitora Tomb in Asuka, Nara Prefec-
ture. Other discoveries in this tomb include
polychrome murals depicting two creatures tra-
ditionally considered sacred: the byakko (white
tiger) and the seiryu (blue dragon). The seishuku,
in particular, are finer than those in the contem-
poraneous Takamatsuzuka Tomb, also in Asuka,
which is known for its Chinese-style polychrome
murals. The new finds will be vital to compara-
tive analyses of the murals of the two ancient
tombs, which should provide valuable informa-
tion on cultural interaction between Japan, China,
the Korean peninsula, and other areas in ancient
times. (Y: Mar. 7)
MISCELLANEOUS
Ainu Artifacts in Russia Catalogued
The Russian Academy of Sciences Museum of
Anthropology and Ethnography named after
Peter the Great possesses an extensive collection
of artifacts of the Ainu, an ethnic group now
found chiefly on Japans northern island of
Hokkaido. Professor Shinko Ogihara of Chiba
University and researchers from both Russia and
Japan studied and photographed a total of about
nineteen hundred items in the museums collec-
tionincluding religious implements, hunting
gear, woodenware, and clothingmany of which
were recovered from the Chishima (Kuril)
Islands, Sakhalin, and Hokkaido. A trilingual
(English, Japanese, and Russian) catalogue of
these Ainu artifacts was compiled and has been
published by Sofukan, Tokyo. (A: Apr. 1)
Bilingual Encyclopedia Published
Kodansha International recently published The
Kodansha Bilingual Encyclopedia of Japan,
which presents a wide range of information on
Japan in both English and Japanese. This richly
illustrated encyclopedia offers a wealth of current
information on Japan, with entries grouped in
seven sections: Geography and Nature, History,
Government and Diplomacy, Economy, Society,
Culture, and Life. An indispensable source of
information for fostering international and cul-
tural exchange, it is ideal for language students or
anyone interested in learning more about Japan
and its culture. (Y: Mar. 22)
Japan and Europe Discuss Digitization of
Cultural Data
Representatives from Japan and Europe met at
EVA-GIFU 98 (International Electronic Image
Conference on the Visual Arts), held in Gifu,
Gifu Prefecture, to discuss the digitization of
museum collections. Their primary goals are to
ensure the preservation and recording of collec-
tions that are subject to deterioration over time
and to increase awareness of cultural treasures by
making them more accessible for educational and
CULTURAL HIGHLIGHTS
From the Japanese Press
(March 1April 30, 1998)
The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 5
Abbreviations used here:
A...Asahi Shimbun M...Mainichi Shimbun
N...Nihon Keizai Shimbun S...Sankei Shimbun
Y...Yomiuri Shimbun
commercial purposes. The conference high-
lighted a variety of problems that remain to be
resolved, such as copyright protection and the
need to improve network technology. Among the
proposals approved at the conference were future
cooperation between Europe and Japan to stand-
ardize communications technologies and data-
storage methods. (Y: Apr. 15)
The Kanagawa Declaration Released
The international symposium Paths to Global
Citizenship: Networks for the Preservation of
Cultural Assets, held recently in Yokohama, was
attended by museum curators from France, Italy,
Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United
States. The symposium culminated in the
announcement of the Kanagawa Declaration,
which proclaims: We all have an obligation to
ensure that humanitys irreplaceable heritage is
passed on to posterity. (Y: Apr. 22)
International Cultural Exchange Summit Held
The International Cultural Exchange Summit 98,
intended to establish a network for the restoration
of Japanese works of art located overseas, was
held in Shiga Prefecture. Leading members of
Japans museum and art worlds, including Ikuo
Hirayama, chairman of the Art Research Founda-
tion, joined representatives from the British
Museum, the Freer Gallery of Art (Washington,
D.C.), and other notable institutions. The summit
confirmed the participants determination to con-
tinue promoting cooperative restoration projects
involving both government and private organiza-
tions, and this theme was adopted in the Shiga
Declaration on the Restoration of Japanese
Works of Art. (S: Apr. 28)
World Heritage Sites to Be Recommended
Japans Agency for Cultural Affairs has con-
firmed its plan to recommend that the renowned
shrine Tosho-gu and several other shrines and
temples in Nikko, Tochigi Prefecture, be placed
on the World Heritage List. The buildings to be
recommended cover a total area of approximately
500,000 sq m and include Tosho-gu (the mau-
soleum of the first Tokugawa shogun, Ieyasu),
Futarasan Shrine, the Tendai temple Rinno-ji,
and other historic religious buildings. More than
one hundred buildings in the region that typify
architecture of the Edo period (16031868) have
been designated as either National Treasures or
Important Cultural Properties. (S: Apr. 19)
Hokusai International Conference Convened
Hokusai Hall in Obuse, Nagano Prefecture, was
the site of the Third Hokusai International Con-
ference, an academic gathering focused on vari-
ous subjects relating to the famed master of
ukiyo-e (pictures of the floating world)
Katsushika Hokusai (17601849). In his keynote
address, Donald Keene, professor emeritus of
Columbia University, described how the national-
isolation policy of the pre-modern period led to
an unprecedented era of peace and freedom,
which allowed the populace to enrich their lives
with a wide range of pursuits and interests and
resulted in the development of a culture the com-
mon people could call their own. (M: Apr. 20)
OBITUARIES
Tokuho Azuma (born Kikue Yamada), 89, the
fourth iemoto (hereditary head) of the Azuma
school of Nihon Buyo dance, April 23. She
formed the Azuma Kabuki troupe in 1954 and
took it on a two-year tour of Europe and the
United States, where the troupes performances
did much to introduce Kabuki to audiences
abroad. The preeminent figure in the world of
Nihon Buyo, Azuma was noted for a wide range
of artistic activities that embraced not only
classic works but also creative dance presenta-
tions. Azuma was named a Person of Cultural
