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Section B: Animal Physiology
Chapter 3: Breathing and gas exchange
1 respiratory system lungs carbon dioxide breathing structures/air passages
air passages/breathing structures
2 alveoli millions of tiny air sacs making up the gas exchange tissue
trachea the main air passage leading in from the mouth and nose
lungs the body organs where gas exchange takes place
diaphragm large sheet of muscle separating thorax from abdomen
bronchioles the smallest air passages in the lungs
thorax the upper part of the body containing the lungs
3 a) Breathing in: ribs lifted up and outwards (by muscles between ribs); diaphragm muscle
contracts pulling diaphragm down and flat; chest volume increases so pressure falls; air rushes
into lungs to e!ualise pressure"
b) Breathing out: ribs lower down as muscles relax; diaphragm relaxes and domes upwards again;
chest volume gets smaller so pressure increases; air s!uee#ed out of lungs
4 a) $orrectly plotted bar chart
b) %erson B fittest lowest breathing rate at rest least affected by exercise
%erson & least fit highest breathing rate at rest most affected by exercise
c) 't would get deeper"
d) (ur tissues need more oxygen since they are respiring more to provide more energy as the
muscles are working" )he breathing rate and depth go up to supply the extra oxygen and get rid
of the extra carbon dioxide being made"
5 & * B + $ , - .
6 (xygen is taken from the air in the lungs into the blood so the level of oxygen in the air breathed out
is lower than the level in the air breathed in" 'n the lungs carbon dioxide moves from the blood into
the air so the air breathed out contains more carbon dioxide than the air breathed in" &bout the same
amount of each gas is moved each way so it is known as gas exchange"
7 a) & thin/walled capillary
B carbon dioxide diffuses out
$ air in
- air out
0 single/cell thick wall of alveolus
1 oxygen diffuses in
b) )hree from:
)hin walls of capillary and alveolus so short distance for gases to diffuse
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2ater lines the alveolus so gases can dissolve making diffusion easier
3ich blood supply maintains concentration gradient making diffusion in both directions more
efficient
4arge surface area for diffusion to take place over
8 a) )ar nicotine carbon monoxide any other correct suggestion
b) &ny correct suggestions e"g" stops the cilia in the trachea working so dirt and pathogens get
into the lungs; nicotine affects the heart making it beat faster; carbon monoxide takes up
haemoglobin so smoker doesn5t have enough oxygen and can be breathless; tar can cause the
alveoli to break down leading to $(%- (emphysema); tar causes lung cancer throat cancer etc"
c) i) $arbon monoxide is picked up by the haemoglobin in the blood instead of oxygen" 4ess
oxygen is available to give the fetus so it is constantly short of oxygen which affects its
growth"
ii) )he fetus can become addicted to nicotine so the baby is fractious and does not settle and
feed" )he cigarette smoke will go into the baby5s lungs and will affect them in the same
way as it does the mother" )he baby will be more likely to get chest infections etc" )he
baby will also be affected by nicotine and become addicted"
9 a) 6ucus fills the alveoli stopping gas exchange from taking place" 't also blocks the bronchioles
stopping air from getting to the alveoli" )he mucus is very thick so the body cannot clear it by
coughing therefore the patient gets increasingly breathless as the mucus builds up before
physiotherapy"
b) )he larger air sacs have a smaller surface area than many small ones so less gas exchange can
take place" 'f the bigger sacs also fill with water people find it even more difficult to get the
oxygen they need from the air" )his is why they feel breathless and may need to breathe oxygen"
c) 'f the tubes of the respiratory system become narrower as the linings swell it is more difficult to
pull enough air through them to fill the lungs properly" )he whee#ing noise is caused by air
moving through narrow tubes" )he extra mucus also makes gas exchange very difficult so
people feel very short of breath until they can use their medication"
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Chapter 4: Food and digestion
1 healthy energy chemicals carbohydrates/fats fats/carbohydrates malnutrition
2 a) $arbohydrates are found in foods such as cereals, fruits and root vegetables.
b) Both carbohydrates and fats supply energy but the energy in the carbohydrates can be used
more easily by the body.
c) 1ats are found in foods such as cheese, butter and margarine.
d) )oo much too little or the wrong sort of food causes malnutrition.
e) %roteins important for growth and replacing cells are found in meat, fish, eggs and pulses.
