Ethernet Overview: Chapter 6 - Ethernet Design © 1996, BICSI LAN Design Manual - CD-ROM, Issue 1

Chapter 6 - Ethernet Design
1996, BICSI LAN Design Manual - CD-ROM, Issue 1

1
Ethernet Overview
This chapter is designed to illustrate basic Ethernet deployment for
various cabling types. The assumption is that all users are on a
common floor and that a structured cabling system approach has been
adopted. The design of more complex Ethernet networks will be
discussed in later chapters and will cover Ethernet backbones and
Ethernet internetworking.
Introduction
Developed in the 1970s and popularized in the 1980s, Ethernet is the most popular network
technology today. Ethernet connections are available for personal computers, high-
performance design and scientific workstations, minicomputers and mainframe systems.
Ethernet is an architecture that provides best-effort datagram service. It has error detection
but not error correction. It is a multi-access, packet-switched network using a passive
broadcast medium. Ethernet has no central control unit with data packets being transmitted
over the network, reaching every station. Each station is responsible for recognizing the
address in a data unit and for accepting data units addressed to it. Access to the
transmission medium is controlled by the individual station using a probabilistic access
method known as contention.
2
Goals
Beginning about 1972, Xerox Corporations Palo Alto research Center (PARC) began
developing a LAN system known as Experimental Ethernet. Early Ethernet specifications
contributed substantially to work done later by the IEEE 802.3 committee defining the CSMA/
CD access control standard.
The original Ethernet goals are consistent with what have become the telecommunications
requirements driving the development and increased use of LANs.
These original Ethernet specifications are as follows:
Simplicity
Features that could complicate the network design without making substantial contribution
to meeting other goals have been excluded.
Low cost
The cost of connection to an Ethernet network should be minimized. Technological
improvements will continue to reduce the overall cost of connecting stations to Ethernet.
Compatibility
All implementations of Ethernet should be capable of exchanging data at the Data Link
layer. To eliminate the possibility of incompatible variations of Ethernet, the specification
avoids optional features.
Goals, continued
3
Addressing flexibility
The addressing mechanism should provide the capability to direct data frames to a single
station, a group of stations or broadcast the message to all stations attached to the
network.
Fairness
All attached stations should have equal access to the networkaveraged over time.
Progress
No one station attached to the network, operating in accordance with the Ethernet
protocol, should be able to prevent the operation of other stations.
High speed
The network should operate efficiently at a data rate of 10 Mbps.
Low delay
At any given level of network traffic, as little delay as possible should be introduced in the
transfer of a data frame.
Stability
The network should be stable under all load conditions. Delivered messages should make
up a constant percentage of the total network traffic.
Goals, continued
4
Maintainability
The Ethernet design should allow for network maintenance, operation and planning.
Layered architecture
The Ethernet design should be specified in layered terms so as to separate the logical
aspects of the Data Link layer protocols from the physical details of the communications
channel.
Functionality
On an Ethernet network, all stations have equal opportunity at all times to initiate
communications over a common transmission channel. Because of this, some mechanism
must exist to resolve the conflict when more than one station attempts to transmit at the
same instant in time.
The mechanism used in Ethernet for this function is referred to as CSMA/CD Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection. In CSMA/CD, any station wishing to
transmit must first establish that the communications channel is clear. The station then
begins its transmission, while at the same time continuing to monitor the channel for an
indication of a collision.
If a collision is detected, the stations involved will stop transmitting, send a jamming signal
indication a collision, wait a random amount of time (different for each station) and attempt to
transmit again. Since a station can perform this operation several times in the space of one
second, collisions are seldom noticed by users on a well-designed Ethernet system.
Functionality, continued
5
Since a transmission is heard by all stations connected to the channel, Ethernet is classified
as a broadcast-type network. The stations on an Ethernet network listen for, detect and
recover after any collision caused during normal operations.
Critical to proper operations is the ability for a transmitting station to detect a collision
between its transmission and that of another station. Without this ability, the station cannot
recover and rebroadcast its message. Instead, it will assume that the transmission was
successful. If this occurs, error-recovery will have to be initiated by higher-level software,
rather than the Data Link layer. This in turn adds greater delays to network operation.
In order for a station to detect a collision during its transmission, the time delay in the
propagation of the collision signal must be limited. The collision signal must travel over the
cabling system back to the station in less time than the maximum time period the station has
for the detection of a collision.
The Ethernet specifications allow for the use of two types of coaxial cabling, unshielded
twisted-pair cabling or optical fiber cabling. In all cases, distance limitations have been
imposed to allow for proper operation without excessive propagation delay.
The focus of this chapter is to describe the design recommendations and limitations for each
of these cable types. It should be noted that vendor-specific enhancements to Ethernet have
produced products which can successfully operate beyond the limits described here. By
respecting these recommendations, however, the designs will allow for reliable Ethernet
operation regardless of the equipment used.
6
Ethernet vs. IEEE 802.3
Overview
The original Ethernet standard developed by Digital, Intel and Xerox was first known as
Experimental Ethernet and later as DIX Ethernet, in reference to the developers. This
Ethernet was the first technology to gain wide acceptance as a local area connectivity
solution.
In the early 1980s, DIX turned the Ethernet standard over to the IEEE, where it became the
model for what is today known as IEEE 802.3. The IEEE made improvements to the original
Ethernet and published the IEEE 802.3 standard for the first time in 1983.