Merit in 1991. (A: Apr. 24)
Isokichi Asakura, 85, Kutani-ware ceramist,
April 9. An innovator who improved glaze for-
mulas and firing methods, Asakura created numer-
ous masterpieces distinguished by their gravity
and profoundness. His unique world of color suf-
fused with an air of modernity, often dubbed
Asakura Color, is a distinctive idiom based on
Old Kutani works that favor a basic palette of
yellow, green, and purple. Asakura was named a
Person of Cultural Merit in 1992 and received the
Order of Culture in 1996. (Y: Apr. 10)
(Continued on page 10)
The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 6
CULTURAL HIGHLIGHTS
A Comparative Study on Images of Modernity
The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 7
RESEARCH REPORTS
Artists and writers from both Japan and the
United States have been physically and psycho-
logically aloof from the orthodoxy of modern
art or modern literature established toward the
end of the nineteenth century in Europe, specifi-
cally in France. Although both countries have
been directly and indirectly influenced by the
European modernist movement, they have man-
aged to develop their own unique modern iden-
tity. I have formed a theory of modernity in French
art and literature (Hisaki Matsuura, Heimenron
Senhappyakuhachiju-nendai Seio [The Surface
Theory: The Western World in the 1880s; Iwanami
Shoten, 1994] and Efferu-to Shiron [An Essay on
the Eiffel Tower; Chikuma Shobo, 1995]) and am
applying this theory to the study of Japanese and
American poetry to identify characteristics of
modernity in the light of the transformation of
formal rearrangements of literary symbols.
The first step in this process consisted of deci-
phering the historical direction of American
poetryspecifically from Edgar Allan Poe and
Walt Whitman to Robert Frost, William Carlos
Williams, Ezra Pound, e. e. cummings, Allen
Ginsberg, and John Ashberywithin the theo-
retical framework of imagery and representa-
tion. The same process was applied to modern
Japanese poetry, from the shintaishi (poetry in
new forms) of the Meiji era (18681912) to the
work of Tokoku Kitamura (186894), Ariake
Kanbara (18761952), Hakushu Kitahara
(18851942), and Sakutaro Hagiwara (1886
1942) and postwar poetry, including that of the
Arechi (Wasteland) school. Through these pre-
liminary probes, parallel imagery and representa-
tions in the literary traditions of both countries
were identified and then analyzed from a theo-
retical and historical perspective.
These studies have clarified a common pre-
occupation of Japanese and American poets
regardless of differences in schools, styles,
personal mannerisms, or ideologieswith repre-
senting and expressing form (i.e., arrangements
of linguistic symbols and narrative structures)
rather than content, a preoccupation characteristic
of modernity in Japanese and American litera-
ture as a whole. The refinement of semiotic
forms in literary works has emerged as a parallel
phenomenon in the development of both the
modern American and the modern Japanese
poetic tradition. Although many similar theories
have been reported in the fields of comparative
literature and comparative cultural history, an
analysis of the concept of poetical modernity
has yet to be undertaken from the perspectives of
image theory, semiotics, media theory, and cul-
ture and representation. Needless to say, compara-
tive studies of the works of, among others, John
Ashbery, from the United States, and Minoru
Yoshioka (191990), from Japan, can also be
conducted in terms of linguistic consciousness,
but it is necessary for such studies to go beyond
thematic or ideological similarities and differ-
ences to juxtapose poetic texts in the context of
poetic modernity, thus contributing to the recon-
sideration of existing representational forms.
The above-mentioned studies cannot be con-
veniently limited to the framework of aesthetic or
artistic high culture, however. The period since
the latter half of the nineteenth century can be
characterized by fundamental changes in the con-
cept of image effected by the emergence of
innovative visual technologies, such as photogra-
phy, movies, and television. Throughout the
twentieth century, technologies relating to the
production, distribution, and consumption of
reproducible visual images have been developed
greatly, together with other mass-society phe-
nomena, and have influenced the function and
importance of images in linguistic representation
media, including poetry and novels. This image
transformation first emerged in its most radical
form in the United States and seems to have infil-
trated Japanese popular culture, as well.
Hisaki Matsuura is a professor of culture
and representation at the University of
Tokyo and a published poet. His research
on the theme Comparative Studies on the
Images of Modernity in Japanese and
American Literature at Harvard Univer-
sity was supported by a 199798 Japan
Foundation Fellowship.
Hisaki Matsuura
The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 8
Shizuko Wakamatsu (186496), perhaps more
than any of her peers, embodies the early-Meiji-
era (18681912) ideal of the woman writer. A
child of the tumult that attended the Meiji
Restoration in 1868, she was left at a very young
age to fend for herself. By a stroke of fortune, she
received a Western-based education and learned
English alongside the Japanese classics. She
devoted herself assiduously to the improvement
of the female condition in Japanall the while
serving faithfully as a wife and mother. Her early
years of poverty, frequent childbirths, and con-
stant overwork took their toll on her fragile health,
however, and she died a few weeks before her
thirty-second birthday, but not before accumulat-
ing an outstanding record of accomplishments
Japanese essays on education for women and
on home science, English essays on Japanese
Behind the Veil:
Shizuko Wakamatsu and the Freedom of Translation
Rebecca L. Copeland
RESEARCH REPORTS
In such a context, literature is also related to
popular media phenomena. Studies on modern
images lead necessarily to studies on the moder-
nity of images, a field in which the precise area
where media theories, semiotic image analyses,
and literary theories overlap must be clarified.
