Math 122 Final Exam

Roman Berens
December 7-9, 2013
1
1. Let G be a nite group. Let vector space C
|G|
have basis elements named e
g
for
g G. Consider the regular representation R
reg
: G GL(C
|G|
) given on basis elements by
R
reg
g
(e
h
) = e
gh
(a) Compute
reg
: G C, the character of the regular representation.
We see that the diagonal entries of the matrix of R
reg
g
are all 0, unless g = 1, in which
case they are all 1. This means that
reg
(g) = tr(R
g
) can be expressed as

reg
(g) =
_
0 g = 1
|G| g = 1
(b) Suppose G has (a complete list of non-isomorphic) irreducible representations R
i
(the
i is an index, not a power) with corresponding characters
i
Express
reg
as a linear combi-
nation of the
i
.
We know that the character of sum of irreducible representations is the sum of the char-
acters of these representations. Thus if R
reg
=

m
i
R
i
, then
reg
=

m
i

i
. Furthermore,
since irreducible representations are orthogonal, we see that m
i
=

,
i
_
(c) Conclude that the order of G is the sum of the squares of the dimensions of its
irreducible representations.
Using the standard Hermitian product on characters, we see that

reg
, =
1
|G|

reg
(g)(g) =
1
|G|

reg
(1)(1) = (1) = dim().
We then see that
|G| =
reg
(1) = dim(
reg
) = dim
_
r

i=1

reg
,
i
_

i
_
= dim
_
r

i=1
dim(
i
)
i
_
=
r

i=1
dim(
i
)
2
.
(d) Write the class equation of the octahedral group O (or equivalently of S
4
).
We know that rotations by the same angle around congruent axes of a three-dimensional
gure are conjugate. Thus we can group the elements of O in the following way:
-the identity
-3 rotations about the centers of two opposite faces by (this includes rotations about the
center of the antipodal face by )
-6 rotations about the centers of two opposite faces by /2 (this includes rotations about the
antipodal vertex by 3/2)
-6 rotations about the midpoints of two opposite edges by (this includes rotations about
the antipodal edge by )
-8 rotations about two opposite vertices by 2/3 (this includes rotations about the antipodal
vertex by 4/3)
These form the conjugacy classes of O, as we see in the Class Equation: 24 = 1+3+6+6+8.
2
(e) Find two distinct one-dimensional representations of S
4
and compute their charac-
ters.
A one-dimensional representation of S
4
is a map R : G GL(C)

= C

. The simplest
one is R
triv
, which sends every element to the one by one matrix consisting of the identity.
Another example is R
sign
, which sends each permutation to its sign. We quickly see that

triv
(g) = 1 and
sign
(g) = sign(g)
(f) Find a two-dimensional irreducible representation of S
4
and compute its character.
We consider the map from S
4
to S
4
/V

= S
3

= D
3
, where V is the Klein 4-group of pairs of
two-cycles. This map is dened using the three possible partitions of the set of four indices

1
= {1, 2} {3, 4}
2
= {1, 3} {2, 4}
3
= {1, 4} {2, 3}.
Every element of S
4
permutes the indices and also permutes the partitions. This denes a
homomorphism from S
4
to S
3
. Since S
4
is generated by (1 2), (2 3), and (3 4), we can
calculate the value the representation takes on each of these:
(1 2) = (2 3) (2 3) = (1 2) (3 4) = (2 3).
We then use the standard representation of S
3

= D
3
:
R(x) =
_
1/2

3/2

3/2 1/2
_
R(y) =
_
1 0
0 1
_
,
where x is a clockwise rotation by 2/3 and y is a reection about the vertical axis. Our
representation R
2
is then formed from R . We quickly see the following
R
2
(1 2) = R(2 3) = R(y) =
_
1 0
0 1
_
R
2
(2 3) = R(1 2) = R(yx) =
_
1/2

3/2

3/2 1/2
_
We then see that the character of this representation is 0 on the transpositions can calculate
the remaining values in a similar fashion. They are listed in the table in part (h).
(g) Consider the three-dimensional representation of S
4
given by S
4

= O SO(3)
GL
3
(R) GL
3
(C). Compute its character and show its irreducible.
We know that the elements of O correspond to the symmetries of the cube and the group
is generated by 3 transpositions, i.e. rotation about two edges by . We can use these axes
of rotation as basis vectors for other rotations. We then see that the representation on the
transpositions yields the three standard rotation matrices with = , all of which have a
trace of 1. Thus the character of this representation is 1 for all the edge rotations. If we
compose these matrices to generate the other elements, we see that the character is in fact
constant on out conjugacy classes, which means that it is irreducible. The values of the
character on the conjugacy classes are in the fourth row of the character table below.
(h) Finish the character table of O

