01 SOLID FUELS

Sources, winning, properties

13/00001 A new technological classification of low-rank
coal on the basis of Polish deposits
Bielowicz, B. Fuel, 2012, 96, 497510.
Proposed technological classification of low-rank coal has two stages.
The first part, presented in graphic form, sets the rank of coal, grade of
coal and its petrographic character. In order to assess the rank and
distinguish various subcategories of low-rank coal, random reflectance
of ulminite B/collotelinite has been applied. Simplified petrographic
composition of humic coal allowed on the basis of the content of
macerals from huminite group (vitrinite for bright brown coal) to
distinguish subcategories of low rank coal. Ash content of coal
recalculated to dry basis determines in proposed first stage of the
classification the grade of coal. The second stage of technological
classification is presented as a codification system, while it dis-
tinguishes following types of low rank coal: energetic coal (type 21),
coal for gasification (type 22) as well as coal for liquefaction (type 23).
Coal types are defined through chemical, technological and petro-
graphic criteria. Every single type of low-rank coal has its own unique
technological code, consisting of main and supplementary parameters.
Main code allows one to determine the possibility of its use in certain
technologies, while supplementary code precisely characterizes the
parameters important for those applications. Technological quality of
tested coal has been presented with use of code number, which digits
have been set on the basis of division into classes within tested
parameters.
13/00002 Black shales in Ukraine a review
Sachsenhofer, R. F. and Koltun, Y. V. Marine and Petroleum Geology,
2012, 31, (1), 125136.
As a result of a long-lasting and complex geological history, organic-
matter-rich fine-grained rocks (black shales) with widely varying ages
can be found on Ukrainian territory. Several of them are proven
hydrocarbon source rocks and may hold a significant shale gas
potential. Thick Silurian black shales accumulated along the western
margin of the East European Craton in a foreland-type basin. By
analogy with coeval organic-matter-rich rocks in Poland, high TOC
contents and gas window maturity can be expected. However, to date
information on organic richness is largely missing and maturity
patterns remain to be refined. Visean black shales with TOC contents
as high as 8% and a Type III-II kerogen accumulated along the axis of
the Dniepr-Donets rift basin (DDB). They are the likely source for
conventional oil and gas. Oil-prone Serpukhovian black shales
accumulated in the shallow northwestern part of the DDB. Similar
black shales probably may be present in the Lviv-Volyn Basin (western
Ukraine). Middle Jurassic black shales up to 500 m thick occur beneath
the Carpathian Foredeep. They are the likely source for some heavy oil
deposits. TOC contents up to 12% (Type II) have been recorded, but
additional investigations are needed to study the vertical and lateral
variability of organic matter richness and maturity. Lower Cretaceous
black shales with a Type III(-II) kerogen (TOC>2%) are widespread
at the base of the Carpathian flysch nappes, but Oligocene black shales
(Menilite Fm.) rich in organic matter (48% TOC) and containing a
Type II kerogen are the main source rock for oil in the Carpathians.
Their thermal maturity increases from the external to the internal
nappes. Oligocene black shales are also present in Crimea (Maykop
Fm.). These rocks typically contain high TOC contents, but data from
Ukraine are missing.
13/00003 Environmental geochemistry of the feed coals
and their combustion by-products from two coal-fired power
plants in Xinjiang Province, northwest China
Li, J. et al. Fuel, 2012, 95, 446456.
The mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of feed coals and
their combustion by-products (fly ash and slag) from Hongyanchi
(HONG) and Weihuliang (WEI) coal-fired power plants in Xinjiang
Province, north-west China, were investigated. The enrichment and
partitioning behaviour, as well as the leaching potential of the major
and trace elements in these combustion by-products were evaluated.