At the same time, the development of poetic
language in this period has coincided with the
emergence of modern nation states, in a political
and economic sense. Consequently, it is also
necessary to study the way that nationalistic
ideologies and movements have influenced the
development of literary consciousnesscompar-
ing Japanese and American literary works and
clarifying their relationship to political theories.
We should therefore approach literary texts
against a backdrop of political nationalism and
power and consider other possible meanings of
texts beyond the narrow framework of literary
history.
In this regard, I have noted an aspect of
Minoru Yoshiokas wartime experience that
seems to be a consequence of the development of
this nationalistic aspect of literary consciousness.
Although Yoshioka is commonly regarded as an
aesthete and avant-garde poet who arranged
words as poetic objets dart, his experiences as a
soldier in Manchuria during World War II consti-
tuted a vital underpinning of his creative world.
War, as an incarnation of modern Japans
nationalistic ideology, was transformed into and
expressed in various grotesque or supernatural
images by Yoshioka and formed the core of his
literary activities. Parallels can also be found in
the historical development of modern American
poetry, which grew out of a simple, Whitman-
like nationalism and eventually led to the birth of
antiestablishment works by such poets as Allen
Ginsberg.
The above-described state of modern Japanese
poetry is of great significance to me as a literary
scholar, writer, and poet. An invitation to deliver
a lecture and read some of my poems at the Japan
Society in New York last February gave me an
extraordinary opportunity to share the nature of
contemporary Japanese poetry with an American
audience. It was also a practical application of
my studies, which normally focus on theoretical
aspects of poetry. An unexpectedly large audi-
ence attended and actively participated in the
question-and-answer session after the lecture.
The event yielded many thought-provoking
insights into differences between American and
Japanese ways of enjoying poetry. While it is
natural in the American literary milieu to hear
and appreciate poems that are read aloud, modern
Japanese poetic language has been, in a sense,
shaped by silencing the voice. Of course, the sub-
ject of voice cannot be divorced from the
broader framework of political media issues.
Rebecca L. Copeland is associate profes-
sor of Japanese language and literature
at Washington University, St. Louis,
Missouri. Her research on Meiji-era
women writers, conducted at Kokugakuin
University, Tokyo, under the direction of
Professor Yasuyuki Ogikubo, was sup-
ported by a 1997 Japan Foundation Fellowship.
The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 9
RESEARCH REPORTS
literature and culture, prose fiction, poetry in
both English and Japanese, and, more notably, a
series of translations from English into Japanese.
Although she translated Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, and sections
of Charles Dickens, it is for her translation of
Frances Eliza Hodgson Burnetts Little Lord
Fauntleroy that she is most remembered. Her
translation, Shokoshi (1892; reprint, Tokyo:
Nihon Kindai Bungakukan, 1968), contributed to
the contemporary literary scene in numerous
ways. It opened the door to the entirely new
genre of childens literature. Furthermore, the
language she crafted both substantially advanced
the campaign to invent a modern literary idiom
and raised the contemporary artistic level of liter-
ary translation. Given the significance of her
work, it is difficult to explain why she has been
overlooked today. As the literary scholar
Masahide Yamamoto (190780)one critic who
obviously did not forget herpoints out, she is
hardly mentioned at all in the many studies that
treat early-Meiji-era translations or experiments
with genbun itchi (unification of speech and
prose). In studies of childrens literature, she is
given slightly more credit, but her works are
removed from context and abridged so severely
that they lose all value.
1
Like so many of her
female contemporaries, Shizuko Wakamatsu has
become a footnote in a history that does not
include her.
Ironically, it is in part this anonymity, this
refusal to insinuate herself into the pages of liter-
ary history, that is responsible for Shizuko
Wakamatsus current standing as an ideal Meiji-
era woman writer. Women at the time, whether in
the home or in the literary arena, were not to
advertise their accomplishments too boldly.
Those who did were often chastised for their
unlady-like behavior. Those who did not were of
course overlooked. A woman had to be a clever
strategist if she were both to disseminate her
writings publicly and to retain a feminine sub-
missiveness. In many ways, translation allowed
women to enter the literary arena without quite
relinquishing their presumed modesty. As the
poet and novelist Doppo Kunikida (18711908)
argued, translation was more natural to women
than creative writing: Composing original works
encourages publicity; translating invites true
merit. The former calls for arrogance; the latter,
humility. The former touches on fantasy; the lat-
ter on sobriety. This is why translation is, as I
have said, a task for women.
2
Citing the success of Shizuko Wakamatsu and
her contemporary Kimiko Koganei (18701956),
Doppo encouraged women to abandon notions of
becoming writers and to translate instead. Trans-
lation, he continued, was an appropriate pastime
for women because it was so automatic that it
required little thought. A woman could attend to
her children and to her husbandwhom she
could consult on difficult mattersand still
translate successfully. Of course, translation
required diligence, attention to detail, and faith-
fulnessbut who better than a woman to meet
these demands! Moreover, with translation she
did not have to worry about losing her inspiration
or train of thought.
