U. S.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
SO1 L CONSERVATION SERVICE
&INEERING DIVISION
TECHNICAL RELEASE NO. 41
GEOLOGY
MARCH 1969
U. S. Department of Agriculture
Soil Conservation Service
Engineering Division
GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS
OF
GEOLOGIC PROBLEMS
D. H. Hixson
Geologist
Technical Release No. 41
Geology
March 1969
GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS OF GEOLOGIC PROBLEMS
Contents
Introduction
Scope
Orthographic Projections
Depth to a Dipping Bed
Determine True Dip from One Apparent Dip and the Strike
Determine True Dip from Two Apparent Dip Measurements
at Same Point
Three Point Problem
Problems Involving Points, Lines, and Planes
Problems Involving Points and Lines
Shortest Distance between Two Non-Parallel,
Non-Intersecting Lines
Distance from a Point to a Plane
Determine the Line of Intersection of Two
Oblique Planes
Displacement of a Vertical Fault
Displacement of an Inclined Fault
Stereographic Projection
True Dip from Two Apparent Dips
Apparent Dip from True Dip
Line of Intersection of Two Oblique Planes
Rotation of a Bed
Rotation of a Fault
Poles
Rotation of a Bed
Rotation of a Fault
Vertical Drill Holes
Inclined Drill Holes
Combination Orthographic and Stereographic Technique
References
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Page
Figures
Orthographic Projection
Orthographic Projection
True Dip from Apparent Dip and Strike
True Dip from Two Apparent Dips
True Dip from Two Apparent Dips
True Dip from Two Apparent Dips
Three Point Problem
Three Point Problem
Fi g.
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Fig.
Fi g.
Fi g.
Fi g.
Fi g.
Fi g.
Fi g.
Fi g.
Fi g.
Fi g.
Fi g.
Fi g.
Fi g.
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Fig.
Fi g.
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Fi g.
Di st ance from a Poi nt t o a Line
Shor t es t Di st ance between Two Lines
Di st ance from a Poi nt t o a Pl ane
Nomenclature of Faul t Displacement
I nt e r s e c t i on of Two Oblique Pl anes
Displacement of a Ver t i cal Faul t
( r epeat ed)
Displacement of an I ncl i ned Faul t
Wulff Net
True Dip from Two Apparent Dips
Apparent Dip from True Dip
I nt e r s e c t i on of Two Oblique Pl anes
Rot a t i on
Rot at i on about an I ncl i ned Axis
Rot at i on about an I ncl i ned Axis
Rel at i onshi p between Pl anes and Pol es
Rot at i on usi ng Pol es
Rot at i on about an I ncl i ned Axis
True Dip from Ver t i cal Core Holes
True Dip from I ncl i ned Core Holes
I ncl i ned Faul t Problem
I ncl i ned Faul t problem
Page
17
1 9
21
23
2 5
2 7
2 9
31
3 3
3 5
37
39
41
4 3
45
4 7
4 9
5 1
5 3
5 5
57
57
GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS OF GEOLOGIC PROBLEMS
Introduction
The geologists and engineers in the Soil Conservation Service in the
course of their duties encounter problems in determining the true
location, attitude, or orientation of geologic structures.
These problems can usually be solved mathematically but the mathematics
is often quite involved. Graphical methods that are rapid and accurate
to use will give valid results.
Scope
This technical release covers some of the basic techniques in graphical
solutions of three dimensional problems involving points, lines, and
planes. These techniques will give attitude, location, distance, and
dimensions in the solution. The techniques of using hemispherical nets
for the solution of problems are also covered. These techniques while
they give attitudes and direction do not provide distance and dimension
in the solutions.
The procedures presented herein are not new or original but have been
used by geologists for a number of years. This is a compilation that
has assembled material from various sources into one document that
will be readily accessible to SCS geologists. If additional informa-
tion is desired about these techniques the reader is referred to the
references listed at the end of this TR.
Orthographic Projections
A geologic structure has a fixed position in the earth's crust. When
this position has been determined by a survey method (transit, plane
table and alidade, or compass bearing) the observer must consider
this position as fixed. If the observer wishes to view this structure
from another position, he must look directly at the position he wishes
to see. In a sense, the observer must think and visualize the struc-
ture in three dimensions. If he does this, he can always observe
directly the view he wishes to see.
The orthographic projection is a right-angle type of projection. It
uses parallel lines for projection at right angles to an image plane.
The image plane is the plane on which a view is projected. A folding
line is the intersection of two image planes.
Drawing equipment needed for solution of problems by orthographic pro-
jection are: paper, T-square and/or triangles, scale, protractor, and
drawing pencils. Dividers and a compass are useful at times, but a
scale can usually be used. The lines drawn should be fine and sharp
and points well defined. All angles and measurements must be laid off
accurately.
The pl an view i s t h e bas i c view. A l l ot her views must be r ot a t e d about
f ol di ng l i n e s i n t o t h e image pl ane which i s t he pl ane of t h e paper.
Fi gure 1 i s an i l l u s t r a t i o n of s ever al views pr oj ect ed by ort hographi c
pr oj ect i on. Basi c i nformat i on gi ven i s : a stratum of rock outcrops,
t he width of t he outcrop i s 0, and t he stratum di ps 45' due south.
The
i somet r i c sket ch ( not t o s c a l e ) i n t h e lower ri ght -hand cor ner i s t h e
bl ock of rock we a r e consi der i ng i n t h i s f i gur e.
From t h e gi ven i nformat i on views 1 and 2 a r e const r uct ed. The pl an view
(view 1) i s drawn f i r s t . The view t h a t can be drawn next i s a nort h-
sout h cr os s s ect i on. Thi s cr os s s ect i on i s r ot a t e d i n t o t h e pl ane of
t h e paper by r o t a t i o n around a f ol di ng l i n e ( FL) drawn i n a nort h-sout h
di r ect i on. The poi nt s A l , B1, ... H1 , a r e pr oj ect ed per pendi cul ar t o t h e
f ol di ng l i n e t o view 2. Poi nt C2F2 i s l ocat ed any conveni ent di s t ance
below t h e f ol di ng l i n e , the' 45O angl e l a i d o f f , and a l i n e drawn from
C2F2 t o t he i nt e r s e c t i on of t h e l i n e pr oj ect i ng poi nt s A l B l from view
1 t o view 2. Li ne E2D2-A2G2 i s p a r a l l e l t o C2F2-B2H2 and t h e var i ous
poi nt s found at t h e i nt e r s e c t i on of pr oj ect i on l i n e s from view 1.
It i s des i r abl e t o l a b e l a l l poi nt s and f ol di ng l i n e s . I n Fi gure 1
t he poi nt s a r e a l l l abel ed wi t h a l e t t e r and number. The l e t t e r
desi gnat i on remains t h e same i n a l l views whi l e t h e number por t i on
changes t o t h e view number. A conveni ent method of l abel i ng f ol di ng
l i n e s i s by us e of t h e symbol FL t o i ndi c a t e a f ol di ng l i n e and a two-
number desi gnat i on showing t h e view pr oj ect ed from and t h e view pro-
j ect ed t o . I n Fi gure 1 i n t h e l a b e l FL 112, FL i ndi cat es t h e f ol di ng
l i n e ; t h e 1 i ndi cat es on which s i de of t h e f ol di ng l i n e view 1 i s
l ocat ed and t h a t it was drawn f i r s t ; and t h e 2 i ndi cat es which s i d e of
t h e f ol di ng l i n e view 2 i s l ocat ed and t h a t it was drawn second and
by pr oj ect i on from view 1.
View 3 was drawn t h i r d by pr oj ect i on from view 1 a s i ndi cat ed by t h e
not at i on FL 113 on t h e f ol di ng l i n e . View 3 i s r e l a t e d t o view 1 i n
t h e same manner a s view 2 i s r e l a t e d t o view 1. Ther ef or e, a l l poi nt s
i n view 3 ( ~ 3 , B3, ... ~ 3 ) a r e l ocat ed t h e same di s t ance from FL 113 a s
poi nt s A2, B2, ... H2 a r e from FL 112 i n view 2.
View 5 was const r uct ed by pr oj ect i on from view 4 per pendi cul ar t o FL
415. View 4 i s r e l a t e d t o view 5 and t o view 1, t he r e f or e , poi nt A5
i s t h e same di s t ance from FL 415 as poi nt A 1 i s from FL 411.
Thi s r e l a t i ons hi p of views i s t h e ba s i s of ort hographi c pr oj ect i on.
Enough i nformat i on t o cons t r uct 2 views must be a va i l a bl e i f addi t i onal
views a r e t o be const r uct ed.
FIGURE 1.- Orthographi c proj ect i on.
Depth t o a Dipping Bed
Depth t o a di ppi ng bed may be r e a di l y det ermi ned i f t h e di p and s t r i k e
of t h e bed and s ur f ace el evat i ons a r e known.