While IEEE 802.3 and Ethernet are similar, they are not identical. The differences between
them are significant enough to make the two incompatible.
All versions of Ethernet are similar in that they share the same CSMA/CD bus architecture.
However, the IEEE 802.3 standard has evolved over time so that it now supports multiple
Physical Layer optionsincluding both 50 and 75 coaxial cable, unshielded twisted-pair
cable and optical fiber. Other differences between the two include transmission speed,
signaling method and maximum cable length.
7
Frame formats
The most significant difference between the original Ethernet and the IEEE 802.3 standard is
the difference in their frame formats. This difference is significant enough to make the two
versions incompatible.
FIGURE 6.1:
IEEE 802.3 FRAME
FORMAT VERSUS
ETHERNET FRAME
FORMAT
Frame Check
Sequence
Pad
Information
Length Count
Source Address
Destination Address
Start Frame
Delimiter
Preamble
7 bytes
1 byte
2 or 6 bytes
0 - n bytes
2 bytes
2 or 6 bytes
0 - n bytes
4 bytes
IEEE 802.3 frame format
Frame Check
Sequence
Pad
Information
Type
Source Address
Destination Address
Preamble 8 bytes
6 bytes
0 - n bytes
2 bytes
6 bytes
0 - n bytes
4 bytes
Ethernet frame format
Frame formats, continued
8
One of the differences between the two frame formats is in the preamble. The purpose of the
preamble is to announce the frame and to enable all receivers on the network to synchronize
themselves to the incoming frame. It also ensures that there is sufficient time between
frames for error detection and recovery operations9.6 microseconds for 10 Mbps Ethernet.
The preamble is 8 bytes in length for Ethernet but 7 bytes for IEEE 802.3, where the eighth
byte becomes the start frame delimiter.
The second difference in frame format is the Type field found in an Ethernet frame. A Type
field was used to specify the protocol being carried in the frame. This enabled several
protocols to be carried independently of one another. The Type field was replaced in the
IEEE 802.3 standard by a Length Count field, which is used to indicate the number of bytes
found in the following fieldthe Information field.
The third difference between the two frame formats is found in the Address fields
Destination and Source. While the IEEE 802.3 format permits the use of either 2- or 6-byte
addresses, the Ethernet standard permits only 6-byte address fields. This is less of an issue,
since most vendor IEEE 802.3 implementations use the 6-byte length. The 2-byte address
field was included to accommodate early LANs using 16-bit address fields.
Summary
Over time, the trend has been towards the adoption of IEEE 802.3. Vendors helped the
migration to the IEEE 802.3 standard from the original Ethernet by providing dual-function
hardware, capable of using either format. Today, vendors are providing migration paths from
10 Mbps Ethernet to 100 Mbps Ethernet.
The predominant frame format in todays Ethernet environments is IEEE 802.3, but the
network technology continues to be referred to as Ethernet.
9
Designing basic 10Base-5 Ethernet networks
Introduction
10Base-5 Ethernet is also known as Thick Ethernet and is more commonly referred to as
Thicknet. It was formally introduced in 1980 and represents the original Ethernet
specification.
Thicknet features a thick coaxial trunk cable with attachments called transceivers. Network
devices are connected to the transceivers using a shielded twisted-pair cable known as a
transceiver cable.
10Base-5 is falling into disuse as a network technology. However, there are a large number
of existing installations that may require expansion. As well, existing installations may
migrate towards newer technologies.
Components
RG-8-type coaxial cable
RG-8-type coaxial cable is used as the main cable, known as a trunk cable in a 10Base-5
Ethernet network. It is a stiff, 50 , 12 AWG coaxial cable with a 10 mm (0.4 in) outside
diameter. A special stripping and crimping tool is needed to be able to mount connectors
on this cable. Many vendors supply this cable, either in bulk or in precut sections. Versions
of the cable are available as plenum cable, indoors nonplenum cable, underground-rated
cable and aerial-rated cable.
Components, continued
10
Transceivers
A transceiver is a small box that provides for the electrical isolation of the cable from the
attached device. It acts as a junction box on the trunk cable that permits the attachment of
stations.
A transceiver has three connectors on it. They function as follows:
Two of the connectors attach to the Ethernet trunk cableone for the incoming
cable and one for the outgoing cable.
The third connector is used to attach the station to the trunk cable using a
transceiver cable.
Transceivers can be attached to the trunk cable in two ways. This is referred to as tapping
the cable and can be done as follows:
One method of attachment is known as a vampire tap. This is a clamping method
where the transceiver actually pierces the cable. This eliminates the need to cut
the cable and mount connectors.
The second method of attachment uses a transceiver with a T-type connector. Both
the trunk and transceiver cables attach to this T-connector. In this method, the
trunk cable must be cut and connectors attached.
The transceiver is also responsible for performing a test known as the SQE (Signal
Quality Error) or Heartbeat Test. This is used to confirm that the transceiver is properly
connected to the trunk cable.
11
Transceiver cable
Transceiver cables are shielded twisted-pair cables and far more flexible than the trunk
cable. They are usually supplied with the transceiver unit.
A DIX-type connector is mounted on either end of the transceiver cable. One connector is
female and the other male. The female connector is used to attach to the external
transceiver unit and the male connector is used to attach to the station. Slide locks on the
connectors are used to lock the cable into place onto the Network Interface Card.