Doppos misogyny was excessive even by
Meiji-era standards, but his comments illuminate
the essential bias against womens writing at the
time (and against translation!). Writing required
thought. It required not only a space between the
bedroom and the kitchen but a mental space, as
well, where a woman could enter at will and
indulge in her own ideas and dreams and pas-
sions. But indulgence of this kind threatened men
like Doppo, because it required that women place
their own creativity above their devotion to their
husbands and fathers. Women who thought for
themselves, who were creative, who had trains
of thought entered a realm that put them beyond
the control of men like Doppo, thus disrupting
the proper balance in the sexual hierarchy.
Shizuko labored over her translators art, and
her efforts far exceeded a mere selection of
words. Even so, she did not draw attention to
her labors. She made translating seem simple
because she made it so natural. And the texts she
created as a result were equally readable.
In a sense, translation became a mask for
Shizuko. By presenting herself as a mere trans-
lator, she avoided charges of immodesty, selfish-
ness, and creativity. Unlike other women writers,
she did not require kenagesa (boldness) to pres-
ent her workbecause the work she presented
was not her own. She was merely the conduit,
the machine, the helpmeet, the wife. Through
translation, however, Shizuko found she could
explore other realmsrealms she could not reach
in her own voice. She could write of seafaring
men and golden-haired boys, and she could use
their adventures, battles, and aspirations as a
cipher for her own. More importantly, she could
dare to be inventive. A ventriloquist for Burnett,
Dickens, or Tennyson, she could write about the
lower classes or experiment with colloquial lan-
guage with impunity. In contrast, when Shizukos
contemporary Kaho Miyake (18681943) wrote
The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 10
from the point of view of stableboys and rick-
shaw pullers, she was taken to tasknot because
her portrayals were inept but because they were
so skillful. How could an innocent schoolgirl
have written with such incisiveness? Shizuko, on
the other hand, was not chastised for writing
about bootblacks and scullery maids because, of
course, she hadnt. She had not authored these
scenes and so was exempt from such criticism.
With translation, Shizuko could touch an emo-
tional depth she could not quite reach with her
own [Japanese] words. Shizuko Wakamatsu,
standing before the world unveiled as a jogakushi
(lady-scholar)was inclined like Kaho Miyake
to offer moral tales. Her original works, there-
fore, were generally narrow and self-conscious
and concluded with lessons and warnings. But
translating freed her from herself. Translations
permitted her the space to play without being
unduly aware of her lady-scholar self. Cer-
tainly, she consciously sought out works that she
thought represented her own values and ideas, but
she was free to imbue her renditions with an
emotional intensity that she could not impart to
her original works. In the process, she was also
able to express something of herself.
Shizuko was not a feminist by todays stand-
ards nor even by Meiji-era standards. As the liter-
ary scholar Ryohei Shioda (18991971) notes,
she did not try to establish a new morality like
Akiko Yosano [18781942] and the later Seito
women [self-styled new women associated
with or influenced by the magazine Seito (Blue-
stocking)]. Nor did she cast a doubting eye on the
existing moral system like the other women
writers of her own generation. Rather, Shizuko
worked within the system.
3
By working within
the system, and behind the veil of translation,
Shizuko was able to find the space she needed to
accomplish what she desired. Critics did not try
to silence her or change her or redirect heras
they had tried with Kahofor there was no need
to do so. She did not threaten. Rather, she pre-
sented herself as the ideal, the exemplary new
woman. As one of her American teachers
observed: A new woman undoubtedly she was,
not in the sense, however, which has come to be
attached to that term on account of the appear-
ance of a few monstrosities in modern civiliza-
tion, but a new woman in the highest and best
sense. A regenerated woman directed by the
forces of a new life.
4
Masks, of course, have a way of manipulating
even their wearer. Shizukos mask, her transla-
tors veil, in allowing her to be creative also com-
pelled her to retain those signifiers that marked
her as properly feminine. She was successful as a
translator, it was believed, because she was so
femininewilling, as Doppo tells us, to forgo
publicity, arrogance, and fantasy and thereby able
to yield her own ego to that of a greater mind, an
original author. And so it is that Shokoshi
remainsa well-loved childrens story and an
important forerunner to the modern narrative
but the name of its translator has faded from his-
torical memory.
NOTES
1. Masahide Yamamoto, Wakamatsu Shizuko no
Honyaku Shosetsu Genbun Itchi Bun no Shiteki Igi [The
Historical Significance of Colloquial Language in Shizuko
Wakamatsus Translation of English Novels], Sen-
shuKokubun 14 (September 1973): 2325.
2. Doppo Kunikida, Joshi to Honyaku no Koto
[About Women and Translation], in Kunikida Doppo
Zenshu [The Collected Works of Doppo Kunikida] (1898;
reprint, Tokyo: Gakushu Kenkyusha, 1965), 2:364.
3. Ryohei Shioda, Wakamatsu Shizuko, in Shintei
Meiji Joryu Sakka Ron [A Study of Meiji Women Writers,
Revised Edition] (Tokyo: Neiraku Shobo, 1965; reprint,
Tokyo: Bunseido, 1983), 176.
4. Eugene S. Booth, foreword to In Memory of Mrs.
Kashi Iwamoto, ed. Yoshiharu Iwamoto (1896; reprint,
Tokyo: Ryukei Shosha, 1981), xi.