Fi gure 2 i s t h e gr aphi cal s ol ut i on of a problem wi t h t h e fol l owi ng
dat a known: A t point A t he t op of a shale bed wi t h a di p of 15' t o
t he S45OW outcrops; a t point B 100 f eet due eas t of A t he bottom of
t he shale bed outcrops wi t h t he same di p and s t r i k e ; across a ridge
292 f eet due west i s t he la, point i n a val l ey on t he cent erl i ne of
a st ruct ure. Assume a l l three points are t he same el evat i on. A t
what depth would t he top of t he shale be encountered i n a t e s t hole,
what t hi ckness of shale would be penetrated by a ver t i cal t e s t hole,
what i s t he t rue t hi ckness of the shale, and what i s t he outcrop
width of t he shale?
To s ol ve t h i s problem, poi nt s A and B and t h e t e s t hol e a r e l ocat ed on
a pl an view. The s t r i k e of t h e s hal e at poi nt s A and B i s drawn
( ~ 4 5 ~ ~ ) and t he di r e c t i on of t h e di p i ndi cat ed. A f ol di ng l i n e
(FL 1/2) i s drawn e a s t of poi nt B and t h e s t r i k e of t h e two beds i s
pr oj ect ed t o t h e f ol di ng l i n e . An angl e of 15O i s l a i d of f between
t h e FL and poi nt A ( o r B) and t h e t o p and bottom of t h e s hal e bed i s
drawn. The t e s t hol e i s pr oj ect ed a t r i g h t angl es t o FL 1/ 2 and t h e
dept h, t hi cknes s , e t c . , measured from t h e drawing. If t h e el evat i on
of t h e t e s t hol e i s d i f f e r e n t t han poi nt s A and B, t h e di f f er ence i n
el evat i on can be s ubt r act ed o r added t o t h e dept h ( 60 f e e t ) a s s cal ed
from t h e drawing.
Test hole
0
0 50 100 200
P
Scal e i n f eet
FIGURE 2.-Orthographi c proj ect i on.
Determine True Dip from One Apparent Dip and t h e St r i k e
A bed s t r i k e s north-south and has an apparent di p of 20' t o t he N65'E.
What i s t he true di p of t he bed?
Fi gure 3 shows t h e s ol ut i on of t h i s problem by two methods--orthographic
pr oj ect i on and t angent vect or method.
I n t h e ort hographi c pr oj ect i on ( ~ i ~ u r e 3-A) a pl an view i s drawn showing
t h e s t r i k e and di r e c t i on of apparent di p. The apparent di p i's r ot a t e d
i n t o t h e pl ane of t h e paper around FL 112 and t h e apparent di p angl e
of 20 i s l a i d of f wi t h a pr ot r act or . A t any conveni ent di s t ance al ong
t he f ol di ng l i n e , such a s poi nt A, a per pendi cul ar i s dropped from
FL 112 t o t h e di ppi ng bed and t he di s t ance D i s measured. Fol di ng l i n e
311 i s drawn a t r i g h t angl es t o t h e s t r i k e of t h e bed and poi nt A i s
pr oj ect ed FL 311 at r i g h t angl es t o FL 311. The di s t ance D i s measured
i n view 3, t h e bed drawn i n and t he angl e of t r u e di p (22' ) measured
wi t h a pr ot r act or . The di r e c t i on of di p i s a t r i g h t angl es t o t h e
s t r i k e or due e a s t .
The t angent vect or method i s used i n f i gur e 3-B t o s ol ve t h e problem.
I n t h i s s ol ut i on t h e s t r i k e and di r e c t i on of apparent di p a r e pl ot t e d
i n t h e pl an view. A t a b l e of t r i gonomet r i c f unct i ons ( o r a s l i d e
r u l e ) i s used t o obt ai n t h e val ue of t h e t angent of 20' ( 0. 364) . Along
t h e apparent di p l i n e i n t h e pl an view 3. 64 u n i t s ( a u n i t i s any conven-
i e n t l e ngt h) a r e l a i d o f f . A per pendi cul ar i s dropped from t h e apparent
di p l i n e t o t h e l i n e r epr es ent i ng t h e bear i ng of t r u e di p and t h e di s-
t ance measured from t h e i nt e r s e c t i on t o poi nt A ( 4. 0 u n i t s i n t h i s
c a s e ) . The t a b l e of t r i gonomet r i c f unct i ons or t he s l i d e r u l e i s used
t o f i n d t h e angl e whose t angent i s 0. 40. The t r u e di p i s 21.8' due
e a s t .
Determine True Dip from Two Apparent Dip Measurements a t Same Poi nt
2bo apparent dips measured a t point A are: 30 0N40E and 15N150E.
Find the angle and di rect i on of t rue dip.
Fi gure 4 i s a s ol ut i on t o t h i s problem by ort hographi c pr oj ect i on. The
two apparent di ps or i gi nat i ng a t poi nt A a r e pl ot t e d i n t h e pl an view.
FL 2/ 1 and FL 1 / 3 p a r a l l e l t o t h e two apparent di ps a r e drawn and t h e
apparent di p angl es (15' and 30') a r e pl ot t ed.
A t any convenient poi nt on FL 211 a per pendi cul ar i s dropped t o t h e
di ppi ng bed and t h e di s t ance D measured. Thi s poi nt on FL 2/ 1 i s pro-
j ect ed t o t he bear i ng of t h e apparent di p ( poi nt 1) i n t h e pl an view.
The poi nt where a per pendi cul ar wi t h a l engt h of D from FL 113 t o t h e
di ppi ng bed i s l ocat ed on FL 113 and pr oj ect ed t o t he pl an view a s
poi nt 2. Poi nt s 1 and 2 i n t h e pl an a r e t h e l ocat i on of poi nt s of t h e
same el evat i on on t h e di ppi ng bed. A l i n e connect i ng poi nt s 1 and 2
i s t h e t r u e s t r i k e of t h e bed (Nh0w).
The t r u e di p i s per pendi cul ar t o t h e s t r i k e or ~ 8 6 ' ~ . The amount of
t r u e di p i s found by l ayi ng of f t h e same di s t ance D i n a view perpen-
di c ul a r t o and al ong t h e same s t r i k e l i n e def i ned by poi nt s 1 and 2.
Thi s i s shown i n view 4.
A l e s s c l ut t e r e d drawing f o r t h e s ol ut i on of t h i s problem can be con-
s t r uc t e d by usi ng t h e l i n e s i ndi cat i ng t h e di r e c t i on of apparent di ps
and t r u e di p a s t h e f ol di ng l i n e s . Thi s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fi gure 5.
Fi gure 6 i s a s ol ut i on by t h e t angent vect or method of t h e same
problem. The pl an view i s drawn. The t angent of 15' i s .268 and t h e
t angent of 30' i s .577. Therefore, 2. 68 and 5.77 u n i t s a r e l a i d of f
al ong t h e r es pect i ve apparent d i p bear i ng l i n e s . Perpendi cul ars a r e
drawn. A t r u e di p bear i ng l i n e i s drawn from poi nt A t o t h e i nt e r -
s ect i on of t h e two per pendi cul ar s and t he di s t ance ( 8. 27 u n i t s )
measured t o gi ve a t r u e di p of 39.6ON86.5OE.
FIGURE 4.-True di p f rom two apparent dips.
FI GURE 5. - Tr ue di p f r om t wo apparent di ps.
FI GURE 6 -Tangent vector met hod
Three Poi nt Problem
Any t h r e e poi nt s on a pl ane def i ne t h e l ocat i on of t h a t pl ane i f t hey
a r e not i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e . Therefore, t h e di p and s t r i k e of a t r u e
pl ane s ur f ace can be determined from t h r e e poi nt s . An example of t h e
s ol ut i on of t h i s t ype of problem f ol l ows.
I n a t e s t well at point A a key marker bed i s encountered a t an eleva-
t i on of 850 feet. Point B, the second t e s t wel l , i s 1000 f eet due
west of point A and the marker bed i s encountered a t an elevation of
620 f eet . A t point C, 800 f eet S2S0E from point B, a t hi rd t e s t we22
encounters t hi s marker bed a t elevation 720 feet. What i s the true
dip and st ri ke of t hi s marker bed?
The l ocat i on of t h e t hr e e poi nt s a r e p l o t t e d a t a conveni ent s c a l e i n
t h e pl an view ( ~ i g u r e 7-A). Line AE i s drawn above AB ( hi ghes t and
l owest poi nt s ) and di s t ances equi val ent t o t h e di f f er ence i n el evat i on
between poi nt s A and B l a i d of f at a convenient s cal e. A l i n e i s drawn
from t h e 230 mark on AE t o poi nt B ( di f f er ence i n el evat i on between A
and B) and a p a r a l l e l l i n e drawn from t h e 130 poi nt t o l i n e AB. The
i nt e r s e c t i on on AB i s a t an el evat i on of 720, t h e same as poi nt C , and
a l i n e connect i ng t h i s i nt e r s e c t i on and poi nt C i s t h e s t r i k e of t h e
bed. FL 112 i s drawn at r i g h t angl es t o t h e s t r i k e and poi nt s A, C ,
and B a r e pr oj ect ed perpendi cul ar t o t h e FL. Poi nt A i s on t h e FL
( hi ghes t p o i n t ) , poi nt C i s 130 f e e t below, and poi nt B i s 230 f e e t
below. A l i n e drawn t hrough t he s e 3 poi nt s def i nes t h e t r u e angl e of
di p i n view 2.