Network Interface Card (NIC)
Most NICs are capable of supporting both 10Base-5 and 10Base-2 Ethernet. For the
attachment of the transceiver cable, the NIC should have a female DIX-type connector.
DIX refers to Digital-Intel-Xerox.
12
N-series connectors
Three types of N-series connectors are used in a 10Base-5 installation. These are as
follows:
N-series male connectors.
When T-type transceivers are used, N-series connectors are used on the two ends
of the trunk cable to be attached to the transceiver. Preassembled cables come
with the N-series connectors already installed.
N-series barrel connectors.
These connectors are used to join two cable segments.
N-series terminators.
These are 50 terminators used at both ends of a cable segment. For each cable
segment, one of these terminators must have a ground wire attached.
13
10Base-5 design
Basic 10Base-5 design - Trunk cable deployment
The first step in 10Base-5 design is determining where the main trunk cable will run. The
cable must be placed where it is accessible to stations needing to attach to the network.
Some considerations when determining the placement of the trunk cable include the
following:
The trunk cable can be a maximum of 500 m (1640 ft) in length.
The cable must be terminated on both ends with 50 , N-series terminators.
One of the N-series terminators must be groundednot both.
The maximum length of a transceiver cable is 50 m (164 ft), therefore a station
needing to attach to the trunk cable must be within 50 m (164 ft) of it.
10Base-5 design, continued
14
FIGURE 6.2: DEPLOYING THE 10BASE-5 TRUNK CABLE
Common floor, divided into zones
Telecommunications
Closet
(TC)
Thicknet trunk cable
Terminator
(grounded)
Terminator
(not grounded)
15
Basic 10Base-5 design - Transceiver deployment
Thicknet transceiverssometimes referred to as Media Attachment Units (MAUs)are
used to attach network devices to the coaxial trunk cable.
Some considerations when placing the transceivers include the following:
There can be a
maximum of 100
transceivers
attached to the
trunk cable.
Transceivers
must be at least
2.5 m (8.2 ft)
apart.
FIGURE 6.3:
10BASE-5
TRANSCEIVER
DEPLOYMENT
Tel ecommunications
Closet
(TC)
Transceiver
(MAU)
At least 2.5 m (8.2 ft)
between two
transcei vers
16
Basic 10Base-5 design - Station deployment
Network devices attach to the transceivers using transceiver cable. This cable is
sometimes referred to as an Attached Unit Interface (AUI) cable. Transceiver cable is a
twisted-pair cable consisting of four 20 AWG stranded twisted-pairs covered by a common
shield. The cable can be a maximum of 50 m (164 ft) in length. Of the four pairs, one is
used for transmission (called Data Out by IEEE 802.3), one for reception (called Data In
by IEEE 802.3), one to detect collisions (called Control by IEEE 802.3) and one for
powering the transceiver from the station (called Voltage by IEEE 802.3).
A single transceiver can connect one station to the trunk cable or it may connect several
devices to the trunk cable.
Each station is equipped with an Ethernet Network Interface Card (NIC). The NIC is
connected to the transceiver cable. This NIC connection point is sometimes referred to as
a DIX (Digital-Intel-Xerox) connector.
17
FIGURE 6.4: 10BASE-5 STATION DEPLOYMENT
TC
NIC
Station
Trunk cable
Transceiver
cable
Single-port
transceiver
Maximum of
50 m (164 ft)
Ethernet station
with NIC
Trunk cable
Multi-port
transceiver
Transceiver
cable
Maximum of
50 m (164 ft)
Ethernet station
with NIC
18
Designing basic 10Base-2 Ethernet networks
Introduction
10Base-2 Ethernet is also known as Thin Ethernet, and is often referred to as Thinnet.
Thinnet was formally introduced in 1985 and is based on a coaxial cable transmission
medium. The coaxial cable is thinner, more flexible and lower in cost than the traditional thick
coaxial cable used in 10Base-5. For this reason 10Base-2 is sometimes referred to as
Cheapernet.
In Thinnet, the transceiver is integrated into the station NIC. This permits the Thinnet trunk
cable to be attached directly to each station. This Thinnet trunk cable is a smaller diameter
coaxial cable, which makes it physically easier to work with. However, this relative thinness
of the conductor imposes a more restrictive design on the network.
As is the case with 10Base-5, 10Base-2 is falling into disuse as a network technology for
new installations. However, a large number of installations do exist and they may require
expansion and potentially, migration to a new technology.
19
Components
RG-58 coaxial cable
RG-58 coaxial cable is used as the 10Base-2 main trunk cable. It is a 50 , 20 AWG
cable with a 5 mm (0.2 in) diameter. It is commonly referred to as RG-58 A/U or
RG-58 C/U cable. Many vendors supply this cable either in bulk or in precut sections. Bulk
cable needs to be cut to the proper length and have connectors attached. Precut cable
typically comes with connectors attached. Versions of the cable are available as plenum
cable, indoors nonplenum cable, underground-rated cable and aerial-rated cable.
The 10Base-2 NIC will have a BNC-type connector on the board. It may also have a
Thicknet connector or a 10Base-T connector. The trunk cable will attach to a BNC
T-connector which is in turn connected to a male BNC connector on the back of the NIC.
20
BNC connectors
BNC connectors must be attached to all cable segment ends. Cable connector kits include
a center pin, a housing and a clamp-down sleeve. A stripping and crimping tool will be
required to mount the connectors.