RESEARCH REPORTS
(Continued from page 6)
Kenji Takahashi, 95, scholar of German litera-
ture, March 2. He introduced Japanese readers to
numerous classics of German literature, including
Hesses Beneath the Wheel and works by Goethe,
Heine, and the Brothers Grimm. Takahashi was
particularly admired for his accessible, easy-
to-read translations and won an international
translation award in 1974. His lifelong quest to
bring great works of literature to a larger audi-
ence included efforts to introduce Japanese litera-
ture to readers overseas, as exemplified by his
translation into German of Ogai Moris 1916 story
Takasebune [The Takase Boat]. He was named
a Person of Cultural Merit in 1985. (A: Mar. 11)
The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 11
BOOKS IN OTHER LANGUAGES
BOOK REVIEWS
Subsidized Under the Japan Foundation
Publication Assistance Program
Picturing Japaneseness: Monumental Style,
National Identity, Japanese Film. Darrell
William Davis. New York: Columbia University
Press, 1996. viii + 304 pp. ISBN 0-231-10231-3.
It is a welcome phenomenon that a number of
scholarly books on Japanese cinema have been
published in the last decade, particularly by film
scholars in the United States who are interested
in examining the film medium as a site where
culture, politics, aesthetics, and history are
encountered. Darrell William Daviss Picturing
Japaneseness is one such effort.
The relationship between cinema and history,
between art and politics at any given time and in
any given culture is highly complex and subject
to both speculation and analysis. The early
Showa era (192689), especially in the 1930s, is
one of the most enigmatic and problematic
periods in Japanese history, a past with which the
Japanese still havent come to terms. Davis finds
this era particularly significant because defining
Japaneseness was at its highest stake, though
it has never ceased to fascinate the Japanese.
Assuming that filmic representations of Japa-
nese identity in the 1930s can reveal the compo-
sition of that identityits structure, function, and
intended effectsin ways that are not visible
to more conventional historical investigations
(pp. 89), Davis explores this difficult era of
heightened nationalism within a conceptual
framework of national cinema. He argues for
the existence of the monumental style, directly
relating it to a national attempt to return to the
pre-Meiji [pre-late-nineteenth-century] Japanese
cultural heritage, a return to a kind of symboli-
cally vibrant era of cultural supremacy and spirit-
ual tradition best exemplified by kokutai
(national policy) ideology. Although one may
immediately associate this with numerous propa-
ganda or kokusaku (national policy) films pro-
duced in the period, Davis contends that films in
the monumental style are different from those
films because they are more subtle and com-
pelling. The monumental style, for Davis, self-
reflectively embodies an aura of Japaneseness,
a form of spirituality in traditional Japanese her-
itage, in a nutshell a cinematic spiritualization
of Japanese identity. Daviss approach to creat-
ing a definition of the national cinema in the
1930s through style is challenging and
provocative, providing a new model of historical
research that prompts reconsideration of previous
discussions of the subject.
The first half of the book is devoted to con-
struction of the theory of monumental style and
to the historical background from which it
emerged. In an attempt to articulate cinematic
Japaneseness, Davis sheds light on a Japanese
indigenous film genre, jidai geki (period drama),
and its political and cultural ramifications. His
succinct summary of the milieu that characterized
the Japanese cinema in a certain vein from the
Taisho era (191226) to the Showa era is an
excellent introduction for anyone interested in the
social and cultural climate of the period. Thus
Davis demonstrates that film indeed could not
have been a better site for expressing the contra-
dictions and ambivalence between West and East,
between tradition and modernism. The conflict
was, moreover, most apparent in the development
of the jidai geki from a simple recording of tradi-
tional theater to an appropriation of Western
modes of representation. According to Davis,
films in the monumental style bear testimony to
the very process of internalization of ideology by
appropriating form itself. Unlike blatant propa-
ganda films, those in the monumental style spoke
more deeply to the Japanese psyche by offering a
model of aesthetic appropriation and invoking the
mystic past of Bushido (the way of the warrior)
as a spiritual form of Japanese culture.
The other half of the book is devoted to in-
depth analysis of films exemplifying the monu-
mental style. Instead of tracing great directors
artistic and biographical trajectories, Davis
attempts to show how the cinematic spiritualiza-
tion of Japanese identity is expressed through
the monumental style. The style is best exem-
plified in nine films: Genroku Chushingura (The
Loyal Forty-Seven Ronin of the Genroku Era, in
two parts, 1941 and 1942) and Zangiku Mono-
gatari (The Story of the Last Chrysanthemum,
1939) by Kenji Mizoguchi (18981956); Abe
Ichizoku (The Abe Clan, 1938) by Hisatora
Kumagai (190486); and six other films, includ-
ing two postwar jidai geki by Akira Kurosawa
(b. 1910), Kagemusha (The Shadow Warrior,
1980) and Ran (1985), in which Davis sees the
legacy of the monumental style. It is precisely at
this point that his difficult approach to relating
ideology to style reveals itself as contradictory,
however. In fact, his work is characterized by a
multiplicity of definitions, multiple parts of a
stylistic complex. Among these definitions are
The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 12
three pillars of military rule, an extreme concen-
tration of Japanese nationality, a hieratic, sacra-
mental appropriation of a classical heritage, and
a style that works primarily with clusters of
techniques and episodes. Sometimes it is a ques-
tion of articulation of space and perception, and
sometimes it is a sacramental depiction of the
Japanese family system, and the reader is con-
stantly called upon to rethink the very basis of
the argument. This multitude of definitions might
be attributed to the complexity of the object of
his analysis itself, i.e., Japanese identity and the
representation of Japaneseness. But the monu-
mental style seems ultimately to work differently
in each example, thereby stretching the definition
rather than integrating the argument.