3 a) $alcium for strong bones and teeth iron for red blood cells
b) 1at/soluble & or -; water/soluble any of the B vitamins or $
7itamin & makes a chemical in the retina protecting the surface of the eye" 7itamin - helps
bones absorb calcium and phosphate" 7itamins B, B+ and B. help with cell respiration"
7itamin $ sticks together the cells lining surfaces such as the mouth and can help protect
against infections"
c) (besity
d) 8he could eat less fat and carbohydrate more protein more fruit and vegetables any sensible
suggestion"
4 a) 98& and :apan
b) $orrectly drawn bar chart
c) 9ganda (;"< per ,== ===) and 'ndia (;"> per ,== ===)
d) 98& (**"* per ,== ===) and 0ngland and 2ales (.."? per ,== ===)
e) 6ainly the link between a high/fibre diet and a low incidence of bowel cancer is clearer than
the link between a low/fibre diet and a high incidence of bowel cancer"
5 a) & stomach B large intestine/colon $ small intestine/ileum - anus 0 pancreas
1 mouth @ oesophagus A liver
b) 8tomach mixing food and digesting protein" 4arge intestine/colon reabsorbing water" 8mall
intestine/ileum some digestion absorbing digested food products" &nus expelling faeces"
%ancreas producing digestive en#ymes and insulin" 6outh ingesting and chewing food
digesting starch by amylase" (esophagus swallowing food" 4iver producing bile processing
digested food"
6 protease protein amino acids
carbohydrase carbohydrates glucose
lipase fats glycerol and fatty acids
7 a) Bile is an alkaline li!uid so it neutralises the acidic material arriving from the stomach and so
keeps the pA neutral/slightly alkaline"
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b) i) 't breaks fats down physically into small droplets"
ii) 't gives a large surface area for the action of digestive en#ymes chemically breaking down
fats"
8 )he large surface area of the villi greatly increases the surface area of the gut for dissolved food to
pass through" )he villi have a rich blood supply to carry away the absorbed food (maintaining a
concentration gradient)" )hey have very thin walls so short diffusion distances food can easily
reach the bloodstream"
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Chapter 5: Blood and circulation
1 transported blood glucose oxygen waste products circulatory heart
2 a) As you look at the page red on the right blue on the left with colours merging in the capillary
areas
b) 't is carried to the cells and oxygen diffuses from the blood to the body cells" -eoxygenated
blood is then returned to the heart"
c) (xygen diffuses into the blood in the lungs"
d) Because the blood is circulated round the lungs returns to the heart and is then circulated round
the body so there are two separate circulation systems"
3 a) & B artery B B vein $ B capillary
b) &rteries carry blood away from the heart usually oxygenated blood" 7eins carry blood towards
the heart usually deoxygenated blood" $apillaries carry blood to the individual cells of the
body; substances diffuse in and out of the blood in capillaries"
c) &rteries have thick walls that can withstand the high pressure of blood stretching as the blood
surges through them and returning to shape to keep the blood moving along" 7eins have thinner
walls at lower pressure with valves to prevent the backflow of blood" $apillaries are very small
to fit between cells with walls only one cell thick giving short diffusion distances"
4 a) Blood enters the heart through the atria.
b) )he atria contract and force blood into the ventricles.
c) )he ventricles contract and force blood out of the heart.
d) )he blood leaving the right side of the heart is pumped to the lungs.
e) )he blood leaving the left side of the heart is pumped around the body.