Three types of BNC connectors are used in a 10Base-2 installation. These are as follows:
BNC T-connectors.
T-connectors are attached to the BNC connector on the back of the NIC. These T-
connectors provide two connection points for the trunk cableone for the incoming
signal and one for the outgoing signal. These T-connectors are required for each
station on the network.
BNC barrel connectors.
These connectors are used to join two cable segments together.
BNC terminators.
These are 50 terminators used at both ends of a cable segment. For each cable
segment, one of these terminators must have a ground wire attached. The last
station on a trunk cable requires a BNC terminator attached to the open end of its
T-connector.
21
10Base-2 design
Basic 10Base-2 design
The design of 10Base-2 Ethernet networks requires running the correct type of coaxial
trunk cable from one network device to the next, in a bus configuration. RG-58 A/U or
RG-58 C/U is used to connect one station to the nextno transceiver cables are needed.
Stations are connected to the trunk cable using a BNC T-connector on the NIC. The cable
must be terminated at both ends with 50 , BNC-type terminators. One of these
terminators must be grounded.
Some considerations when designing 10Base-2 Ethernet networks are as follows:
The maximum length of a trunk segment is 185 m (607 ft).
There can be a maximum of 30 devices attached to a trunk cable segment.
The T-connectors must be at least 0.5 m (1.6 ft) apart.
22
FIGURE 6.5: 10BASE-2 DEPLOYMENT
Telecommunications
Closet
(TC)
Thinnet trunk cable
Terminator
(grounded)
Terminator
(not grounded)
Minimum of
0.5 m (1.6 ft)
23
Designing basic 10Base-T Ethernet networks
Introduction
10Base-T Ethernet is also known as twisted-pair Ethernet. It was formally introduced in 1990
and has become popular for both new and existing installations.
Part of the 10Base-T specification is to ensure compatibility with other versions of the
IEEE 802.3 standardmaking the transition easier. Some of these compatibility features
include the following:
Existing Ethernet NICs can be used with 10Base-T installations through the use of
adapters.
Twisted-pair trunk cables can be added to existing trunks by using repeaters
supporting both twisted-pair and coaxial cable.
In 10Base-T, as in 10Base-2, the transceiver is built into the station NIC. As well, the coax
trunk cable is replaced with an electronic concentratoroften referred to as a 10Base-T hub.
Each station is connected directly to a port in the hub.
The 10Base-T specification includes a cable testing feature known as Link Integrity Testing.
This monitoring is done from a central point and tests the twisted-pair wires on an ongoing
basis for open (cut) wires and shorts (unintended electrical contact between wires).
24
Components
Unshielded twisted-pair cable
UTP cable is used to connect stations to the 10Base-T hub. The UTP cable must have
Category 3 or better transmission characteristicsas specified in the ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-A
cabling standard. The UTP can be 24 or 22 AWG.
The connection point on a 10Base-T NIC is in the form of an 8-position modular jack-type
connection. Some Ethernet NICs are available with a Thicknet DIX, Thinnet BNC, or both,
in addition to the 8-position modular jack connector for 10Base-T.
If a 10Base-5 or 10Base-2 NIC is to be connected to a 10Base-T Ethernet network, an
adapter known as a 10Base-T transceiver must be used. This device converts a signal
intended for transmission on a 50 W coaxial cable to a signal that can be transmitted over
a 100 UTP cable.
10Base-T hub
10Base-T hubs are also referred to as concentrators. Each port on the hub provides a
connection point for a UTP cable to a network station. Some models also provide coaxial
cable or optical fiber connections for links to other Ethernet segments.
In essence, the 10Base-T hub represents the trunk cable of a traditional Ethernet. It
shrinks the thick coax trunk cable to a very short length and stations attach to this short
coaxial trunk cable through the hub port via a length of UTP cable, which replaces the
traditional AUI transceiver cable.
25
10Base-T design
Basic 10Base-T design
While the physical appearance of a 10Base-T Ethernet network is that of a star, it
continues to operate logically in linear bus topology. This linear bus is miniaturized and
fully contained in the 10Base-T hub.
10Base-T Ethernet uses 24 or 22 AWG unshielded twisted-pair cabling with Category 3 or
better classification as specified in the ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-A cabling standard. Two pairs
are used, one for transmission (pins 1 and 2) and the other for reception (pins 3 and 6).
Collisions are detected and relayed to stations by the hub, which is an active (powered)
device.
Some considerations when designing a UTP-based 10Base-T Ethernet network are as
follows:
The total distance from a hub to a station cannot exceed 100 m (328 ft).
Two hubs can be separated by a maximum of 100 m (328 ft).
A theoretical maximum of 1024 stations can be connected to one 10Base-T LAN.
10Base-T design, continued
26
FIGURE 6.6: BASIC 10BASE-T CONFIGURATION
10Base-T hub
Maximum of
100 m (328 ft)
10Base-T NIC
with built-in
transceiver
Maximum of
100 m (328 ft)
10Base-T hub
10Base-T design, continued
27
FIGURE 6.7: STRUCTURED 10BASE-T DESIGN
TC
Work Area
Telecommunications Closet
10Base-T hub
Patch Cord
Cross-connect Hardware
UTP Horizontal Cable
Equipment Cabl e
Cross-connect Hardware
28
Other Ethernet networks
Combined 10Base-5 and 10Base-2
Thick and thin Ethernet trunk cable can be combined into one network. The combination of
thick and thin trunk cable requires using BNC to N-series connector adapters.