The multiple definitions are further compli-
cated by Daviss implication that such harking
back to a mythical or culturally symbolic past is a
particularly Japanese enterprise. The notion of a
cultural sacrament between a mystic past and a
militaristic present may be appropriate in cultures
that value hieratic sacraments, but such an argu-
ment in a Japanese context is rather reductive.
Furthermore, Davis often uses Western religious
metaphors (God, kingdom, sacrament, redemp-
tion, salvation, etc.) when he defines the monu-
mental style, as well as in his in-depth analysis.
Such a translation or transposition of one cultural
paradigm onto another may obscure the complex-
ity of influences in the culture under analysis.
Another potential source of confusion lies in
his argument regarding the intrinsic system of the
monumental style, and this becomes problematic
in his discussion of two films, especially Genroku
Chushingura, by Mizoguchi, one of the most
brilliant cinematic stylists in Japan. Mizoguchis
escape into formalism to avoid making obvious
propaganda is well-known; however, he is very
much a product of his time and thus not exempt
from the nationalist fervor of the period. Such
contextual dimensions as the question of genre,
especially of the rekishi eiga (history films), of
the process of production, and, most important,
of authorship should not be ignored in the actual
analysis. In fact, a copius literature is available in
Japanese on the subjects of Mizoguchi and the
Chushingura films, for example, and depending
only on English sources may predispose a mono-
lithic reading of a highly complex filmic text.
Despite his admirable and rigorous scholarship
in dealing with the relationship between aes-
thetics and ideology, Davis seems to be at times
caught by the seduction of defining Japanese-
ness as such. His renderings of Japaneseness are
sometimes reduced to the pure representation of
Japaneseness in the most exotic sense (Zen, Japa-
nese architecture, gardens, temples, decorative
art, samurai, etc.). However, in spite of such criti-
cism, the overall importance of Daviss work
cannot be denied. Given the difficulty and com-
plexity of the time and the textual richness of the
films he analyzes, this book can be a point of
departure for any scholar, Japanese or not, who
wants to grapple with understanding the ways in
which cinematic form is one of the most multi-
layered cultural productions. In fact, Picturing
Japaneseness says as much about the myth of
Japaneseness that still prevails as about the Japa-
nese cultural environment of the 1930s, and it is
this that makes the book most engaging and
revealing.
Ayako Saito
Visiting Curator
National Film Center
The National Museum of Modern
Art, Tokyo
Ravine and Other Stories. Yoshikichi Furui.
Trans. Meredith McKinney. Berkeley, California:
Stone Bridge Press, 1997. 142 pp. ISBN 1-
880656-29-9.
All the world is a ravine, and we are but climbers
scaling its heights or descending to its depths. In-
deed the hills echo with the sound of our troubled
cries for help. What is it that we human beings
have to offer to each other in the face of triumph,
despair, sickness, suicide, or death?
World as ravine is a central metaphor in the
prose of novelist Yoshikichi Furui (b. 1937), and
translator Meredith McKinney has aptly chosen
Ravine and Other Stories as the title of her
anthology, which also includes Grief Field,
The Bellwether, and On Nakayama Hill. In
the nearly three decades since Furui was first rec-
ognized by Yukio Mishima (192570) and his
novel Yokothe story of a girl found in a ravine
bottomwas awarded the Akutagawa Prize in
1970, this writer has established a solid reputa-
tion in Japaneven a cult following. Yet with
the exception of Howard Hibbetts translation of
Tsumagomi [Wedlock],
1
Furuis works have
been largely unavailable in English. Their ascent
of the steep rockface to international recognition
has been slow, but now Ravine and Other Stories
has given them a powerful boost.
BOOK REVIEWS
The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 13
BOOK REVIEWS
Typical Furui characters are married, some-
what marginalized but moderately successful
salary men who have entered the dangerous
years of middle-age, cancer, and the loss of
youth. Like their author, they were once amateur
mountain climbersveterans of the 1960s who
knew the dizzying heights of both Japans Alps
and its rapid-growth economy. Male bonding is
central to their lives, but as in the works of
Kyoka Izumi (18731939) or Kenji Nakagami
(194692), the spectre of a mysterious woman
glimpsed in a ravine or leaping over a precipice
and almost never the wifehovers in the back-
ground provoking, nurturing, and/or haunting the
mens dreamlike and highly lyrical journeys into
the cul-de-sac of memory, or what we might call
the snow country of the mind. A woman found
deep in a mountain passage is, as Furui writes,
an image that most everyone has seen in a
dream, and it is the source of all tales wondrous
and strange. Not the product of individual imagi-
nation, it is communal property that transcends
the individual like a path that links us to the
ancients who spun tales of miracles and karmic
beginnings.
2
An air of unreality hangs over what
he calls his first-person projections (toei), and
we find ourselves mesmerized by his narcotic
prose, drawn along like a sleepwalker who, in the
parlous moments prior to wakefulness, slips in
and out of a dream.