5 a) 'f there is a Chole in the heart5 oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are no longer kept separate"
)hey can mix so the level of oxygen in the blood going round the body is not as high as it
should be" )his explains the blue colour and the lack of energy" 'f surgeons close up the hole the
heart works perfectly normally and the blood no longer mixes"
b) )he heart muscle itself is starved of oxygen and so cannot work properly" )his is why the chest
pain develops" 'f the damaged blood vessels are replaced with healthy ones or opened using a
stent the blood flow to the heart muscle is restored and the muscle is no longer starved of
oxygen and can work properly again"
6 plasma
)hese cells have no nucleus" )hey are packed with the red pigment haemoglobin which carries
oxygen"
)hese cells have a nucleus and help defend the body against microbes that cause disease"
platelets
7 a) $arbon dioxide the cells; urea the liver (cells); digested food the gut
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b) $arbon dioxide is transported to the lungs from where it diffuses out into the air" 9rea is
removed from the blood in the kidneys and passes out of the body in the urine" -igested food is
transported in the plasma to the liver and then to the cells where it is needed"
8 & oxygen in B red blood cells with oxyhaemoglobin $ oxygen out - red blood cells with
haemoglobin (without oxygen)
9 a) %eople living at high altitude develop a high red blood cell count because they need more red
blood cells to be able to get enough oxygen from the air" 2ithout the extra cells they would be
breathless as soon as they tried to do anything and might collapse as often happens when people
who live at low altitudes visit very high regions"
b) )he athlete will have a high red blood cell count because they will have more blood than
normal" )his means that their blood can carry more oxygen than normal giving them an illegal
advantage during the race"
c) 'ron is needed to make haemoglobin the red pigment in red blood cells" )he body of an anaemic
person cannot make as much haemoglobin as normal and so cannot have enough red blood cells"
)he person feels tired and lacking in energy because their cells are short of the oxygen needed
for cellular respiration"
10 a) %hagocytes extend their cytoplasm (pseudopodia) around pathogens and enclose them in a
vacuole" )hey secrete digestive en#ymes into the vacuole and break down and digest the
pathogen" 4ymphocytes respond to antigens on the surface of a pathogen" )hey make antibodies
which destroy the pathogen or make it more likely to be digested by a phagocyte" &lso some
lymphocytes form memory cells which gives rise to a very rapid secondary immune response if
the pathogen gets into the body again" 4arge numbers of the right antibody are released very
rapidly so the pathogen is destroyed before it can cause the symptoms of disease"
b) 7accination introduces a weakened or dead strain of a pathogen" Dour immune system responds
to the antigen and produces the right antibodies and memory cells without being exposed to a
serious disease" 'f you then meet the live pathogen the immune system is ready and a rapid
secondary immune response makes sure you don5t become ill"
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Chapter 6: Coordination
1 light sound ears chemicals enable us to taste nose touch pressure pain
and temperature changes
2 nervous system stimulus senses receptors coordinates controls
3 a) )hey detect changes in the environment (or stimuli) e"g" eyes respond to light ears to sound"
b) 't receives information from all the sensory organs makes sense of the information and controls
the responses of various parts of our bodies" 't also provides us with an image of the world
around us"
c) )hey carry impulses from the sense organs to the central nervous system"
d) )hey carry impulses from the central nervous system to the muscles"
4 a) & voluntary action involves conscious thought and control by the central nervous system" &
reflex action is very fast and does not involve conscious thought"
b) )hey allow important repetitive actions breathing control of the heart gut etc" to take place
without using up conscious thought and they allow a very rapid response to danger or pain
faster than if conscious centres were involved"
c) i) Blow below kneecap receptor in skin/tendon sensory neurone relay neurone in
spinal cord motor neurone muscles of leg knee Eerks
ii) %ain from sharp point receptor in skin sensory neurone relay neurone in spinal
cord motor neurone muscles of leg foot withdrawn
iii) 8ound/movement eyes/ears sensory neurone relay neurone in brain motor
neurone muscles of eyelids blink
5 a) &nswers along the lines of:
, 3eceptors in the skin detect stimulus"
+ 'mpulses pass along sensory neurones to spinal cord"
. 3elay neurones in spinal cord transfer impulses from sensory neurones to motor neurones"