Combination thick and thin coaxial cable segments used in one combination trunk segment
can range from 185 to 500 meters (607 to 1640 feet) in length.
To determine the maximum amount of thin coaxial cable that can be used in such an
installation, the following equation is used:
The constant 3.28 is used to compensate for the lower performance of thin coax cable.
(Thin coax length x 3.28) + Thick coax length = 500 meters (1640 ft) maximum
29
10Base-FL
10Base-FL Ethernet is also known as Fiber Link Ethernet. It was formally introduced in 1993.
In 10Base-FL, a two-fiber optical fiber cable is used in a manner similar to UTP in 10Base-T.
One fiber is used for transmission and the other for reception.
In place of the 10Base-T hub, a 10Base-FL hub is used. The network also follows a physical
star topology with all devices directly connected to the hub.
Some considerations for designing a 10Base-FL Ethernet network are as follows:
Multimode,
62.5/125 m optical
fiber is recommended
to connect stations
and hubs.
The maximum
distance between a
stations NIC and a port
on a 10Base-FL hub is
2000 m (6560 ft).
FIGURE 6.8:
BASIC 10BASE-FL
CONFIGURATION
10Base-FL NIC
Maximum of
2000 m (6560 ft)
10Base-FL hub
Two-fiber cable,
62.5/125 m optical
fiber recommended
30
Troubleshooting Ethernet networks
Introduction
The most important criteria for the success of any network is its reliability. If the LAN is not
operating consistently or worse, not operating at all, it is not meeting its primary objective
the ability for users to share devices, software programs and user-created files. Therefore, if
the LAN experiences problems, it is important to solve those problems as quickly as possible.
The increasing use of structured cabling systems has made network troubleshooting easier.
Problems will continue to occur from time to time, but structured cabling systems have
helped to eliminate some types of difficulties. Some examples of the benefits of structured
cabling systems include the following:
A single station failure should not cause the whole network to fail.
A failure in a single cable will not bring the whole network down.
Fewer connection points represent fewer points of failure.
Much of the diagnostic testing can be done from a central location.
31
General troubleshooting guidelines
Network problems are often blamed on one of the hardware components. That is, the cabling
system, the Network Interface Cards, the station or one of the other connected
componentswhich may vary with the technology employed. However, software problems
should not be overlooked. Sometimes a new software application that has been installed may
conflict with existing applications. Also, problems can happen that are not specifically related
to the network technology at all. Problems can occur because of inadequate grounding
systems, for example.
While some problems are specific to a certain technology, there are also network problems
that may occur independent of the networking technology being used. Therefore, some
troubleshooting is also independent of the networking technologies. Some general items to
consider if a network problem should occur include the following:
Station/NIC problems
The Network Interface Card may not be properly seated. That is, it is not making
contact and is unable to communicate with the network. It may be necessary to
remove the NIC, clean it and reinstall it.
There may be conflicts between the NIC and other boards in the station. In the PC
environment, conflicts can occur due to shared IRQs (Interrupt Request Lines),
DMAs (Direct Memory Address) lines, and/or I/O (Input/Output) base addresses.
The NIC should be checked to ensure that all jumpers and dip switches are set
properly. It is important to have the appropriate documentation at hand to check
what the correct settings are.
General troubleshooting
guidelines, continued
32
It should be verified that all power supplies are connected and functioning properly.
Diagnostic software should be used to check for duplicate network addresses.
Cabling
The cable should be checked for continuity, kinks, crimps, sharp bends, opens and
shorts.
It should be verified that the cabling has been configured properly. Distance
limitations should be adhered to.
The cable connecting the station to the network should be visually inspected to
check for loose connections. Tripping over a cable connecting the station can
loosen a connection point, causing disruptions.
It should be verified that the correct connecting cables are being used and that they
are terminated properly.
Miscellaneous
Ensure that the products being used adhere to the networking technology being
used.
Some vendors offer products with options that will extend the allowable
transmission distance. These products may not work in conjunction with other
products. They may be proprietary and work only with other specified products.
33
Troubleshooting Ethernet
In the case of Ethernet networks, a distinction needs to be made between coaxial cable
based-Ethernet and twisted-pair Ethernet. The type of transmission media used significantly
impacts the approach that needs to be taken when troubleshooting the network.
Coaxial cable Ethernet
For troubleshooting purposes, coax-based Ethernet is at a disadvantage because of its bus
topology. Having all devices connected to a single length of cable makes it more difficult to
isolate a fault.
A single device failure may affect the whole network, a segment of the network or only the
device itself. Isolating the cause and location of a failure is a large part of coax Ethernet
troubleshooting.
The following represent some items to be considered:
Cable
Any damage to the trunk cable may cause the network to fail. Damage can be
caused by kinks or sharp bends in the cable or be caused by a mechanical device
entering the transmission pathnew connectors or transceivers.
Troubleshooting Ethernet,
continued
34
The cable may need to be checked for opens, shorts and missing terminators. An
intact, properly terminated cable should produce a reading of approximately 50
when a DC resistance test is done. If the cable has shorted, the reading will be
much lower, in the range of 0 to 10 . If the terminator at the far end is missing or
the cable is open, the reading will exceed 50 by a large margin. Time Domain
Reflectometry (TDR) testing will provide more details regarding the problem.