Fi gure 7B i s an a l t e r n a t e s ol ut i on of t h e same problem. Sect i ons from
t h e hi ghest poi nt ( A) t o t h e ot her two poi nt s ( B and C ) can be consi -
dered a s two apparent di ps and t h e problem sol ved a s descr i bed pr evi ousl y
under two apparent di ps from t h e same poi nt . I n t h e s ol ut i on FL 112
and FL 311 a r e drawn and 130 f e e t l a i d of f per pendi cul ar t o FL 112 a t
C and 230 f e e t per pendi cul ar t o FL 311 at B. Poi nt D i s t h e pr oj ect i on
i n t he pl an view where t h e bed i s 130 f e e t below poi nt A i n view 3.
Poi nt C and poi nt D a r e bot h 130 f e e t below A i n t he pl an view and a
l i n e connect i ng t he s e poi nt s def i nes t h e s t r i k e . FL 411 i s drawn
t hrough poi nt A and per pendi cul ar t o t h e s t r i k e and 130 f e e t s cal ed of f
i n view 4 per pendi cul ar t o FL 411 al ong t he s t r i k e l i n e def i ned i n t h e
pl an view. Thi s i s t h e angl e of t r u e di p; t h e bear i ng of t r u e di p i s
a t r i g h t angl es t o t h e s t r i k e .
I n problems s i mi l a r t o t h e above i f t h e di p angl es a r e very s mal l , it
i s d i f f i c u l t t o measure them wi t h a pr ot r act or . I f t he s e angl es a r e
convert ed t o l i n e a r measurements ( f e e t l mi l e , f e e t l f e e t , e t c . ) t h e
v e r t i c a l s c a l e can be exaggerat ed ( 10, 100, e t c . , t i mes ) t o provi de
a workable drawing. It i s i mport ant t o remember i f an exaggerat ed
v e r t i c a l s c a l e i s used t h e di p angl es cannot be measured wi t h a
pr ot r act or .
0 100 200 301
-
Scal e !, I feel
Problems Invol vi ng Poi nt s , Li nes, and Pl anes
I n working problems i nvol vi ng poi nt s , l i n e s , and pl anes , a l i n e i s
assumed t o be s t r a i g h t t hroughout i t s course and a pl ane i s assumed t o
be a t r u e pl ane.
A l i n e , t o be shown i n i t s t r u e l engt h i n a vi ew, must be pr oj ect ed t o
t h a t view by l i n e s of s i ght t h a t a r e a t r i g h t angl es t o t h e l i n e i n
t h e f i r s t view. St at ed i n anot her way, t o pr oj ect a l i n e t o a view
where it w i l l be shown i n i t s t r u e l engt h, t h e f ol di ng l i n e ( FL) i s
p a r a l l e l t o t h e l i n e i n t h e f i r s t view and t he l i n e s of s i ght a r e
perpendi cul ar t o t h e FL.
The t r u e sl ope of a l i n e can be seen onl y i n an el evat i on view which
shows t h e l i n e i n i t s t r u e l engt h. The t r u e s l ope can onl y be pr oj ect ed
from t h e pl an view. The t r u e l engt h of a l i n e can be pr oj ect ed from
views ot her t han t h e pl an view.
A l i n e w i l l appear a s a poi nt i n a view t aken a t r i g h t angl es t o t h e
l i n e shown i n i t s t r u e l engt h.
A pl ane w i l l appear a s a l i n e i n t h e view i n which any l i n e i n t h e
pl ane appears a s a poi nt . Therefore, t h e t r u e di r e c t i on and angl e of
di p of a pl ane w i l l be shown i n t h e el evat i on view at r i g h t angl es t o
t h e s t r i k e .
Problems Invol vi ng Poi nt s and Li nes
A Zine dips 20iV200E and outcrops a t point A. Point B l i e s 1000 f eet
IV6O0W from point A and i s 200 f eet lower. What i s t he distance and
.
slope i n a due east di rect i on from point B t o t he l i ne? What i s t he
short est distance, di rect i on, and slope from point B t o the Zine?
Fi gure 8 i s t h e s ol ut i on f o r t h e di s t ance and sl ope i n a due e a s t
di r ect i on. The pl an view (view 1) i s drawn from t h e gi ven dat a.
Note t h a t l i n e B1-C1 i s i n a due e a s t di r ect i on. FL 112 is p a r a l l e l
t o di ppi ng l i n e or i gi nat i ng s,t A and t h e angl e of di p (20') i s l a i d
of f . Poi nt B2 i n view 2 i s 200 f e e t below A2 and poi nt C2 i s on t h e
di ppi ng l i n e as pr oj ect ed from view 1. FL 311 i s drawn p a r a l l e l t o
B1-C1 and t he s e poi nt s pr oj ect ed t o view 3. The t r u e l engt h (1050
f e e t ) and t r u e s l ope (+0.5' ) of t h e l i n e i s found i n view 3. Note:
t h e di s t ances from FL 311 t o poi nt s B3 and C3 a r e equal t o t h e di s-
t ances from FL 112 t o poi nt B2 and C2.
200
OL_____.
Scale 111 f eet
Figure 9 is the solution for the shortest distance from point B to
the sloping line. The plan view is drawn except for point C1 which
is unknown. View 2 is drawn. The shortest distance from point B to
the sloping line is perpendicular to the sloping line in view 2.
Perpendicular B2-C2 is drawn and point C projected to the plan view
(view 1). Line B1-C1 is the true bearing of the shortest line, the
true length and slope is found by projection to view 3.
Scal e i n f eet
FIGURE 9.-Di stance f r om a p ~ n t t o a l i ne.
Shortest Distance Between Two Non-ParallelYgNon-Intersecting Lines
An i ncl i ned Zine outcrops a t point A and di ps 20' t rue north. Another
l i ne outcrops a t point 150; f eet N45OE &om point A and 500 f eet
lower and dips 30W NW (N67.5'W). Find the azimuth, slope, and
length of t he short est l i ne connecting t hese two i ncl i ned l i nes and
t he distance from point A and point C t o t he i nt ersect i on of t h i s con-
necting Zine.
The plan view showing the true azimuth of the two lines is drawn in
view 1, Figure 10. Points B1 and Dl are arbitrary points plotted to
provide two points on a line so the line may he projected ko other
views. View 3 is drawn to show the true length and slope of line CD.
View 2 is drawn to show the true length and slope of AB, and CD is
also projected to this view. View 4 (FL 214) is projected perpendicular
to line A2-B2. In view 4,sthis line is shown as point ~ 4 - ~ 4 .
The shortest distance from a line to a point is perpendicular to the
line. In view 4, ~ 4 - ~ 4 is perpendicular to ~ b D 4 and is the shortest
distance between line ~ 4 - ~ 4 and point ~ 4 ~ 4 . It is also shown in its
true length (540 feet). Point ~4 is projected back to view 2 and the
shortest distance ( ~ 2 - ~ 2 ) from a point ( ~ 2 ) to a line ( ~ 2 - ~ 2 ) is again
perpendicular to the line. Line X2-Y2 is not, however, shown in its
true length in this view. Points X2 and Y2 are projected to view 1 and
line X1-Y1 is the true bearing (~46'~) of the intersecting line con-
necting A1-B1 and C1-Dl. The true slope of this intersecting line
(57 1/2O) is shown by projecting to view 5 (FL 115 is parallel to ~ l - ~ l )
and the true length is again shown and checks (540 feet) with view 4.
As a further check on the accuracy of the drawing, view 6 perpendicular
to line C3-D3 could be made and same procedure of projections repeated.
0 200 ,100 600 1000
-- 4
. - : - +: . I---
Scale 11 f eet
Di st ance From a Poi nt t o a Pl ane
Points A, B, and C are three point s on a wlane. Point A h as an eleva-
t i on of 300 f eet . Point B ha> an elevati'on of 500 f eet and i s 1500 f eet
due east of A. Point C has an elevation of 800 f eet and i s 1750 feet
from point A and 1500 f eet from point B. Point E i s 300 f eet N4S0W of
point A at an elevation of 300 f eet . Find the distance from point E
t o the plane i n the di rect i on S4S0E with a plunge of 20'. Locate the
piercing point of the l i ne and plane and the angle between the l i ne
and plane.
The l ocat i on of t h e pi er ci ng poi nt of t h e l i n e and pl ane i s found i n
an edge view of t h e pl ane. The di s t ance from poi nt E t o t h e pi er ci ng
poi nt i s found i n t h e pr oj ect i on t h a t shows a t r u e view of t h e l i n e .
The angl e between t h e l i n e and pl ane i s seen i n t h e view t h a t shows
a t r u e view of t h e l i n e and an edge view of t he pl ane.