* 'mpulses pass from spinal cord along motor neurones to reach muscles"
< 1inally impulses cause muscles to contract: hand is pulled away without conscious
thought"
b) 'mpulses also pass from the hand and muscles to the brain" $ombined with impulses from the
eyes seeing what is happening you have a conscious realisation of the hot plate and the reflex
action a very short time after it has happened"
6 retina sclera iris cornea lens optic nerve pupil ciliary muscles
suspensory ligaments
7 a) i)
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ii)
iii)
b) )he iris contains both circular and radial muscles" 2hen the circular muscles relax and the
radial muscles are fully contracted the pupil is pulled as wide and dilated as possible" 2hen the
radial muscles are fully relaxed and the circular muscles are fully contracted the pupil is pulled
in as small as possible" -ifferent levels of relaxation and contraction of the muscles allow the
si#e of the pupil to be varied widely"
8 a) 'f the lens is cloudy light cannot get through into the eye making it impossible to see" (&ble
pupils may comment that the blindness will be progressive as the lens becomes increasingly
cloudy")
b) )he lens focuses light on the retina" 'f the eyeball is egg/shaped or bulbous light from distant
obEects will tend to be focused in front of the retina so lenses are needed to bend the light from
distant obEects before it enters the eye"
c) )he retina contains light/sensitive cells so if it becomes detached there are no working sensory
cells to detect light and it becomes impossible to see"
9 a) )he light from nearby obEects needs to be bent strongly to focus on the retina" 2hen looking at
nearby obEects the ciliary muscles contract so the suspensory ligaments are slack and the lens
becomes thicker bending light more strongly" )his brings nearby obEects into focus on the
retina"
b) )he light from distant obEects needs to be bent only weakly to focus on the retina" 2hen looking
at distant obEects the ciliary muscles relax pulling in the suspensory ligaments which pull on
the lens stretching it thinner and bending light less strongly" )his brings distant obEects into
focus on the retina"
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Chapter 7: Chemical coordination
1 nervous electrical rapid chemical glands blood long/term
2 hormone a chemical message carried in the blood that causes a change in the body
insulin a hormone made in the pancreas that causes sugar to pass from the blood into cells where it
is needed for energy
oestrogen a hormone made in the ovaries that controls the development of the female secondary
sexual characteristics
3 a) &ny five from:
, 't increases the breathing rate and depth"
+ 't increases the heart rate and volume"
. Blood is diverted from the digestive system to the muscles"
* @lycogen in the liver is converted to glucose in the blood"
< 6ental awareness increases"
> )he speed of reactions increases"
; )he pupils dilate"
F )he body hair stands on end"
b) , @ets more oxygen into your body and gets rid of the extra carbon dioxide produced"
+ 8ends more oxygen and food/rich blood to the muscles for respiration to release the energy
they need and removes the carbon dioxide produced"
. -igestion doesn5t need to go on so blood is diverted to supply everything needed by the
muscles"
* %rovides more glucose for respiration in the cells to provide energy for using muscles"
< 6akes it easier to escape plan action etc"
> 6akes you more likely to be successful in Cfight or flight5"
; &llows more light into the eyes and makes them more sensitive to movement"
F 1or other animals though not for people makes the animal look larger and more
intimidating to an attacker"
4 a) Because the blood sugar level goes up after a meal so the pancreas releases insulin which
allows the sugar to go into the cells and the blood sugar level to drop"
b) )he blood sugar level keeps on rising because no insulin is produced so the sugar cannot get
into the cells and the level in the blood gets higher and higher"
c) Because the insulin inEections allow sugar to get into the cells to provide the diabetic with
energy and the blood sugar level does not get dangerously high" )he pattern is then !uite similar
to that of a person with a healthy pancreas"
5 'f someone with this mild form of diabetes manages their diet carefully they may not need to inEect
insulin" 't is important for them to eat a diet that is relatively low in carbohydrates so that their blood
sugar level does not tend to go up too much and their pancreas can cope" 't is particularly important
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to avoid sugary food which makes the blood sugar go up very rapidly" 8tarchy carbohydrates are
broken down slowly so the blood sugar does not go up so fast"
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Chapter 8: Homeostasis and excretion
1 waste respiration lungs amino acids urea kidneys urine