Impedance mismatches may have occurred, either due to the use of the wrong type
of cable or because the cable is kinked, has sharp bends or is improperly
terminated.
If a cable tests open, a portion of the trunk cable may have been disconnected from
the network device. Moving a station may cause the cable to come loose.
Ensure that the correct cable type has been used. For example, RG-58 A/U (50 )
versus RG-59 A/U (75 ) in 10Base-2 environments.
Terminators
A terminator can be tested using a DC resistance test to see if it is defective. The
DC resistance between the center conductor and the outside shield should be in
the 50 range. If it is not, the terminator should be replaced.
Check that cable ends are properly terminated and one terminator is grounded.
continued
35
Transceivers
Verify that power and transceiver cables are properly connected.
It should be verified that the transceiver, the AUI cable and any options are all set
to operate with the correct Ethernet versionstandard Ethernet or IEEE 802.3
(important in 10Base-5).
Ensure that the minimum distance required between transceivers has not been
violated.
If a transceiver appears to be faulty, removing the NIC may confirm this.
Disconnecting the NIC will power down the transceiver and the network may
recover.
In 10Base-2 networks, the transceiver is built into the NIC and it may have to be
replaced to determine if it is causing the problem.
Connectors
In the 10Base-2 environment it is important to check for disconnected or poorly
assembled T-connectors, used at each station.
NICs equipped with dual connectors for both 10Base-5 and 10Base-2 require that a
jumper switch be set to indicate which environment is being used. If the switch is
set incorrectly, the NIC cannot communicate with the network.
continued
36
Software considerations
All addresses must be of the same format. While addresses in the IEEE 802.3
standard may be 2 or 6 bytes in length, they must be the same for both source and
destination addresses across the entire network.
Miscellaneous
Ensure that products being used adhere to the version of the standard being used.
This is especially important in 10Base-5 Ethernet which is closely related to the
original Ethernet. However, the two technologies are not compatible.
Twisted-pair Ethernet
The star topology of 10Base-T Ethernet is an advantage for troubleshooting. It makes it
easier to isolate failuresfirst to a single hub and from there to a single port on the hub.
Some cabling-related problems that may be encountered on a 10Base-T network include
the following:
Cables do not have pin-to-pin continuity.
Terminations do not all follow the same pin configurationboth T568A and T568B
are used.
Incorrect components are installed.
37
Ethernet performance
Overview
Ethernet is a contention-based technology, meaning that all attached devices have equal
access to the transmission channel at all times. This makes the prediction of actual network
utilization somewhat more difficult.
There are two factors to consider when estimating network performance. The first is the
transmission ratethe number of Ethernet frames that can be transmitted in a given time
period. The second is an estimate of network traffic produced by users.
Below are some sample calculations regarding frame transmission rates and estimations of
network traffic.
38
Frame transmission rate
The amount of information carried in an Ethernet frame can varyit is not a predefined
amount. Therefore, an Ethernet frame can vary in size from a minimum of 72 bytes to a
maximum of 1526 bytes. This in turn affects the frame transmission ratethe larger the
frame, the fewer the number of frames that can be transmitted in a given time period.
Additional factors to consider are as follows:
10 Mbps Ethernet allows for 9.6 microseconds (s) between frames for error
detection and recovery purposes.
There is a bit time of 100 nanoseconds (ns)this is the time required to transmit
one bit of information.
Before performing any calculations, please be aware of the following conversions:
1 millisecond (ms) = 0.001 seconds (10
-3
) or 1,000 ms per second.
1 microsecond (s) = 0.000001 seconds (10
-6
) or 1,000,000 s per second.
1 nanosecond (ns) = 0.000000001 seconds (10
-9
) or 1,000,000,000 ns per second.
Also,
1 ms = 1,000 s = 1,000,000 ns.
1 s = 1,000 ns.
Frame transmission rate,
continued
39
The Frame Transmission Rate is calculated as follows:
The calculation for Transmission Time is as follows:
Transmission Time = Time to transmit one frame + Time between frames
EXAMPLE 6.1: FRAME TRANSMISSION RATE FOR A 1526 BYTE FRAME SIZE
For a maximum frame size of 1526 bytes, the amount of time required to transmit one
frame is equal to the following:
It would take 1.2304 milliseconds to transmit one frame.
Transmission Rate =
1
Transmission Time
Transmission Time = 1526
bytes
frame
x 8
bits
byte
x 100
ns
bit
+ 9.6 microseconds
Transmission Time = 1,220,800 ns + 9,600 ns
Transmission Time = 1,230,400 ns = 1.2304 ms
continued
40
Therefore, a maximum of 812 complete frames of 1526 bytes can be transmitted in one
second.
The equivalent transmission rate in bytes is:
The equivalent transmission rate in bits is:
Transmission Rate =
1000 ms / second
1.2304 ms / frame
Transmission Rate = 812.74 frames/ second
Transmission Rate in bytes = 812
frames
second
x 1526
bytes
frame
= 1,239,112
bytes
second
Transmission Rate in bits = 1,239,112
bytes
second
x 8
bits
byte
= 9,912,896
bits
second
Transmission Rate in bits = 9.912 Mbps
continued
41
EXAMPLE 6.2: FRAME TRANSMISSION RATE FOR A 72 BYTE FRAME SIZE
For a minimum frame size of 72 bytes, the amount of time required to transmit one frame
is equal to the following:
It would take 0.0672 milliseconds to transmit one frame.