Fi gur e 11 i s t h e s ol ut i on of t h i s problem. The pl an view (view 1) and
view 2 ( ~ 4 5 ' ~ ) a r e drawn. The 20' angl e i s l a i d of f i n view 2 and
a r b i t r a r y poi nt F2 pi cked and pr oj ect ed t o view 1. View 3 i s any
v e r t i c a l s ect i on and drawn by pr oj ect i ng poi nt s A, B, and C and p l o t t i n g
them a t t h e i r proper el evat i on. Poi nt s E and F a r e pr oj ect ed wi t h
measurements obt ai ned from view 2. A l e v e l ( s t r i k e ) l i n e B3-D3 p a r a l l e l
t o F1 113 i s drawn i n view 3 and poi nt D pr oj ect ed t o t h e pl an view.
Line B1-Dl i s t h e s t r i k e of t h e pl ane. To f i n d t h e pi er ci ng poi nt of
t h e l i n e i n t h e pl ane, an edge view of t h e pl ane i s needed. Thi s i s
done i n view 4 wi t h FL 1 / 4 perpendi cul ar t o t h e s t r i k e ( ~ 1 - ~ 1 ) determined
i n view 1. Note t h a t i n view 4 t h e pl ane a s def i ned by poi nt s A, B,
and C must be extended t o l oc a t e t h e pi er ci ng poi nt ( ~ 4 ) . The pi er ci ng
poi nt (~4) can be pr oj ect ed back t o view 2 (t hrough view 1) t o show
t h e l engt h of EP (150 f e e t ) i n i t s t r u e view.
The angl e t h e l i n e EP makes wi t h t h e pl ane can onl y be seen i n i t s
t r u e pos i t i on i n a t r u e view of t h e l i n e and an edge view of t h e pl ane.
Thi s r equi r es two addi t i onal pr oj ect i ons . F i r s t view 5 i s drawn
p a r a l l e l t o ~ 4 - ~ 4 - ~ 4 , t o show t h e pl ane i n a t r u e view and t hen view
6 i s drawn p a r a l l e l t o E5-P5-F5 t o show t h e l i n e i n a t r u e view and
t h e pl ane as an edge view. The di s t ance ~ 6 - ~ 6 , t h e t r u e l engt h, checks
wi t h di s t ance E2-P2 (150 f e e t ) and angl e ~ 6 - ~ 6 - ~ 6 can be measured
(36') which i s t h e t r u e angl e between t he l i n e and pl ane.
The nomenclature for fault displacements as used in this technical
release is illustrated in Figure 12. This is the same nomenclature
as used by Billings (1954).
CA net s h p
DA d ~ p s l ~ p
BA st r i ke s l ~ p
EA throw
ED heave
Angl e ACD rake
Angl e EC4 plunge
FIGURE 12, -Nomencl at ure of f aul t di spl acement .
Determine t h e Line of I nt e r s e c t i on of Two Oblique Pl anes
I n t he following example determine t he bearing and plunge of t he l i ne
of i nt ersect i on between two planes and t he rake ( pi t c h) of t hat l i ne
i n each plane. The given information i s : a bed dips 30N100W and a
f aul t dips 20 OS45 OW.
I n Fi gure 1 3 t h e pl an view, view 1, i s drawn from t h e gi ven i nformat i on.
Draw t h e s t r i k e of t h e bed and f a u l t and i ndi cat e t h e di r e c t i on of di p.
Next, views 2 and 3 a r e drawn perpendi cul ar t o t h e s t r i k e and t h e amount
of di p i s pl ot t e d f o r each. A t an a r b i t r a r y di s t ance X below and
p a r a l l e l t o f ol di ng l i n e s 211 and 113 an auxi l l ar y pl ane i s drawn. This
auxi l l ar y pl ane def i nes a common di s t ance below t h e pl an view and
remains const ant t hroughout t h e s ol ut i on of t h e problem. Poi nt s A and
B a r e t h e pr oj ect i ons t o t h e pl an view of t h e i nt e r s e c t i on of t h e f a u l t
and t h e bed wi t h t he a uxi l l a r y pl ane. These poi nt s ( A and B) def i ne,
i n t h e pl an view, a poi nt on t h e f a u l t and t h e bed t h a t i s X di s t ance
beneat h t h e s ur f ace. A l i n e drawn from A t o C p a r a l l e l t o t h e s t r i k e
of t h e f a u l t i s a s t r uc t ur e cont our on t h e f a u l t pl ane. The l i n e from
B t o C i s a l s o a s t r uc t ur e cont our on t h e bed a t t h e same el evat i on a s
t h e s t r uc t ur e cont our ' on t h e f a u l t . These two s t r uc t ur e cont ours
i nt e r s e c t a t poi nt C. Poi nt 0 i s t he i nt e r s e c t i on of t h e f a u l t and bed
i n t h e pl an view and poi nt C i s t h e pr oj ect i on i n t o t h e pl an view of
t h e i nt e r s e c t i on of t h e a uxi l l a r y pl ane o r s t r uc t ur e cont ours. Two
poi nt s on t h e i nt e r s e c t i on det ermi ne t h e bear i ng of t h e i nt e r s e c t i on,
t her ef or e, l i n e OC connect i ng t hes e poi nt s i s t h e bear i ng ( ~ 7 9 ~ ~ ) of
t h e i nt e r s e c t i on of t h e two pl anes. The plunge of t h e i nt e r s e c t i on i s
determined i n a v e r t i c a l s ect i on. FL 411 i s drawn p a r a l l e l t o N7g0W,
poi nt s 0 and C pr oj ect ed perpendi cul ar t o FL 411 and di s t ance X l a i d
of f on t h e pr oj ect i on of poi nt C and t h e angl e measured.
To det ermi ne t h e r ake ( p i t c h ) of t h e i nt e r s e c t i on i n t h e pl ane of t he
f a u l t , it i s necessary t o r o t a t e t h e f a u l t i n t o t h e pl an view. Use GH
as a r adi us and G a s t h e cent er , draw an a r c t o i n t e r s e c t FL 113.
Thi s
poi nt on FL 113 i s t h e l ocat i on of poi nt H when t h e f a u l t i s r ot a t e d
i n t o a hor i zont al pos i t i on. A l i n e i s drawn from t h i s poi nt on FL 113
p a r a l l e l t o t h e s t r i k e of t h e f a u l t ( t h i s l i n e i s a l s o a s t r uc t ur e
cont our l i n e X di s t ance beneat h t h e s ur f ace r ot a t e d t o t h e s ur f ace ) .
A perpendi cul ar from t h i s l i n e t o poi nt C def i nes poi nt D. Thi s i s
t h e same r e l a t i ons hi p a s poi nt A has on t h e GH ar c on FL 113.
Poi nt
D i s t he pr oj ect i on of poi nt C when t h e f a u l t i s r ot a t e d i n t o t h e
hor i zont al ( pl an) view. The r ake of t h e i nt e r s e c t i on of t hes e two
pl anes i n t h e pl ane of t h e f a u l t i s measured between t h e s t r i k e of t he
f a u l t and l i n e OD, which i s on t h e pl ane of t h e f a u l t r ot a t e d i n t o t h e
pl an view.
The r ake of t h e i nt e r s e c t i on i n t h e pl ane of t h e bed i s determined i n
t h e same manner s t a r t i n g from view 2 and r o t a t i n g t h e a uxi l l a r y pl ane
i n t o t he hor i zont al .
Displacement of a Vertical Fault
The displacement of a vertical fault can be determined if the attitude
and location of two displaced horizons on each side of the fault are
known. The location of additional horizons on one side of the fault
can be found if their location on the other side is known.
Figure 14 is the graphical solution of the following problem: A ver t i cal
f aul t s t r i kes east-west and i s exposed a t point A; a vei n wi t h a dip of
30S300E outcrops a t point B on t he north si de of t he f aul t and point
C on t he south si de of t he f aul t . Another vei n wi t h a di p of 45OS45OW
outcrops a t point D on the north si de of the f aul t and point E on t he
south si de of the f aul t . A t hi rd vei n wi t h a di p of 20S700W outcrops
a t point F.
Point B i s 300 f eet north of A
Point C i s 300 f eet south of A
Point D i s 2500 f eet east of B
P ~ i n t E i s 2500 f eet east of C
Point F i s 2500 f eet east of E
Find t he t rue displacement of t he f aul t and find continuation of t hi rd
vei n on north si de of f aul t .
The vertical fault and the six points are drawn in the plan view as
shown in Figure 14. Through points B y C, D, E, and F strike lines are
drawn for the veins and extended to intersect the vertical fault. The
direction of dip is indicated on each strike line.
Next draw views 2, 3, and 4 with the folding lines perpendicular to
the strike. The angle of dip is laid off in the proper direction in
each view and an auxiliary plane "h" distance below the folding line
is drawn. This h distance is the same wherever used in the solution
of this problem. It represents the elevation of a structure contour
line on the vein at h distance below the surface. Points M and L are
the location projected into the plan view of the intersection of these
structure contours and the vertical fault.