= S
4
by listing the rows found in (e), (f), and (g) and
lling in any missing rows.
We know that the irreducible characters are constant on conjugacy classes, and that the
order of the group is equal to the sum of the squares of the dimensions of the characters.
We see that the solution in this case is 24 = 1
1
+ 1
2
+ 2
2
+ 3
2
+ 3
2
. We let x be a rotation
3
about the centers of two opposite faces by /2, y be a rotation about the midpoints of two
opposite edges by , and z be a rotation about two opposite vertices by 2/3. Knowing the
dimensions of the irreducible representations, as well as the fact that they are orthonormal,
is enough for us to complete the character table. The table is as follows.
1 x x
2
y z

1
1 1 1 1 1

2
1 1 1 1 1

3
2 0 2 0 1

4
3 1 1 1 0

5
3 1 1 1 0
4
2. (a) Show that groups of order pqr cannot be simple. (Here p, q, and r are distinct
primes.)
Let |G| = pqr Without loss of generality, let p < q < r. Let n
r
be the number of Sy-
low r-subgroups. The Third Sylow Theorem tells us that n
r
| pq and n
r
1 mod r. Thus
n
r
= 1 or pq. A similar argument yields n
q
= 1 or pr. If either of these are 1, then the
associated Sylow subgroup is normal and G is not simple. We assume that n
r
= pq and
n
q
= pr. Then the number of elements in these groups is pq(r 1) + pr(q 1) + 1. Since
q and r are prime, the Sylow p and Sylow rsubgroups have trivial intersection. We then
see that the total number of elements in these types of groups is 2pqr pq pr + 1. In the
smallest case, i.e. p = 2, q = 3, and r = 5, this expression is 45, which is clearly too many
elements. This will also be the case for larger primes. We conclude that n
r
and n
q
cannot
both take a value other than 1. Thus one of them must be equal to 1, and the associated
Sylow subgroup is normal and G is not simple.
(b) Suppose p and q are two prime numbers, with p < q. Suppose p
2
1 mod q. Show
that p = 2 and q = 3.
Since p
2
1 mod q, q | p
2
1. Since q is prime, this implies that q | p 1 or q | p + 1. But
q > p, so q = p + 1. Thus p is even, so p = 2 and q = 3.
(c) Show that there are no simple groups of order p
2
q
2
for any primes p and q.
Let |G| = p
2
q
2
. Without lost of generality, let p < q. Let n
q
be the number of Sylow q-
subgroups. The Third Sylow Theorem tells us that n
q
| p
2
and n
q
1 mod p, so n
q
= 1 or
p
2
. If n
q
= 1, then the Sylow q-subgroup is normal and G is not simple. If n
q
= p
2
, then
p
2
1 mod q. From part (b), p = 2 and q = 3. Then |G| = 36, which we have already shown
is not simple.
5
3. Consider the bilinear form on V = R
2n
given by B(v, w) = v
T
Jw, where J =
_
0
nn
I
n
I
n
0
nn
_
, with n n blocks.
(a) Given z = x + iy C, and given v V , dene zv = xv + yJv. Show that vec-
tor addition and this scalar multiplication make V into a complex vector space. What is its
dimension over C?
We see that this scalar multiplication is associative and distributive over vector addition:
Let z

= x

+iy

and z = x +iy. Then:

z

(zv) = z

(xv +yJv) = x

(xv +yJv) +y

J(xv +yJv) = x

xv +x

yJv +y

xJv +y

yJ
2
v
= (xx

yy

)v + (x

y +xy

)Jv = (xx

yy

+ix

y +ixy

)v = (z

z)v
and
z(v +w) = x(v +w) +yJ(v +w) = xv +yJv +xw +yJw = zv +zw.
We see that V is now a complex vector space with these operations. We also see that its
dimension over C is n. We can think of its dimension over R as listing both the real and
imaginary parts of the vectors.
Consider the usual inner product v, w on R
2n
= V , and consider the following subsets
of GL(V, R). We have Sp(V ) = {T : V V | B(Tv, Tw) = B(v, w) v, w V } and
O(V ) = {T : V V | Tv, Tw = v, w v, w V } and GL(V, C).
(b) Show that the intersection of any two of the three groups listed above is equal to
the intersection of all three, and show that this intersection, which well call G, is isomor-
phimc to U(n).
We know that if A O(V ), A
1
= A
T
. We also know that if A Sp(V ), A
T
JA = J.
Lastly, we know that if A GL(C), A
1
JA = J. We see that any two of these conditions
imply the third, so the intersection of any two is the intersection of all three.
(c) Show that every symplectic matrix A, i.e. element of Sp(V ), is a product of a positive-
denite symmetric matrix which also happens to be symplectic P and a unitary matrix,
i.e. element M G, and furthermore that P and M are unique (that is A = PM for unique
P and M).
6
4. Let H and K be two normal subgroups of G, with K < H.
(a) Show that K is a normal subgroup of H.
If K G, gKg
1
= K g G. Since H < G, hKh
1
= K h H. Thus K H.
(b) Show that the map : H/K G/K. given by taking a K-coset in H to the
same set as a K-coset in G is a homomorphism.
We see that (hK) = hK if h H and h / K. If h K, (hK) = (K) = K. Thus
(h
1
K h
2
K) = (h
1
h
2
K) = h
1
h
2
K = (h
1
K)(h
2
K) = (h
1
K)(h
2
K), so is a homomor-
phism.
(c) Show that im() is a normal subgroup of G/K.
We see that im() = {gK G/K | hK H/K such that (hK) = gK} = {gK G/K |
gK H/K} = H/K. To see that this is normal, we consider hK H/K and gK G/K.
Then (gK)(hK)(gK)
1
= ghg
1
(KKK
1
) = ghg
1
K. We know that ghg
1
H g G
because H is normal, so ghg
1
K H/K. Since our choice of g and h was arbitrary, this
means that im() = H/K is normal.
(d) Show that (G/K)/im()