Therefore, a maximum of 14,880 complete frames of 72 bytes can be transmitted in one
second.
Transmission Time = 72
bytes
frame
x 8
bits
byte
x 100
ns
bit
+ 9.6 microseconds
Transmission Time = 57,600 ns + 9,600 ns
Transmission Time = 67,200 ns = 0.0672 ms
Transmission Rate =
1000 ms / second
0.0672 ms / frame
Transmission Rate = 14,880.95 frames / second
continued
42
The equivalent transmission rate in bytes is:
The equivalent transmission rate in bits is:
Transmission Rate in bytes = 14,880
frames
second
x 72
bytes
frame
= 1,071,360
bytes
second
Transmission Rate in bits = 1,071,360
bytes
second
x 8
bits
byte
= 8,570,880
bits
second
Transmission Rate in bits = 8.571 Mbps
continued
43
The maximum theoretical throughput of a traditional Ethernet network is 10 Mbps.
However, when a maximum frame size is used for all transmissions, the maximum
possible throughput on an Ethernet network is 9.912 Mbps. When the minimum frame size
is used for all transmissions, the throughput drops to 8.571 Mbps.
Since it is unlikely that all frames will be the maximum or minimum size, the actual
throughput in most cases will most likely be somewhere between 9.912 and 8.571 Mbps.
Please note that this number is not taking into consideration such factors as collisions and
retransmissions nor the number of PCs on the network and the performance levels.
Taking all of these factors into account, a utilization rate of 50 percent is considered to be
a heavy load. When the transmission load reaches 60 to 70 percent, network performance
begins to deteriorate significantly. The problem is compounded by the fact that as the
transmission load increases, the number of collision and the number of retransmissions
increase proportionally.
44
Estimating network traffic
While it is not possible to determine exactly what the amount of network traffic will be, it is
possible to make a reasonable estimate. To estimate network traffic, the following steps can
be taken in order:
1. Group network stations according to the general activities they performmanagerial,
clerical, engineering, design, etc.
2. Estimate the amount of network activity for one station in each group.
3. Multiply the number of stations in a group by the estimated activity for a single station in
that group.
4. Add together the total network activity over all the groups connected to the Ethernet
segment.
5. The value calculated in step 4 is compared to network throughput to determine percent
utilization.
Estimating network traffic,
continued
45
EXAMPLE 6.3: ESTIMATING NETWORK TRAFFIC
In order to illustrate how network traffic load can be estimated in an Ethernet environment,
the following scenario is presented.
An Ethernet network has a total of 63 users connected. Of these, 20 are in managerial
positions, 25 are in clerical positions and 18 are involved in design work.
The average amount of network activity for one station in each group is estimated as follows:
Managerial Transmission Number of Total bytes
size in bytes transmissions per hour
File requests 2,500 4 10,000
Loading application programs 400,000 2 800,000
Loading data files 250,000 3 750,000
Saving files 300,000 4 1,200,000
Sending/receiving E-mail 4,000 8 32,000
Total 2,792,000
continued
46
Clerical Transmission Number of Total bytes
Saving files 100,000 3 300,000
Total 1,348,000
Design Transmission Number of Total bytes
Loading application programs 550,000 2 1,100,000
Loading data files 800,000 5 4,000,000
Saving files 850,000 4 3,400,000
Total 8,519,000
continued
47
Totals Total per person Number of people Total per group
Managerial 2,792,000 20 55,840,000
Clerical 1,348,000 25 33,700,000
Design 8,519,000 18 153,342,000
Total 242,882,000
Therefore, network traffic is estimated to be 242,882,000 bytes per hour.
Dividing this number by 3600 gives the traffic in bytes per second:
To determine the value in bits per second, the above value is multiplied by 8.
Dividing this value by 1,000,000 gives a value in Megabits per second (Mbps).
Therefore, the estimated network traffic in Mbps is quite lownetwork utilization is only at
a little more than 5 percent of capacity.
242,882,000 bytes / hour
3,600 seconds / hour
= 67,467.222 bytes / second
67,467.222 x 8 = 539,737.8 bits / second
539,737.8 bits/ second = 0.54 Mbps
continued
48
EXAMPLE 6.4:
ESTIMATING NETWORK TRAFFIC WHEN LARGE FILES NEED TO BE ACCESSED
In this extension of the above example, the only change is in the work done by the designers.
They produce multimedia output resulting in much larger files to transport across the
network. It is not unusual to have a multimedia file that is 10 MB (10,000,000 bytes) in size.
Recalculating, the values in the above example become:
Managerial Transmission Number of Total bytes
Saving files 300,000 4 1,200,000
Total 2,792,000
Clerical Transmission Number of Total bytes
Saving files 100,000 3 300,000
Total 1,348,000
continued
49
Design Transmission Number of Total bytes
Loading application programs 550,000 2 1,100,000
Loading data files 10,000,000 5 50,000,000
Saving files 10,000,000 4 40,000,000
Total 91,119,000
Totals Total per person Number of people Total per group
Managerial 2,792,000 20 55,840,000
Clerical 1,348,000 25 33,700,000
Design 91,119,000 18 1,640,142,000
Total 1,729,682,000
This translates to 480,467.22 bytes per second or 3,843,737.8 bits per second
3.84 Mbps. At a network traffic level of 3.84 Mbps, the utilization figure is close to
40 percent of maximum possible capacity. At this point, users will begin to notice a
deterioration in network speed.