Next it is necessary to find the line of intersection of the veins on
the fault. To do this the fault is rotated into the horizontal or plan
view about its trace at the surface. Since this is a vertical fault
the structure contour at h elevation on the fault when rotated into the
horizontal will be h distance from the trace and is drawn as RR on
Figure 14. Points M and L which are the location of the intersection
of the structure contours of the veins and the fault must also be
rotated into the horizontal. This is done by drawing perpendiculars
from M and L to RR. Lines are drawn from J through the intersection
of M on RR and K through the intersection of L on RR to their inter-
section at S. These lines are the trace rotated into the horizontal
of the veins on the south wall of the fault and S is their point of
intersection. Lines parallel to JS and KS are drawn from the inter-
section of the veins on the north side of the fault and the fault to
their intersection at N. These lines are the trace of the veins on the
0 500
-
Scal e i n feet
Fi GJRE 14.- Di spl acement of a ver t i cal f aul t .
nor t h wal l of t h e f a u l t and N i s t h e i r i nt er s ect i on. Si nce S and N
were t oget her bef or e f a u l t i n g l i n e SN i s t he net s l i p . The di p and
s t r i k e components can be determined by cons t r uct i ng t he hor i zont al and
v e r t i c a l components a s shown.
Poi nt N i s down and t o t h e e a s t of poi nt S s o t h e r e l a t i v e movement of
t h e f a u l t i s t h e nor t h bl ock moved down and t o t h e e a s t i n r e l a t i o n t o
t h e sout h bl ock. The net s l i p i s 330 f e e t , t h e s t r i k e s l i p i s 90 f e e t ,
and the di p s l i p i s 310 f e e t .
To f i n d t he ext ensi on of t h e t h i r d vei n on t h e nor t h s i de of t he f a u l t ,
view 4 i s drawn wi t h angl e of di p and h di s t ance l a i d of f and poi nt P
found by . pr oj ect i on. A per pendi cul ar from P t o RR i s made and t he l i n e
from Q t hrough t h e pr oj ect i on drawn. SN i n i t s proper or i e nt a t i on and
l engt h i s t r ansposed t o some convenient l ocat i on such a s S' N' . A l i n e
p a r a l l e l t o S'Q i s drawn from N' t o t h e v e r t i c a l f a u l t . Thi s i s t he
poi nt where t he vei n on t h e nor t h s i de of t h e f a u l t i n t e r s e c t s t h e
f a u l t . The s t r i k e of t h e vei n i s drawn and poi nt G on t h e vei n i s
found t o be 2,280 f e e t e a s t of poi nt D.
0 500
1- -
Scale In feet
FIGURE 14. - (repeated)
Displacement of an I ncl i ned Faul t
The gr aphi cal s ol ut i on of an i ncl i ned f a u l t problem i s much t h e same
as wi t h t he v e r t i c a l f a u l t . Figure 15 i s t he sol ut i on of t he same
problem as gi ven for Figure 14 except i n t h i s problem t he f aul t di ps
45' south.
The pl an view i s l a i d out and views 2, 3, and 4 drawn a s bef or e. The
di s t ance h, an a r b i t r a r y di s t ance below t h e f ol di ng l i n e s , def i nes an
auxiliary pl ane or s t r u c t u r e cont our and h remains const ant wherever
used throughout t h e problem.
View 5 of t h e f a u l t i s drawn, t h e angl e of t h e f a u l t (45' ) and t h e h
di s t ance pl ot t ed. Line RR i s t h e t r a c e on t h e f a u l t of t h e s t r uc t ur e
cont our h di s t ance below t h e s ur f ace p r ~ j ~ e c t e d i n t o t h e pl an view.
Poi nt s M, L, and P a r e t h e pr oj ect i on i n t o t h e pl an view of t h e i nt e r -
s ect i on of t h e s t r uc t ur e cont ours on t h e vei ns wi t h t h e s t r uc t ur e
cont our on t h e f a u l t .
To f i n d t he net s l i p of t h e f a u l t , t h e f a u l t must be r ot a t e d about W
i n t o t h e hor i zont al or pl an view. Thi s i s done by swinging an a r c i n
view 5 usi ng t h e i nt e r s e c t i on of VV and FL 115 as t he cent er and t h e
i nt e r s e c t i on of h and t h e di ppi ng f a u l t as t h e r adi us . Line TT i s
drawn p a r a l l e l t o W t hrough t h e poi nt where t h e ar c i n t e r s e c t s FL 115.
Perpendi cul ars a r e dropped from poi nt s M and P t o TT. The poi nt S'
i s def i ned by t h e i nt e r s e c t i on of l i n e s from J t hrough t he pr oj ect i on
of M on TT and K t hrough t h e pr oj ect i on of L on TT. N' i s def i ned by
drawing l i n e s from t h e i nt e r s e c t i on of t h e vei ns on t h e nor t h s i de of
t he f a u l t wi t h W p a r a l l e l t o JS' and LS' . S' N' i s t he net s l i p of
t h e f a u l t (1050 f e e t ) .
The pr oj ect i on i n t o t h e pl an view of t h e net s l i p of t h e f a u l t i s SN.
Thi s i s found by drawing l i n e s J M and KL t o S and l i n e s p a r a l l e l t o JS
and KS from t he vei ns on t h e nor t h s i de of t h e f a u l t t o N. The r e l a t i v e
movement al ong t h e f a u l t i s t h e nor t h s i de moved down and t o t h e e a s t
i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e sout h s i de .
To f i n d t he plunge of t h e net s l i p , a view p a r a l l e l t o NS t o show NS
i n i t s t r u e pos i t i on can be const r uct ed. This view can be moved t o an
uncl ut t er ed pa r t of t h e paper and const r uct ed i n t he fol l owi ng s t eps .
Find t h e di f f er ence i n el evat i on between poi nt s N and S. Thi s i s
accomplished by pr oj ect i ng poi nt s N and S p a r a l l e l t o VV t o t h e i r i nt e r -
s ect i on wi t h t he f a u l t i n view 5 . Si nce N and S were t oget her bef or e
f a ul t i ng, pr oj ect i ng t h e i r i nt e r s e c t i on on t h e f a u l t t o l i n e W gi ves
t h e i n t e r v a l 1, 2, which i s t h e i r di f f er ence i n el evat i on. On a sepa-
r a t e pa r t of t h e paper l a y of f t h e di s t ance (850 f e e t ) SN. From N drop
a perpendi cul ar equal t o t h e di f f er ence i n el evat i on 1-2, t hen draw
S-2. The plunge of t h e net s l i p i s 4b0, t h e net s l i p (S-2) i s 1050 f e e t
and i s equal t o S' N' .
To f i n d t he l ocat i on of t h e t h i r d vei n on t h e nor t h s i de of t he f a u l t , a
l i n e i s drawn from Q t hrough t h e pr oj ect i on of P on TT. Thi s l i n e i n t e r s e c t s
S'N' a t S' . A l i n e p a r a l l e l t o QS' i s drawn from N' t o W. The s t r i k e of
t h e t h i r d vei n i s drawn from t h i s i nt e r s e c t i on on W. Poi nt G on t h e t h i r d
vei n i s found 3,620 f e e t e a s t of poi nt D.
FIGURE 15 -Displacement of an ~ n c l l n e i i f aul t
St ereographi c Pr oj ect i on
St ereographi c pr oj ect i on i s a r api d method of s ol vi ng some geol ogi c
problems i f angl es and s p a t i a l r e l a t i ons between l i n e s and pl anes a r e
needed. The fol l owi ng examples i l l u s t r a t e some of t h e uses of st er eo-
graphi c pr oj ect i ons .
The st er eogr aphi c o r Wulff meri di onal s t er eonet i s shown i n Fi gure
16. Ext r a copi es a r e provi ded at t h e back of t h i s t echni cal r el eas e.
I f a sphere wi t h meri di onal o r gr eat c i r c l e s and pol e o r smal l c i r c l e s
drawn two degrees apar t on i t s s ur f ace wa s c ut i n hal f t hrough t h e pol e s ,
Fi gure 16 i s a pr oj ect i on of t he s e a r c s on t h e equat or i al pl ane. The
bear i ng of l i n e s o r pl anes i s measured from t he nor t h and sout h pol es
al ong t h e smal l c i r c l e s . The di p of l i n e s and pl anes i s measured al ong
t h e gr eat c i r c l e s , t h e amount ( degr ees ) of d i p bei ng counted i n from
t h e per i pher y of t h e net al ong t he east -west axi s .
FI GURE 16. - W~lff net
True Dip from Two Apparent Dips
I f , from a common point, two apparent dips are measured, 30N400E and
15N150E, det emi ne the bearing and amount of true dip.
Fi gure 17 i s t h e s ol ut i on of t h i s problem. The s t e r e one t , Fi gure 16,
i s t aped t o a desk or drawing board and over l ai d by t r a c i n g paper.