There is no question that Furui owes a great
deal to Hermann Broch (18861951) and Robert
Musil (18801942). A student of German litera-
ture at the University of Tokyo and then a teacher
at Kanazawa University and Rikkyo University,
Furui began his literary career by translating
Brochs Der Versucher [The Seducer] and Musils
Der Mann ohne Eigenschaften [The Man Without
Qualities]. The Bellwether, for example, takes
from Broch its central image of the animal that is
belled and sent out to lead the herd. As a com-
muter among the silent faces at a Tokyo subway
station, Furuis salaried worker ruminatesin a
text that is more essay than storyon the extraor-
dinary orderliness of the crowd, and he wonders
aloud at the sort of person who can set the pack
to stampeding. Even in the ravine of the subway,
Furui raises the question of our relatedness. Has
not each of us, in moving with a crowd, mentally
sought to outstrip our anonymous neighborsto
get one step aheador taken instant dislike to
those who saunter and will not let us pass? And
when frustration turns to heady omnipotence,
who is not ready to push that bright red button
and in a fantasy annihilate the madding crowd?
Still and all, there is something powerfully
Japanese about Furuis prose. To write a novel
is a highly shameful act, he says in an essay on
his literary stance. No one wants to lie unneces-
sarily. Likewise, no one wants to reveal the truth
of his innermost life. The pen of the novelist is
slowed by the lead weight of these two contradic-
tory forces. In wrestling with two fundamental
kinds of shame, modern Japanese novelists have
been far more subtle and wet than their Western
counterparts. Westerners have been saved by an
ongoing tradition of Art, namely, a supraindi-
vidualistic presence that transcends the individ-
ual. When they write, they are not thrown back
onto the individual self the way Japanese novel-
ists are. Still, this means the Japanese writer has
the advantage of starting from the human stance
of the first-person before formulating any artistic
stance.
3
If Furuis ideas are couched in the over-
worked discourse of the We/They-as-Other of the
Nihonjinron so pandemic to Japan, it is none-
theless interesting to see how he stands the tradi-
tional paradigm of the Japanese I-novel as
unindividuated and nonessentialist on its head to
argue, contrary to the received wisdom, that it is
the very freedom from transcendent Art, Logic,
Truth, or God that allows the Japanese novelist to
be a more subtle explorer of the nature of the
individual self. Strict logicality in the West, he
writes ironically, awaits a passion for self-
abandonment.
4
For Furui, logic alone will not
suffice to grasp the nature of human life. He is
drawn simultaneously to the musicality of
prose, especially as he finds it in the rhythms of
the oral narration, or katari, of classical Japanese.
An enviable master of English diction, transla-
tor McKinney evokes all that is glowingly lyrical
and deliciously soporific about these stories. A
sanctity of timbre (neiro no tattosa) and an
almost paralyzed quietness (mahikan ni nita
shizukesa) reign in the beauty of the prose and
the transparency of the translation.
NOTES
1. Wedlock, in Contemporary Japanese Literature, ed.
Howard Hibbett (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), 340.
Other English language translations of Furuis works are
Yuki no Shita no Kani [Crab Under Snow], trans. Mark
Harbison, Japan Echo 12, Special Issue (1985): 4661;
Yoru no Kaori [Night Fragrance], trans. Kathy Merken,
Literary Review 30, no. 2 (1987): 14183; and Child
of DarknessYoko and Other Stories, trans. with commen-
tary by Donna George Storey (Ann Arbor: Center for Japa-
nese Studies, University of Michigan Press, 1998).
2. Yoshikichi Furui, Yoko no Iru Tani [Yoko in the
Ravine], in Furui Yoshikichi Sakuhin [Works of Yoshikichi
Furui] (Tokyo: Kawade Shobo Shinsha, 1983), 7:30. Origi-
nally published in Chunichi Shinbun, February 24, 1971.
3. Yoshikichi Furui, Watakushi no Bungakuteki
Tachiba [My Literary Stance], Ibid., 19. Originally
published in Tokyo Shinbun, November 56, 1970, evening
edition.
4. Yoshikichi Furui, Honyaku kara Sosaku e [From
Translation to Creative Work], Ibid., 2829. Originally
published in Asahi Shimbun, February 15, 1971, evening
edition.
William J. Tyler
Associate Professor of Japanese
Literature
Ohio State University
Reflections on Japanese Taste: The Structure
of Iki. Shuzo Kuki. Trans. John Clark. Sydney:
Power Publications, 1997. 168 pp. ISBN 0-
909952-30-2.
This book is an English translation of Iki no Kozo
[The Structure of Iki], the best-known work of
the Taisho- and Showa-era (191289) philoso-
pher Shuzo Kuki (18881941). The study first
appeared in the philosophy journal Shiso
[Thought], nos. 92 and 93, and was published in
book form by Iwanami Shoten in 1930. It ana-
lyzes the structure of the Japanese concept of iki,
using the phenomenological method that Kuki
had mastered while studying in Europe. The book
consists of six chapters: Introduction, The
Intensional Structure of Iki, The Extensional
Structure of Iki, The Natural Expression of Iki,
The Artistic Expression of Iki, and Conclu-
sion. The author first presents iki as the product
of the following three elements: the dualistic
relations seen in flirtation between the sexes; ikiji
(brave composure) as seen primarily in Bushido
(the warrior ethical code); and akirame (resig-
nation), derived in part from Buddhist thought.
He further distinguishes it from such aesthetic
concepts as johin (refined), hade (showy), and
shibumi (astringent) and analyzes its modes of
expression, both natural and artistic. This
approach reflects Kukis intention to apprehend
the culture of Japan through an entirely rational
process; the result was a major contribution both
to the history of Japanese thought and to theories
of Japanese culture.