The purpose of this example is to show how applications being introduced today will
quickly overload network bandwidth that was considered sufficient for applications used
historically.
50
Ethernet growth
Overview
An Ethernet network can connect more than a single group of users on a common floor.
Ethernet can be used to link hundreds of users throughout a buildingor multiple buildings
on a campususing one of the following designs:
Multiple Ethernet trunks or hubs (called segments) can be linked to each other
using devices called repeaters to form a single Ethernet network, on which all
stations on all segments share one transmission channel. This is the least
elaborate method of network growth.
Multiple Ethernet networks can be linked together using devices called bridges to
form an Ethernet internetwork. Each network continues to have its own distinct
transmission channel available only to attached stations. A bridge device connects
to two networks simultaneously, allowing messages to travel between networks.
Finally, multiple Ethernet networks can be linked to a common backbone network,
which acts as a transmission channel for all communications between bridges on
an internetwork. Each bridge connects both to a network and to the backbone.
These methods of expanding Ethernet are discussed in a later chapter.
51
Ethernet Overview.................................................................. 1
Introduction....................................................................................... 1
Goals .................................................................................................. 2
Simplicity ............................................................................................................ 2
Low cost .............................................................................................................. 2
Compatibility ....................................................................................................... 2
Addressing flexibility ........................................................................................... 3
Fairness .............................................................................................................. 3
Progress ............................................................................................................. 3
High speed .......................................................................................................... 3
Low delay ............................................................................................................ 3
Stability ............................................................................................................... 3
Maintainability ..................................................................................................... 4
Layered architecture ........................................................................................... 4
Functionality ..................................................................................... 4
Ethernet vs. IEEE 802.3 ......................................................... 6
Overview............................................................................................ 6
Frame formats .................................................................................. 7
Summary ........................................................................................... 8
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Designing basic 10Base-5 Ethernet networks.................... 9
Introduction....................................................................................... 9
Components ..................................................................................... 9
RG-8-type coaxial cable .................................................................... 9
Transceivers .................................................................................... 10
Transceiver cable ............................................................................. 11
Network Interface Card (NIC) .......................................................... 11
N-series connectors ........................................................................ 12
10Base-5 design ............................................................................ 13
Basic 10Base-5 design - Trunk cable deployment .......................... 13
Basic 10Base-5 design - Transceiver deployment .......................... 15
Basic 10Base-5 design - Station deployment ................................. 16
Designing basic 10Base-2 Ethernet networks.................. 18
Introduction..................................................................................... 18
Components ................................................................................... 19
RG-58 coaxial cable ........................................................................ 19
Network Interface Card (NIC) ......................................................... 19
BNC connectors .............................................................................. 20
10Base-2 design ............................................................................ 21
Basic 10Base-2 design.................................................................... 21
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53
Designing basic 10Base-T Ethernet networks ................. 23
Introduction..................................................................................... 23
Components ................................................................................... 24
Unshielded twisted-pair cable ......................................................... 24
Network Interface Card (NIC) ......................................................... 24
10Base-T hub .................................................................................. 24
10Base-T design ............................................................................ 25
Basic 10Base-T design ................................................................... 25
Other Ethernet networks ..................................................... 28
Combined 10Base-5 and 10Base-2 ............................................ 28
10Base-FL ....................................................................................... 29
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54
Troubleshooting Ethernet networks.................................. 30
Introduction..................................................................................... 30
General troubleshooting guidelines .......................................... 31
Station/NIC problems.................................................................... 31
Cabling .......................................................................................... 32
Miscellaneous................................................................................ 32
Troubleshooting Ethernet ............................................................ 33
Coaxial cable Ethernet .................................................................... 33
Cable ............................................................................................. 33
Terminators ................................................................................... 34
Transceivers .................................................................................. 35
Connectors .................................................................................... 35
Network Interface Card (NIC) ....................................................... 35
Software considerations ................................................................ 36
Miscellaneous................................................................................ 36
Twisted-pair Ethernet ...................................................................... 36
Ethernet performance .......................................................... 37
Overview.......................................................................................... 37
Frame transmission rate .............................................................. 38
Estimating network traffic ............................................................ 44
Ethernet growth.................................................................... 50
Overview.......................................................................................... 50
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Example 6.1: Frame transmission rate
for a 1526 byte frame size ................................ 39
Example 6.2: Frame transmission rate
for a 72 byte frame size .................................... 41
Example 6.3: Estimating network traffic ................................. 45
Example 6.4: Estimating network traffic when
large files need to be accessed ....................... 48
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56
Figure 6.1: IEEE 802.3 frame format versus
Ethernet frame format ............................................. 7
Figure 6.2: Deploying the 10Base-5 trunk cable .................. 14
Figure 6.3: 10Base-5 transceiver deployment ...................... 15
Figure 6.4: 10Base-5 station deployment .............................. 17
Figure 6.5: 10Base-2 deployment .......................................... 22
Figure 6.6: Basic 10Base-T configuration ............................. 26
Figure 6.7: Structured 10Base-T design ................................ 27
Figure 6.8: Basic 10Base-FL configuration ........................... 29
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Chapter 6 - Ethernet Design

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