The t r a c i ng paper i s f as t ened a t t h e cent er of t h e net e i t h e r by a p i n
o r a r ever sed thumb t ack pl aced beneat h t h e net s o t h a t it may be
r ot a t e d. The nor t h, s out h, e a s t , and west poi nt s on t h e peri met er of
t h e net a r e marked on t h e t r a c i n g paper.
With t h e f our car di nal compass poi nt s marked on t he t r a c i ng paper and
i n t h e i r t r u e pos i t i ons wi t h r es pect t o t he s t e r e one t , l i n e s i ndi cat i ng
t h e bear i ng of t h e two apparent di ps ( ~ 1 5 ' ~ and ~ 4 0 ' ~ ) a r e drawn from
t he cent er of t h e net t o t h e edge. Next t h e paper i s r ot a t e d s o t h e
~ 4 0 ' ~ l i n e coi nci des wi t h t h e e a s t l i n e of t h e n e t . The amount of di p
(30' ) i s counted i n from t h e peri met er and marked. The ~15' E l i n e i s
t hen r ot a t e d t o t he e a s t di amet er and 15' counted i n from t h e per i met er
and marked. The paper i s t hen r ot a t e d u n t i l t h e two apparent di ps
(15' and 30') l i e on t h e same gr eat c i r c l e . The gr e a t c i r c l e i s t r aced
and t h e nort h-sout h ( s t r i k e ) and e a s t ( di p) di amet er drawn. The amount
of t r u e di p i s 40' counted i n from per i met er of gr e a t c i r c l e on t h e
e a s t di amet er. The paper i s t hen r ot a t e d t o i t s o r i g i n a l pos i t i on
wi t h t h e two apparent di ps i n t h e N15OE and ~ 4 0 ' ~ di r e c t i on and t h e
bear i ng of t r u e di p i s r ead a s ~ 8 6 ' ~ .
FIGURE 17.-True di p from t wo apparent di ps.
Amarent Di x, from True Di x,
When drawing cr oss s ect i ons and ot her t ype i l l u s t r a t i o n s , it i s not
always pos s i bl e t o draw them perpendi cul ar t o t he s t r i k e . I n t hes e
cases t h e apparent di p shoul d be p l o t t e d , not t r u e di p. The s t er eo-
net i s a f a s t method of obt ai ni ng apparent di ps when t he t r u e di p i s
known.
The fol l owi ng problem i s an example. A bed dips 30!i400W. What i s
t he apparent di p i n the S70W di rect i on?
Fi gure 18 i s t he s ol ut i on of t h i s problem. The bear i ng of t r u e d i p
(~40'~) and di r e c t i on of apparent di p (~70'~) a r e pl ot t e d; t h e bear i ng
of t r u e di p i s r ot a t e d t o t h e west di amet er; 30' counted i n from t he
per i met er ; and t h e gr eat c i r c l e i s drawn. The paper i s t hen r ot a t e d
s o t h e l i n e of t h e bear i ng of t h e apparent di p des i r ed (~70'~) i s on
t he west di amet er and t h e amount of apparent di p (11') count ed i n from
t h e peri met er.
N
I
W -
- E
I
S
FI GURE 18 - Apparent d ~ p froni t rue d r ~ p
Line of I nt e r s e c t i on of Two Oblique Pl anes
A bed dips 30N1 OOW and a f aul t di ps 20 OS45 OW. What i s t he bearing
and plunge the l i ne of i nt ersect i on betueen t he bed and t he f aul t and
what i s t he rake of t h i s l i ne i n t he plane of t he bed and i n t he
plane of t he f aul t ?
Fi gure 19 i s t h e s ol ut i on. The bear i ng of t h e di p of t h e bed and t h e
f a u l t a r e drawn. The NI OOW l i n e i s r ot a t e d t o t h e west di amet er and
30 count ed i n and t h e gr eat c i r c l e drawn. Thi s i s r epeat ed f o r t h e
~ 4 5 ~ ~ l i n e . A l i n e from t h e cent er of t he net t hrough t he poi nt of
i nt e r s e c t i on of t h e two gr eat c i r c l e s i s t h e l i n e of i nt e r s e c t i on of
t h e two pl anes. Rot at i ng t h e t r a c i n g paper t o i t s o r i g i n a l pos i t i on
t h e bear i ng of t h e i nt e r s e c t i on i s ~ 8 1 ~ ~ . Rot at e t h e paper s o t h e
N81w l i n e i s on t h e west di amet er and t h e pl unge of t h e i nt e r s e c t i on
count i ng i n from t h e per i pher y i s 12'.
To det ermi ne t h e r ake of t h e l i n e of i nt e r s e c t i on i n t h e pl ane of t h e
f a u l t r o t a t e t h e t r a c i n g paper s o t h e s t r i k e of t h e f a u l t i s al ong
t h e nort h-sout h axi s . The r ake (36' ) i s found by count i ng t h e smal l
c i r c l e s from t h e nor t h pol e al ong t h e gr eat c i r c l e of t h e f a u l t t o t h e
poi nt of i nt e r s e c t i on determined above. To det ermi ne t h e r ake of t h e
l i n e f o r t h e bed, t h e s t r i k e of t h e bed i s pl aced on t he nort h-sout h
a xi s and t h e angl e found by agai n count i ng t h e smal l c i r c l e t o t h e
poi nt of i nt e r s e c t i on.
FIGURE 19 - I nt er sect i on of t wo obl i que pl anes
Rot at i on of a Bed
Occasi onal l y it i s des i r abl e t o r e s t or e t o t h e i r o r i g i n a l pos i t i oc
beds, f a u l t s , and j oi nt s t h a t have been r ot at ed. Thi s i s e a s i l y and
qui ckl y done by st er eogr aphi c pr oj ect i on. The fol l owi ng problem i s
an example.
!lbo beds are separated by an unconformity. The top bed dips 15S200E
and t he lower bed dips 40N200E. Find t he dip and s t r i k e of the lower
bed when t he top bed was horizontal (being deposi t ed).
I n Fi gure 20 t h e gr eat c i r c l e s f o r t h e di p and s t r i k e of t h e two beds
a r e drawn as i n t h e previ ous examples. To f i n d t h e d i p and s t r i k e of
t h e lower bed when t h e t op bed was hor i zont al it i s necessary t o
r o t a t e t h e t op bed i n t o t he hor i zont al and t h e bottom bed t hrough t h e
same amount of r ot a t i on. Thi s i s accomplished by moving t h e paper s o
t he s t r i k e l i n e of t h e t o p bed i s on t h e nort h-sout h di amet er. A l l
poi nt s on t h e gr eat c i r c l e of t h e t op bed when it i s r ot a t e d 15O i n t o
t h e hor i zont al w i l l f a l l on t h e peri met er of t he net . Thi s i ncl udes
poi nt A which i s t he i nt e r s e c t i on of t h e two gr eat c i r c l e s . Likewise
a l l ot her poi nt s on t h e gr eat c i r c l e of t h e lower bed w i l l a l s o r o t a t e
15' al ong t h e smal l c i r c l e s . A few of t he s e poi nt s a r e i ndi cat ed by
t h e dashed l i n e s . Poi nt A i s a pos i t i on of zero di p, s o it i s r ot a t e d
t o t h e nor t h pol e. A gr eat c i r c l e i s drawn from poi nt A and connect i ng
t h e ends of t h e dashed a r c s . Thi s gr eat c i r c l e (dashed) r epr es ent s
t h e pos i t i on of t h e lower bed ( 52O~12' ~) when t h e t op bed was hor i zont al .
Rot at i on of a Faul t
I f t he same bed has a di f f e r e nt di p and s t r i k e on opposi t e s i des of a
f a u l t , r o t a t i o n al ong t h e f a u l t has occurred. I n t h e previ ous example
r o t a t i o n of t h e bed was about a hor i zont al a xi s . To s ol ve problems of
r o t a t i o n about an i ncl i ned a xi s , an addi t i onal s t e p of r o t a t i n g t h e
axi s i n t o a hor i zont al o r v e r t i c a l pos i t i on bef or e r o t a t i n g t h e beds
i s r equi r ed.
The fol l owi ng problem i s an example. A f aul t dips 30N200E. A bed i n
t he south block dips 1 0 " ~ 2 0 ~ ~ , and a bed i n t he north block dips 28N300W.
What has been t he rot at i on of t he north block wi t h respect t o t he south .
block (angle and clockwise or counter-clockwise) and i s t he f aul t moue-
ment simple rot at i on?
The problem can be sol ved i n t h r e e s t eps . F i r s t t h e f a u l t pl ane i s
r ot a t e d i n t o t he hor i zont al , t he beds a r e moved t hrough t h e same angl e
of r ot a t i on, t h e angl e of r o t a t i o n between t h e beds can t hen be measured.
Second t h e f a u l t pl ane i s r ot a t e d t o t h e v e r t i c a l and t h e beds agai n
move t h e same amount. Thi rd t h e nor t h bed i s r ot a t e d t hrough t h e angl e
of r o t a t i o n determined i n t h e fi rst s t e p about an a xi s per pendi cul ar
t o t h e f a u l t pl ane t o s ee i f it coi nci des wi t h t h e sout h bed. If it
does, t h e f a u l t movement i s si mpl e r ot a t i on.