2 a) &s moisture in air breathed out; as sweat"
b) 'n sweat"
c) Gone; protein doesn5t pass out of the blood into the urine" @lucose is reabsorbed back into the
blood from the tubules because it is needed by the cells"
3
S!"stance Point A Point B Point C
glucose iltered rom !lood into ca"suleactively ta#en !ac# into the
!lood
all glucose !ac# in the !lood
dissolved
ions
iltered rom !lood into ca"sulethose ions needed !y the !ody
are a!sor!ed !ac# into the
!lood
some ions in the !lood$ excess
in the tu!ule go into urine
urea iltered into !lood rom ca"sulenone a!sor!ed !ac# into the
!lood
all remains in the tu!ule to
orm urine
alcohol some iltered rom !lood into
ca"sule
some a!sor!ed !ac# into the
!lood
some alcohol remains in
!lood$ some stays in tu!ule$
excreted in urine
4 a) )he volume rose well over the normal level to a peak about ?= minutes after drinking the water"
't then gradually decreased until by ,<= minutes the level was almost back to normal"
b) -rinking water makes the blood more dilute" )his stops the production of the hormone &-A"
&-A makes the tubule walls more porous so when it is not released the walls of the tubule are
less porous and less water is absorbed back into the blood" &s a result more urine is formed and
the blood concentration returns to normal"
c) &s the volume of urine increased the salt concentration decreased"
d) )he amount of salt being lost in the urine remains the same but because there is a lot more
water in the urine the salt is more diluted so the concentration falls"
e) )he volume of urine produced would fall below the normal level and continue to fall until
another drink was taken" &s the volume of urine falls the salt concentration of the urine would
increase with the same amount of salt dissolved in smaller volumes of water"
5 constant en#ymes die sweating
6 0 & - $ B
7 a) )he thermoregulatory centre in the brain is sensitive to the temperature of the blood flowing
through it" 't also receives information about skin temperature from receptors in the skin and
coordinates the body responses to keep the core temperature at .;H$"
b) )emperature sensors in the skin send impulses to the thermoregulatory centre in the brain giving
information about the temperature of the skin the surroundings and the things it touches" 't is
important for maintaining the core temperature because if the external surroundings and the
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skin are cold the body will tend to conserve heat to keep the core temperature up and vice
versa"
8 a) %erson .;H$ frog ,FH$
b) ,=H$ because reactions slow down hypothermia develops and heart beat and breathing will
stop"
c) <<H$ because once the body temperature goes over *=H$ en#ymes start to unravel and do not
work properly"
d) )he person shivers to produce heat develops goose/pimples as they try to trap a layer of air and
reduces the blood supply to their skin and extremities in order to keep the core of their body
warm" )hey also show behavioural changes such as moving about exercising putting on more
clothes turning up the heating etc"
e) )he person takes off clothing sweats to lose heat by evaporation and dilates their blood vessels
to allow lots of blood to flow near the surface of the skin and so lose heat by radiation"
Behavioural changes include finding a cool shady place"
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Chapter 9: Re"roduction in humans
1 reproduction sexual gametes chromosomes sperm/ova ova/sperm
different asexual identical parent
2 a) 1ollicle/stimulating hormone (18A) luteinising hormone (4A) and testosterone
b) 1ollicle/stimulating hormone (18A) luteinising hormone (4A) and oestrogen
c) 1or boys any three from the following:
)he whole body undergoes the adolescent growth spurt"
%ubic hair body hair and facial hair begin to grow"
)he larynx enlarges so the voice deepens"
)he shoulders and chest broaden as more muscle develops"
)he testes grow larger become active and start producing sperm and the other chemicals
for semen"
)he penis enlarges and the skin of the penis and the scrotum may darken"
)he brain changes to an adult brain"
1or girls any three from the following:
)he whole body undergoes the adolescent growth spurt"
%ubic hair and body hair (underarms) begin to grow"
)he breasts develop"
)he external genitalia become larger and the colour of the skin darkens"
)he female pattern of fat deposits on the hips buttocks and thighs develops"
)he ovaries begin the production of mature ova and menstruation begins"
)he uterus grows and begins to produce a thickened lining each month"
)he brain changes to an adult brain"
3 a) & ovary B 1allopian tube (oviduct) $ uterus (womb) - cervix 0 vagina
b) & testis B penis $ erectile tissue - sperm duct 0 seminal vesicle
i) 8emen containing sperm is eEaculated from the penis into the vagina during sexual
intercourse" )he sperm swim towards the 1allopian tubes" &n egg is released from the