Three feed coals from the two power plants (HC, WC
1
, and WC
2
) were
characterized by medium-moisture contents, low- to medium-ash
yields, high volatile matters, and low-S contents as well as low-mineral
contents. Except B, Sr, and Ba in WC
1
feed coal; P, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Cu,
Zn, Rb and Ba in WC
2
feed coal; and Ti, Mn, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr and Ba in
the HC feed coal, most major and trace element concentrations were
low compared with other Chinese coals and coals worldwide. Most
trace element concentrations in the studied fly ashes (HA, WAf and
WAc) were even lower than their minimum and/or 25th percentile
(P25) values reported for European Union fly ashes, as were the
element concentrations in the fly ash leachates. The studied fly ashes
were all classified as type F fly ashes, with high glass contents as well as
high SiO
2
/Al
2
O
3
ratios in the glass matrix. Through enrichment factors,
mass balance, and partitioning of elements, S, F, Cl, Hg and B were
highly volatile in both PCC plants. Tin, As, Se, Cu and Zn were also
moderately volatile, and they were enriched in fly ashes mainly by
volatilization/condensation. Iron and Mn were slightly enriched in
slags, probably due to the high density of FeMn-bearing phases. In the
light of the above-mentioned properties, fly ashes and slags from the
two power plants in Xinjiang will have a very high potential for a
variety of uses, with very low environmental limitations. In summary,
this study is demonstrating the high quality of Xinjiang coals with
enormous coal reserves, and also the high quality of the combustion by-
products that will be produced also in very high amounts in the near
future. Major focus is on trace elements.
13/00004 Investigation of the influence of coal swelling on
permeability characteristics using natural brown coal and
reconstituted brown coal specimens
Jasinge, D. et al. Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 303309.
Permeability has been identified as one of the foremost factors that
determine the effectiveness of CO
2
sequestration in deep coalbeds.
Coal matrix swelling can cause a remarkable decrease in the
permeability of a coalbed reservoir during the carbon dioxide injection
process. The main aim of this paper is to correlate the diametrical
swelling percentage with coal permeability. This experimental program
further attempts to investigate the effect of gas flow properties in coal
due to CO
2
sorption. Furthermore, the applicability of using a
laboratory-made reconstituted coal specimen for permeability testing
has been comprehensively investigated. A laboratory-based experimen-
tal program has been carried out using a high pressure triaxial
experimental set-up. In this study, the effect of swelling on coal
permeability has been investigated using two types of specimens. An
intact brown coal specimen cored from a natural coal block and a
reconstituted brown coal specimen made by compacting coal dust in a
mould has been subjected to testing. Tests have been carried out under
different gas injection and confining pressures. CO
2
and N
2
gases have
been used as injection media. Gas injection has been carried out with
two stages of N
2
injection, prior to and after CO
2
injection. Diametrical
swelling of the two specimens has been compared with the permeability
data. A good correlation was observed between permeability and coal
swelling. The coal swelling percentage increased on exposure to carbon
dioxide compared to exposure to N
2
. This effect increased as gas
injection pressure increased. Exposure of the coal specimens to CO
2
has contributed to a detrimental effect on permeability. This was
clearly evident during the second injection of N
2
gas.
13/00005 Organic geochemistry and petrology of
subsurface PaleoceneEocene Wilcox and Claiborne Group
coal beds, Zavala County, Maverick Basin, Texas, USA
Hackley, P. C. et al. Organic Geochemistry, 2012, 46, 137153.
Coal samples from a coalbed methane exploration well in northern
Zavala County, Maverick Basin, Texas, were characterized through an
integrated analytical program. The well was drilled in February 2006
and shut in after coal core desorption indicated negligible gas content.
Cuttings samples from two levels in the Eocene Claiborne Group were
evaluated by way of petrographic techniques and RockEval pyrolysis.
Core samples from the PaleoceneEocene Indio Formation (Wilcox
Group) were characterized via proximateultimate analysis in addition
to petrography and pyrolysis. Two Indio Formation coal samples were
selected for detailed evaluation via gas chromatography, and Fourier
transform infrared and
13
C CPMAS NMR spectroscopy. Samples are
subbituminous rank as determined from multiple thermal maturity
parameters. Elevated rank (relative to similar age coal beds elsewhere
in the Gulf Coast Basin) in the study area is interpreted to be a result
of stratigraphic and/or structural thickening related to Laramide
compression and construction of the Sierra Madre Oriental to the
southwest. Vitrinite reflectance data, along with extant data, suggest
the presence of an erosional unconformity or change in regional heat
flow between the Cretaceous and Tertiary sections and erosion of up to
>5 km over the Cretaceous. The presence of liptinite-rich coals in the
Claiborne at the well site may indicate moderately persistent or
recurring coal-forming paleoenvironments, interpreted as perennially
submerged peat in shallow ephemeral lakes with herbaceous and/or
flotant vegetation. However, significant continuity of individual Eocene
coal beds in the subsurface is not suggested. Indio Formation coal
samples contain abundant telovitrinite interpreted to be preserved
from arborescent, above-ground woody vegetation that developed
during the middle portion of mire development in forested swamps.