I n Fi gure 21A t h e gr eat c i r c l e s r epr es ent i ng t h e a t t i t u d e and di p of
t h e two beds and t h e f a u l t a r e pl ot t e d as bef or e. Rot at i on has occurred
al ong t h e f a u l t , t her ef or e, t h e a xi s of r o t a t i o n of t h e f a u l t must be
perpendi cul ar t o t h e f a u l t . To measure t h e angul ar di f f er ence ( angl e
of r o t a t i o n ) between t h e two beds t h e a xi s or r o t a t i o n of t h e f a u l t i s
r ot a t e d t o t h e v e r t i c a l ( f a u l t r ot a t e d t o hor i z ont a l ) . The two beds a r e
r ot a t e d t hrough t he same angl e. To do t h i s t h e s t r i k e of t h e f a u l t i s
pl aced on t he nort h-sout h di amet er and t h e di p on t h e e a s t di amet er.
When t h e f a u l t i s r ot a t e d 30' i n t o t h e hor i zont al i t s gr e a t c i r c l e
coi nci des wi t h t h e per i pher y of t h e net . With t h e t r a c i n g paper hel d
i n t h e same pos i t i on t h e two gr eat c i r c l e s r epr es ent i ng t h e two beds
a r e r ot a t e d 30' i n t h e same di r e c t i on a s i ndi cat ed by t h e dashed l i n e s .
Great c i r c l e s , i ndi cat ed by t h e hachure l i n e s , a r e found by r o t a t i n g
t he t r a c i n g paper u n t i l t h e poi nt s pr oj ect ed by dot t ed l i n e s l i e on
t he same gr eat c i r c l e . The angl e between t h e two beds can be measured,
as i ndi cat ed, on t h e per i pher y of t h e net .
FIGURE 21 A.-Rotation about an i ncl i ned axi s.
Fi gure 21B shows t h e second and t h i r d s t eps . I n t h e second s t e p t h e
f a u l t i s r ot a t e d t o a v e r t i c a l pos i t i on, t h e a xi s of r o t a t i o n of t h e
f a u l t w i l l t hen be hor i zont al and t h e beds can t hen be r ot a t e d about
t h e hor i zont al axi s . Rot at i on of t h e f a u l t t o t h e v e r t i c a l i s oppo-
s i t e of t h e hor i zont al r o t a t i o n done i n t h e f i r s t s t ep. The s t r i k e of
t h e f a u l t ( o r i g i n a l pl ot t e d pos i t i on agai n) i s pl aced on t he nort h-
sout h a xi s and di p on t h e e a s t di amet er. To r o t a t e t h e f a u l t t o t h e
v e r t i c a l it i s r ot a t e d 60' down ( e a s t t o wes t ) , t h e gr e a t c i r c l e w i l l
t hen coi nci de wi t h t h e nort h-sout h a xi s of t h e net . With t h e t r a c i n g
paper hel d i n t h e same pos i t i on t h e two beds a r e r ot a t e d 60 i n t h e
same di r ect i on. Thei r new l ocat i ons a r e i ndi cat ed by t h e hachured
gr eat c i r c l e s .
The t h i r d s t e p i nvol ves r o t a t i n g t he nor t h bed t hrough t h e angl e
determined i n t h e f i r s t s t e p about t h e axis of r o t a t i o n normal t o t h e
f a u l t . To do t h i s t h e t r a c i ng paper i s r ot a t e d s o t he s t r i k e of t h e
f a u l t i s pl aced on t h e east -west di amet er. The nor t h bed i s r ot a t e d
4 7 O as i ndi cat ed by t h e dot t ed l i n e s .
When r ot a t e d t hrough t h e angl e of 47' t h e nor t h bed coi nci des wi t h
t he sout h bed, t her ef or e, t h e movement of t h e f a u l t has been si mpl e
r o t a t i o n of 47' of t h e nor t h bl ock counter-clockwise wi t h r es pect t o
t he sout h bl ock.
Pol es
Rot at i on of beds on t h e s t er eonet can be made more expedi t i ousl y by
usi ng poi nt s r epr es ent i ng t h e pol es of pl anes i ns t ead of t h e pl anes
t hemsel vt : ~. The pol e of a pl ane i s a l i n e per pendi cul ar t o t h e pl ane
and passi ng t hrough t h e cent er of t h e s t er eonet . Every pl ane, repre-
sent ed by a gr eat c i r c l e on t h e s t er eonet , has a unique poi nt a l s o on
t he net t h a t r epr es ent s t he pol e of t h e pl ane.
Fi gure 22 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e r e l a t i ons hi p between pol es and pl anes.
Fi gure 22A i s a t hr e e di mensi onal drawing of t h e lower r ef er ence
hemisphere. A pl ane (rock s t r at um) def i ned by poi nt s N B $ 0 di ps
45O due e a s t . Line A0 per pendi cul ar t o t he pl ane and passi ng t hrough
t h e cent er of t h e net i s t he pol e. Pr oj ect i ng t he pol e and pl ane t o
t he s t er eonet i n Fi gure 21B t h e pl ane i s def i ned by t h e gr eat c i r c l e
N C S and t h e pol e by poi nt P. I f t h e pl ane had di pped 3 0 ~ ~ 4 5 ' ~ t h e
l ocat i on of t he poi nt def i ni ng t he pol e would be 60' i n from t h e
-
peri phery o r 30' out from t h e cent er of t he net and have a ~45'~
bear i ng.
B
0
FI GURE 22. -Rel at i onshi p between pl anes and poles.
Rot at i on of a Bed
The problem i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fi gure 20 can be sol ved usi ng pol es i ns t ead
of pl anes. The problem r e i t e r a t e d i s: Tuo beds are separated by an
unconf omi t y. The top bed dips 1S0S20 O E and t he lower bed di ps 40 ON20 O E .
Find t he di p and s t r i k e of t he Zower bed when t he top bed was hori zont al .
The pol e f o r t h e t o p bed i s l ocat ed 15' out from t h e cent er of t h e net
(75' i n from per i pher y) wi t h a bear i ng of N20w. The pol e f o r t he
lower bed i s 40' out from t h e cent er of t h e net (50' i n from per i pher y)
wi t h a bear i ng of ~ 2 0 ' ~ . Beari ngs a r e l a i d of f on t h e per i met er of
t h e net and di p counted of f on t h e gr e a t c i r c l e s on t h e east -west
di amet er and t h e l ocat i on of t h e two pol es a r e pl ot t e d. Poi nt T i s
t he pol e of t he t op bed and poi nt L t h e lower bed. To det ermi ne t h e
a t t i t u d e of t h e lower bed when t h e t op bed was hor i zont al t he t op bed
must be r ot a t e d i n t o t h e hor i zont al . To accomplish t h i s t h e t r a c i n g
paper i s r ot a t e d u n t i l poi nt T i s on t h e east-west di amet er (west s i de
of c e nt e r ) . When t h e bed i s r ot a t e d i n t o t h e hor i zont al t h e pol e w i l l
be v e r t i c a l ; t he r e f or e , poi nt T moves 15' t o 0 and, wi t hout moving t h e
t r a c i ng paper, poi nt L i s r ot a t e d 15' al ong t he smal l c i r c l e i n t h e
same di r e c t i on a t T t o poi nt L1. The poi nt L1 i s t he pol e of t h e lower
bed when t he t op bed was hor i zont al . The bear i ng of poi nt L1 i s S 1 2 ' ~
and t h e di p counted i n from t h e per i pher y al ong t h e east -west di amet er
i s 38'. The a t t i t u d e of t he lower bed, t he r e f or e , i s 52' (90'-38')
~12'~.
FI GURE 23 - Rot at ~on usi ng pol es
Rot at i on of a Faul t
The problem sol ved i n Fi gure 21 ( r o t a t i o n about a f a u l t ) can a l s o be
sol ved usi ng poi nt s r epr es ent i ng t h e pol es of pl anes.
Fi gure 24 i s
t h e s ol ut i on usi ng t h i s method.
As gi ven bef or e, a f aul t dips 30 Oh 7 2 0 O E , a bed i n t he south block dips
10N200W, and a bed i n t he north block dips 28ON3O O E .
What has been
the rot at i on of t he north block wi t h respect t o t he south block and i s
t he f aul t movement s i p Z e rot at i on.
The pol e of t h e f a u l t ( PF) i s ~ O ~ S ~ O O W ( a l l angl es of d i p counted i n
from per i pher y of n e t ) , t h e pol e of t h e sout h bed (PSB) i s 80S200E,
and t h e pol e of t h e nor t h bed (PNB) i s 620s 30 ~.