ovary at ovulation and travels along the 1allopian tubes" )he sperm meet the egg and one
of them penetrates the egg" 1ertilisation takes place as they fuse together"
ii) )he placenta provides the fetus with oxygen and food from the mother5s blood and allows
the fetus to get rid of waste products such as carbon dioxide and urea" 't also anchors the
fetus to the uterus wall" )he placenta also produces progesterone the hormone that
maintains the pregnancy (extra marks will be awarded for a diagram)" (8tudents must refer
to fetus not embryo embryo describes only the first few weeks of gestation during
which time the role of the placenta is fairly small")
iii) 4abour is a three/stage process" )he cervix dilates to allow the baby through as the result
of the contraction of the muscles of the uterus" )he baby is delivered as strong contractions
of the uterus push the baby head/ first though the cervix and the vagina to the outside
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world" 1inally the uterus expels the placenta and the membranes that have surrounded the
baby as it develops"
4 a) & testis produces sperm the male gametes" 'f it is damaged no sperm may be produced"
b) &n ovary produces mature ova the female gametes" 'f it is damaged or does not work there will
be no eggs to fertilise"
c) )he oviduct is a tube along which the egg travels from the ovary to the uterus" 'f the oviduct is
damaged the egg cannot reach the uterus so there can be no pregnancy"
d) )he sperm duct is a tube along which the sperm travel from the testis to the urethra" 'f the sperm
duct is damaged the sperm cannot leave the testis"
5 a) & 18A B 4A $ oestrogen - progesterone 0 ovulation (release of egg)
1 the endometrium (lining of the uterus) is building up"
b) , (nce a month a surge of the hormone 18A from the pituitary gland in the brain starts a
few of the ova developing in the ovary" 't also stimulates the ovary to produce the female
hormone oestrogen" )his in turn stimulates the uterus to build up a thick spongy lining
with lots of blood vessels ready to support a pregnancy"
+ &bout ,* days after the ova start ripening one of them bursts out of its follicle" )his is
called ovulation and when it happens the hormone levels from the pituitary begin to drop
dramatically"
. &fter ovulation the remains of the follicle form the corpus luteum and this secretes a
different hormone (progesterone)" %rogesterone makes sure that for some days the uterus
lining stays thick and spongy and stimulates the growth of more blood vessels ready to
receive a fertilised ovum" 'f a pregnancy occurs the embryo will immediately get a rich
supply of food and oxygen"
* 2hen no pregnancy has occurred about ,= days after ovulation the ovary reduces the
levels of both oestrogen and progesterone" &s the chemical messages change again the
blood vessels that are supplying the thick spongy lining of the uterus close down" )he
lining detaches from the wall of the uterus and is lost through the vagina as the monthly
period or bleeding"
c) 'f the ovum is fertilised during the cycle (the woman becomes pregnant) it will form a zygote
and begin to divide to form an embryo" )he ball of cells will reach the uterus and sink into the
thick spongy lining attach (implant) itself and start to develop" )he level of progesterone
remains high the lining of the uterus is maintained and there is no period"
6 a) Because a woman can become pregnant only when there is an egg available to be fertilised"
8perm can survive a few days inside the body of a woman but the egg survives for only about
+* hours so pregnancy can occur only if both egg and sperm are present in that critical window"
b) Doung girls do not produce mature ova each month because they are not yet sexually mature"
(lder women cannot become pregnant because their ovaries are empty (they are past the
menopause) and they no longer have periods"
7 a) )he placenta contains blood vessels from the mother and the embryo" 't is here that the exchange
of food and oxygen takes place as the mother provides the growing baby with the materials it
needs" $arbon dioxide and urea produced by the fetus as it grows are removed in the placenta and
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carried away in the mother5s blood" )he placenta also produces more and more progesterone
taking over from the corpus luteum in the ovary" Aigh levels of progesterone are needed to
maintain pregnancy" )he placenta also acts as a barrier protecting the developing fetus from many
microorganisms and drugs which cannot cross from the mother to the fetus" )he fetus is connected
to the placenta by the umbilical cord which has a huge surface area for gas exchange to occur"
b) &s pregnancy progresses a pregnant woman needs to eat a little more food" )hroughout
pregnancy it is important to eat a good balanced diet with plenty of vitamins and minerals since
the mother has to supply the baby with everything it needs