Other petrographic criteria suggest enhanced biological, chemical and
physical degradation at the beginning and end of Indio mire
development. Fluorescence spectra of sporinite and resinite are
consistent and distinctly different from each other, attributed to the
2 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
01 Solid fuels (sources, winning, properties)
presence of a greater proportion of complex asphaltene and polar
molecules in resinite. Gas chromatography of resinite-rich coal shows
sesquiterpenoid and diterpenoid peaks in the C
1417
range, which are
not present in resinite-poor coal. Quantities of extracts suggest
bitumen concentration below the threshold for effective source rocks
[3050 mg hydrocarbon/g total organic carbon (HC/g TOC)]. Saturate/
aromatic and pristane/phytane (Pr/Ph) ratios are different from values
for nearby Tertiary-reservoired crude oil, suggesting that the Indio
coals are too immature to source liquid hydrocarbons in the area.
However, moderately high HI values (200400 mg HC/g rock) may
suggest some potential for naphthenicparaffinic oil generation where
buried more deeply down stratigraphic/structural dip. Extractable
phenols and C
20+
alkanes are suggested as possible intermediates for
acetate fermentation in microbial methanogenesis which may, however,
be limited by poor nutrient supply related to low rainfall and meteoric
recharge rate or high local sulfate concentration.
13/00006 Relationships between the sorption behaviour of
methane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and ethane on coals
Sakurovs, R. et al. Fuel, 2012, 97, 725729.
Sequestration of carbon dioxide in coal seams can reduce emissions of
carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. If such sequestration simultaneously
results in enhanced coal bed methane (ECBM) production, some of the
sequestration costs can be recovered by the value of the methane
produced. This requires knowledge of both the carbon dioxide and
methane sorption behaviour of coal at high pressures. In order to
elucidate the connection between them, the authors investigated the
sorption of carbon dioxide, methane, ethane and nitrogen at 55

C at
pressures up to 20 MPa for a number of coals. Sorption isotherms were
fitted by a modified DubininRadushkevich model. The maximum
sorption capacities of the coals for the different gases were found to be
highly correlated. The relationship between maximum sorption
capacity of a coal for a gas and its critical temperature was approxi-
mately proportional. The relationship between methane and nitrogen
maximum sorption capacity was particularly close: on a volume basis,
the maximum sorption capacity of all coals examined for methane was
twice that of nitrogen. The ratio of maximum sorption capacity of
carbon dioxide and methane decreased linearly with increasing carbon
content. The ethane/methane sorption ratio also tended to decrease
with increasing rank though to a smaller extent, indicating that the
proportionally greater sorption at low rank coals is not unique to
carbon dioxide. The heat of sorption tends to increase with increasing
vitrinite reflectance; this may reflect the greater polarizability of higher
rank coals (which also determines their reflectance).
13/00007 The characteristics of the biomarkers and d
13
C of
n-alkanes released from thermally altered solid bitumens at
various maturities by catalytic hydropyrolysis
Liao, Y. et al. Organic Geochemistry, 2012, 46, 5665.
Solid bitumen occurs extensively in the paleo-reservoirs of marine
sequences in southern China. The fluids in these paleo-reservoirs have
usually experienced severe secondary alteration such as biodegradation
and/or thermal maturation. The concentrations of extractable organic
matter (EOM) in the resulting solid bitumens are too low to satisfy the
amount required for instrumental analysis such as GCMS and GC
IRMS. It is also difficult to get enough biomarkers and n-alkanes by dry
pyrolysis or hydrous pyrolysis directly because such solid bitumens are
hydrogen poor due to high maturities. Catalytic hydropyrolysis (HyPy)
can release much more EOM from solid bitumen at mature to highly
over-mature stages than Soxhlet extraction, dry pyrolysis and hydrous
pyrolysis. However, whether the biomarkers in hydropyrolysates can be
used for bitumen-source or bitumenbitumen correlations has been
questionable. In this study, a soft biodegraded solid bitumen sample of
low maturity was thermally altered to various maturities in a closed
system. HyPy was then employed to release bound biomarkers and n-
alkanes. The results show that the geochemical parameters for source
and maturity based on biomarkers released from these thermally
altered bitumen residues by HyPy are insensitive to the degree of
thermal alteration. Furthermore, the maturity parameters are indica-
tive of lower maturity than bitumen maturation products at a corres-
ponding temperature. This suggests that biomarker source and
maturity parameters, based on the products of HyPy, remain valid
for bitumens which have suffered both biodegradation and severe
thermal maturation. The distributions of c
13
C of n-alkanes in hydro-
pyrolysates are also insensitive to the temperature used for bitumen
artificial maturation. Hence, the c
13
C values of n-alkanes in hydro-
pyrolysates may also provide useful information in bitumenbitumen
correlation for paleo-reservoir solid bitumens.