As a work of Japanese cultural theory by an
author intimately familiar with modern Western
culture and philosophy, Iki no Kozo is a classic
that ranks with the works of the earlier cultural
interpreters Tenshin Okakura (18621913) and
Inazo Nitobe (18621933). As such, it deserves
to be widely known and studied outside Japan,
and it is thus one of the texts for which a good
English edition has long been needed. The publi-
cation of this English translation, making Kukis
study available to a wide audience in the West, is
a significant and felicitous step in introducing
Japanese culture abroad and fostering under-
standing between the cultures of East and West.
The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 14
BOOK REVIEWS
Introducing the Japan Performing Arts Net
http://www.jpan.org
The Basic Information Page of the Japan Performing Arts Net (JPAN) provides
general information about the performing arts of Japan, as well as links to the World
Wide Web home pages of a network of participating individuals and organizations in
the performing arts.
For further information, please contact:
Japan Performing Arts Net
E-mail: jpan@acejapan.or.jp
Fax: +81 (03) 5562-4423
The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 15
The Asian Performing Artists Co-Production Program
FOUNDATION ACTIVITIES
The Asian Performing Artists
Co-Production Program for fis-
cal 199798 invited stage
director and playwright Hideki
Noda to produce and present a
joint Japanese-Thai production
of his work Akaoni (Red
Giant). The project is cospon-
sored by the Setagaya Public
Theater.
Akaoni, whose primary
theme is cultural conflict, was
directed jointly by Noda and
Nimit Pipitkul, a stage director
and playwright from Thailand.
The cast consisted of fourteen
Thai actors and actresses and
one British actor, in the role of
Akaoni. The play was per-
formed in the Thai language in
Tokyo in December 1997 and
in Bangkok in May through June 1998.
Designed specifically for Thailand, this project
sought to (1) create new performing arts through
a blending of Japanese and Thai cultural sensibil-
ities; (2) promote mutual understanding and
establish a network of performing artists in the
two countries; (3) help promote modern Thai
theater arts, provide training in technical theater
(particularly lighting and sound), and inspire
Thai theatergoers and specialists in the perform-
ing arts; and (4) stimulate modern Japanese thea-
ter, which has been heavily influenced by Western
theater. The third of these goals, in particular,
was clearly achieved. The nine-
teen performances in Bangkok
were widely acclaimed in the
media, and their immense suc-
cess had a major impact on
modern Thai performing arts.
The high-tech stage equiment
from Japan operated by the
Thai stage crew and the high
quality of the stage production
are among the projects consid-
erable achievements.
In both Tokyo and Bangkok
all performances sold out, and
the production received consid-
erable media attention. It was
praised as an important inter-
national collaboration, an
endeavor widely considered
difficult to achieve success-
fully. For this joint production,
it was necessary to overcome differences among
the languages, customs, and artistic perspectives
of the participants countries. The unfailing
enthusiasm of the Japanese and Thai directors,
performers, and staff members helped them find
ways to communicate effectively.
Such collaborative international productions
not only yield new forms of artistic expression
through the melding of different cultural perspec-
tives but also foster the establishment of collabo-
rative relationships among the participants. Thus
they have attracted considerable attention as an
effective means of achieving deep cultural
The Asian Performing Artists Co-Production Program was inaugurated in 1995 under the
Peace, Friendship, and Exchange Initiative announced in 1994 as part of Prime Minister
Tomiichi Murayamas foreign policy. The program aims to provide opportunities for artists
from other Asian countries to rehearse and perform together with Japanese groups, and in
this way help the two groups develop new forms of artistic expression through mutual
understanding.
Under the program, performers and technicians involved in performing arts in other
Asian countries go to Japan for technological training and then mount joint productions
with Japanese groups. The works created through such collaborative efforts are performed
in Japan and in the non-Japanese artists home countries.
Akaoni: A Japanese-Thai Theatrical Collaboration
The Japan Foundation Newsletter XXVI/No. 1 16
exchange. Recently, many theatrical companies
in Japan have sought to undertake collaborative
productions, but the participants often seem to
encounter certain difficulties communicating
their intentions clearly. With the experience
gained through the Akaoni production, the Japan
Foundation would like to promote the Asian Per-
forming Artists Co-Production Program more
effectively and in this way contribute to further
cultural exchange.
FOUNDATION ACTIVITIES
The Japan Foundation Newsletter is distributed free of
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providing the credit line
reads, reprinted from The
Japan Foundation Newsletter,
Vol. xx, No. xx, and the
Japan Foundation is notified.
Printed in Japan.
Newly Published
An Introductory Bibliography for Japanese Studies
Vol. X, Part 2: Humanities 199394
The twentieth in the series of bibliographies compiled by the Toho Gakkai and published under
the auspices of the Japan Foundation has been completed. This series is intended to facilitate
access by non-Japanese researchers to scholarly works in the humanities and social sciences.
The present book covers works published in Japan in 1993 and 1994 in the humanities, including
archaeology, ancient history, medieval history, early modern history, modern and contemporary
history, religion, philosophy, Japanese language, ancient and medieval literature, early modern
literature, modern and contemporary literature, history of fine art, and performing arts.
Copies of this volume, which are currently not for sale, will be donated mainly to the libraries of
the worlds major Japanese studies institutions.
Qualified research institutions and libraries may receive previous volumes of the bibliography
upon request as long as stocks are available. Inquiries should be directed by letter or fax to:
The officer in charge of Bibliography
Media Department
The Japan Foundation
ARK Mori Bldg. 20F
1-12-32 Akasaka, Minato-ku, Tokyo 107-6021, Japan
Fax: +81 (03) 5562-3501