= G/H.
We consider : G/K G/H dened with gK gH. We see that (g
1
g
2
K) = g
1
g
2
H =
g
1
Hg
2
H = (g
1
K)(g
2
K). We also see that im() = {gH G/H | gK G/K such that (gK) =
gH} = G/H and ker() = {gK G/K | (gK) = H} = {gK G/K | gH = H} = H/K =
im(). We then see that is a surjective homomorphism. Then the First Isomorphism
Theorem tells us that (G/K)/(H/K) = G/H.
7
5. Let G be a group of order 36. Suppose the Sylow 3-subgroup is not normal.
(a) Show that there is a subgroup of order 3 of G, call it K, which is normal and which
is contained in every Sylow 3-subgroup, and with G/K isomorphic to A
4
.
Let n
3
be the number of Sylow 3-subgroups. The Third Sylow Theorem tells us that n
3
| 4
and n
3
1 mod 3, so n
3
= 1 or 4. Since the Sylow 3-subgroup is not normal, n
3
= 4.
Let S = {K
1
, K
2
, K
3
, K
4
} be the set of 4 Sylow 3-subgroups, each of order 9. We then
consider the action of G on S by conjugation. The Second Sylow Theorem tells us that
all the Sylow 3-subgroups are conjugate, which yields a homomorphism : G S
4
. We
know that ker() G. We also know that |im()| | ker()| = |G| = 36, | ker()| | 36, and
|im()| | |S
4
| = 24. These conditions tell us that |im()| 12, which implies | ker()| 3.
Since ker() = {g G | gK
i
g
1
= K
i
K
i
}, ker() K
i
. Then | ker()| | 9. We know
that | ker()| = 9 because some conjugation takes one Sylow 3-subgroup to another. Thus
| ker()| = 3 and ker()

= C
3
. Thus we have found a subgroup of order 3 that is normal and
contained in every Sylow 3-subgroup. We then see that |im()| = 12. The map : G im()
is clearly surjective, so the First Isomorphism Theorem tells us that G/K

= im() < S
4
.
The only subgroup of S
4
that has an order of 12 is A
4
, so G/K

= A
4
.
(b) Show that K is in the center of G.
Each of the Sylow 3-subgroups and Sylow 2-subgroups is abelian, as they both are groups
or order p
2
for some prime p. K < K
i
, so the elements of K obviously commute with all the
elements of K
i
. We also see that conjugation by any element of G on the Sylow 3-subgroups
did not eect K, as it was still inside the subgroup. This means the the elements of K
commute with all the elements of G, i.e. K < Z(G).
(c) Now let : G A
4
be a map with kernel K (this exists by (a)). Let V < A
4
be the Klein 4-group of pairs of two-cycles. Show that, given v V , there is a unique g G
with (g) = v such that g
2
= 1. Show that the set of such g forms a subgroup of G which
maps isomorphically to V under the map . Call this subgroup W.
We see that there are no elements of order 4 in A
4
, so the same must be true for G/K.
This means that the elements of the Sylow 2-subgroups, which have order 4, all must have
order 2, i.e. the Sylow 2-subgroups are isomorphic to C
2
C
2
or the Klein 4-group.
(d) Show that W is normal in G, and conclude that every group of order 36 is a semidirect
product of a group of order 4 with a group of order 9 (in one order or the other).
By the Third Sylow Theorem, n
2
| 3 and n
2
1 mod 2. Since the 4 Sylow 3-subgroups
include 4(9 1) = 32 nonidentity elements, there must only by one Sylow 2-subgroup of
order 4, so n
2
= 1. This subgroup is W, and is normal.
(e) List all (isomorphism classes of) groups of order 36. (That is, all groups, i.e. without
assuming the Sylow 3-subgroup is not normal anymore.)
Let H be a Sylow 2-subgroup of order 4 and let K be a Sylow 3-subgroup of order 9.
Then H = C
2
C
2
or C
4
and H = C
3
C
3
or C
9
. If both H and K are normal, then the
classes are
1. C
4
C
9
= C
36
8
2. C
2
C
2
C
9
= C
2
C
18
3. C
4
C
3
C
3
= C
3
C
12
4. C
2
C
2
C
3
C
3
= C
6
C
6
.
The other classes are obtained via semidirect products of these four options in either direc-
tion. This yields 16 cases.
9