The pol es a r e pl ot t e d on t h e t r a c i n g paper a s shown i n Fi gure 24. To
r o t a t e t he f a u l t i n t o t h e hor i zont al ( a xi s of r o t a t i o n v e r t i c a l ) , t h e
t r a c i n g paper i s r ot a t e d u n t i l t h e pol e of t h e f a u l t ( PF) i s on t h e
east-west di amet er (west s i d e ) . When t h e f a u l t i s r o t a t e d i n t o t h e
hor i zont al t he pol e ( PF) w i l l move 30' t o t h e cent er of t h e net . Poi nt s
PSB and PNB w i l l a l s o move 30' al ong t h e i r r es pect i ve smal l c i r c l e s a s
shown by dashed l i n e s t o poi nt s PSBH and PNBH. The angl e of r o t a t i o n
of t h e f a u l t i s measured between l i n e s from t h e cent er t hrough poi nt s
PSBH and PNBH. Thi s angl e can be conveni ent l y counted al ong t h e smal l
c i r c l e s on t h e per i pher y as i ndi cat ed.
To r o t a t e t h e f a u l t i n t o t h e v e r t i c a l poi nt PF i s agai n l ocat ed on t h e
west r adi us of t h e net and r ot a t e d out 60' o r u n t i l poi nt PF i s on t h e
per i pher y of t h e ne t . The poi nt s PSB and PNB a r e r o t a t e d al ong t h e i r
r es pect i ve smal l c i r c l e s t hrough t he same 60 of r o t a t i o n t o poi nt s
PSBV and PNBV.
To det ermi ne i f si mpl e r o t a t i o n has occurred t h e nor t h bed must be
r ot a t e d 47O about t h e a xi s of r o t a t i o n which i s normal t o t h e f a u l t .
Thi s i s accomplished by r o t a t i n g t h e t r a c i n g paper u n t i l poi nt PF i s
on t h e nor t h r adi us of t h e net . Poi nt PNBV i s r ot a t e d 47' al ong i t s
smal l c i r c l e where it coi nci des wi t h poi nt PSBV confi rmi ng t h e movement
was si mpl e r o t a t i o n and t h a t t h e nor t h bl ock was r ot a t e d 47' count er-
cl ockwi se wi t h r es pect t o t h e sout h bl ock.
FI GURE 24 -Rot at i on about an i n c l ~ n e d axi s
Vertical Drill Holes
The stereographic technique can be used to solve dip and strike problems
involving unoriented cores from drill holes. The following is an example.
Points A and B are t he locations of two ver t i cal core t e s t hol es. The
top of a key marker bed i s encountered a t el evat i on 157. 5 i n hole A and
t he core obtained shows t hat the bed dips a t an angle of 45O. Since
t he core has been rot at ed i n t he core barrel , t he di rect i on of di p i s
unknown. Hole B is located 100 f eet N60W of hole A and t he key marker
bed ms encountered a t el evat i on 100.0. What i s the at t i t ude of t he
key marker bed?
From the information given (100 feet horizontally and 57.5 feet verti-
cally) the apparent dip ( 3 0 ~ ~ 6 0 ~ ~ ) from A to B of the key marker bed
can be determined either trigonometrically or graphically. With an
apparent dip and bearing and the true dip known, two possibilities of
the bearing of true dip can be found. More information, such as a third
test core hole, is necessary to provide the unique solution of the
bearing of true dip.
On the tracing paper overlying the stereonet plot the vector representing
the direction and amount of dip from point A to B (30~~60'~). This
is 0-AB in Figure 25. Next rotate the tracing paper until the end of
the vector (point AB) lies on a great circle representing 45O of dip.
There are only two great circles of 45' dip that point AB will fall on
as shown in Figure 25. Only one of these gives the bearing of true
dip, but until more information is provided we cannot determine which
one. The two possibilities of true dip are 45O~68'~ and 45'~7OW.
S
FIGURE 25 -True d ~ p from ver t ~cal core holes.
I ncl i ned D r i l l Hole
As another example, consider t he same pmb lem except only the el evat i on
of t he t op of t he bed a t 257.5 i n hole A i s known and hole B i s i ncl i ned
from t he ver t i cal 40' i n a S60W di rect i on ( di ps 50 'S60W) and t he beds
make an angle of 45' wi t h t he core axi s ( di p 45'1.
Thi s i s e s s e n t i a l l y t he same problem a s t he previ ous one except it w i l l
a l s o i nvol ve r ot at i on. F i r s t p l o t t h e vect or s r epr es ent i ng di r e c t i on
and di p of t h e bed from A t o B and t h e di r e c t i on and di p of t h e d r i l l
hol e a t B. These a r e poi nt s AB and DH on Fi gur e 26. Next, t h e i ncl i ned
d r i l l hol e i s r ot a t e d t o t h e v e r t i c a l . The t r a c i n g paper i s r ot a t e d
s o t h a t poi nt DH i s on t h e west r adi us . When DH i s r ot a t e d t o t h e
v e r t i c a l it moves t o 0 and poi nt AB moves t hrough 40' t o ABV. Next,
as i n t h e previ ous problem, r o t a t e t h e t r a c i n g paper and draw t h e two
45' gr eat c i r c l e s t hrough ABV. The l a s t s t e p i s r o t a t e t h e pr oj ect i on
back t o i t s ' or i gi nal pos i t i on. Pl ace t h e o r i g i n a l bear i ng of DH on t h e
west r adi us and r o t a t e DH from 0 t o 40'. The two gr eat c i r c l e s t hrough
ABV w i l l a l s o r o t a t e 40' t o t h e pos i t i ons i ndi cat ed by t h e hachured
gr eat c i r c l e . These two gr eat c i r c l e s a r e t h e two p o s s i b i l i t i e s of
di p and s t r i k e of t h e key bed. When t h e t r a c i n g paper i s r ot a t e d t o
i t s o r i g i n a l pos i t i on over t h e n e t , t hey a r e 4 2 ' ~ l l ' ~ and 70N18'E.
S
FI GURE 25. - Tr ue d i p fro111 an ~ r l c l ~ r l e d core l i ol e
Combination Orthographic and Stereographic Technique
When solving problems involving displacement of non-rotational faults
a combination of orthographic and stereographic procedures are often-
times simpler to use than straight orthographic projections. The
inclined fault problem in Figure 15 can be solved in the following
manner by using this combination method.
Figure 27 is the plan view. The third vein at point F on the south
side of the fault-has not been shown.
The great circles representing the fault and
on the stereonet in Figure 28. Great circle
BXB' the vein Located at points B and C, and
points D and E. Line XO on the stereonet is
of the trace of the intersection of the vein
the two veins are plotted
EXYW represents the fault,
L
DYD' the vein.located at
the horizontal projection
at B and C with fault.
Likewise, line OY is the trace of the intersection of the vein at D
and E with the fault.
To find the horizontal projection of the net slip, plot the bearings
(from the stereonet) of line OX and OY on the plan view. Lines XS and
X'N are the bearing of OX (90' - 59' = 31), and YS and Y ~ N are the
bearing of OY (90' - 23' = 67'). Their intersection is at S and N.
Since points S and N were together before faulting, SN is the horizontal
projection of the net slip (850 feet). The bearing of the net slip
(SN) is SlgOE. This bearing is plotted on the stereonet as 0-SN. By
rotating 0-SN until SN is on the South pole and counting in on the
small circles to the intersection of 0-SN with the great circle of the
fault the plunge of the net slip is 44'.
Next, rotate the tracing paper and place the strike of the fault on
the north-south diameter. Counting the angle in on the small circles,
EX (38O) is the rake of vein B in the plane of the fault and WY (74')
is the rake of vein D in the plane of the fault. The rake of vein
B is southeast and vein D southwest.
To determine the total net slip, return to the plan view (Figure 27)
and rotate the fault into the horizontal. Since points X' , X, Y, and
Y' are at the surface, they do not move when the fault is rotated.
The angle of rake of a fault is measured in the plane of the fault
(see Figure 12). If the angle of rake, as
net, of the veins on the fault ar.e plotted
will be rotated into the horizontal. From
rake angle (38' ) in a southeast direction,
angle (74') in a southwest direction. The
at S' and N~ determines line SIN' which is
the fault .
determined from the stereo-
in the plan view, the fault
points X' and X lay off the
and at Y and Y' the rake
intersection of these lines
the net slip (1150 feet) of
0 200 400
. .
J
Scal e In f eet
FIGURE 2 7 , - I n c h e d f aul t probl em
References
Billings, M. P., 1954, Structural Geology: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
514 pp., illus.
Bucher, W. H., 1944, The Stereographic Projection, A Handy Tool for
the Practical Geologist: Journal of Geology, Vol. 52, pp. 191-212.
Donn, W. L., and J. A. Shirner, 1958, Graphic Methods in Structural
Geology: Appleton-Century-Crafts, Inc., 180 pp., illus.
Fisher, D. J., 1938, Problem of Two Tilts and the Stereographic
Projection: Bull. Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geol., Vol. XXII, pp. 1261-71.
LeRoy, L. W., and J. W. Low, 1954, Graphic Problems in Petroleum
~ e b l o ~ ~ : Harper & Brothers, 238 pp. , illus.
Nevin, C. M. , 1949, Principles of Structural Geology: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. , 410 pp. , illus.
ir U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OF F I CE : 1980-626-988/
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