13/00008 Variations in the mechanical behavior of Illinois
bituminous coals
West, R. D. et al. Fuel, 2012, 98, 213217.
Unmineable coal beds are being considered as one of the geological
sequestration options for storing carbon dioxide (CO
2
). The storage
mechanisms and potential risks associated with the effects of CO
2
on
the coal structure are not yet understood and must be evaluated. The
mechanical properties of the coal are expected to play an important
role in the coal seams stability, especially under external pertur-
bations. Typically, the mechanical characteristics of coal are investi-
gated as a bulk material, which averages the effects of various
structural inhomogeneities as well as of face and butt cleat fractures
present in the coal. This paper establishes baseline mechanical
characteristics of Illinois bituminous coals while minimizing the
fracture effects. Rectangular coal strips (length <20 mm), which
showed no visible macro-defects, from two different Illinois bituminous
coal seams, were subjected to three-point bending tests. The results
suggest there are significant variations in the flexural modulus (ranging
from 0.7 to 3.4 GPa) of the coal samples even though the coal
rectangular strips originated from the same coal chunk. Vibrational
spectroscopic analysis on the samples, which underwent mechanical
testing, indicates a correlation between the flexural strength and
modulus with the intensity of aliphatic groups. However, the mineral
content of the coal seems not to influence the mechanical behaviour of
Illinois bituminous coals.
Preparation
13/00009 Defining manganese(II) removal processes in
passive coal mine drainage treatment systems through
laboratory incubation experiments
Luan, F. et al. Applied Geochemistry, 2012, 27, (8), 15671578.
Oxic limestone beds are commonly used for the passive removal of
Mn(II) from coal mine drainage (CMD). Aqueous Mn(II) is removed
via oxidative precipitation of Mn(III/IV) oxides catalysed by Mn(II)-
oxidizing microbes and Mn oxide (MnO
x
) surfaces. The relative
importance of these two processes for Mn removal was examined in
laboratory experiments conducted with sediments and CMD collected
from eight Mn(II)-removal beds in Pennsylvania and Tennessee, USA.
Sterile and non-sterile sediments were incubated in the presence/
absence of air and presence/absence of fungicides to operationally
define the relative contributions of Mn removal processes. Relatively
fast rates of Mn removal were measured in four of the eight sediments
where 6399% of Mn removal was due to biological oxidation. In
contrast, in the four sediments with slow rates of Mn(II) removal, 25
63% was due to biological oxidation. Laboratory rates of Mn(II)
removal were correlated (R
2
=0.62) to bacterial biomass concen-
tration (measured by phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA)). Furthermore,
laboratory rates of Mn(II) removal were correlated (R
2
=0.87) to field-
scale performance of the Mn(II)-removal beds. A practical recommen-
dation from this study is to include MnO
x
-coated limestone (and
associated biomass) from an operating bed as seed material when
constructing new Mn(II)-removal beds.
13/00010 Microfracturing of coal due to interaction with
CO
2
under unconfined conditions
Hol, S. et al. Fuel, 2012, 97, 569584.
This study investigates the magnitude of irreversible swelling effects
and changes in equilibration time in high volatile bituminous coal
(Brzeszcze, Seam 364, Poland), and attempt to explain the results in
terms of the operative microphysical processes. The authors also assess
the implications for enhanced coalbed methane (ECBM) operations.
The approach involves detailed dilatometry experiments conducted on
fresh, unconfined, mm-scale coal matrix cylinders at CO
2
pressures up
to 100 MPa, and at 40.0

C. Exposure of the samples to CO

2
produced
reversible and irreversible strains resulting predominantly from
competition between adsorption-induced swelling and elastic com-
pression. During the first or second cycle of exposure, substantial
hysteresis was observed in volumetric behaviour, notably at CO
2
pressures above 3540 MPa. After two or three upward and downward
CO
2
pressure cycles, the measured strain response became fully
reversible. Equilibration with CO
2
took about four times longer during
the first CO
2
pressurization cycle than in subsequent CO
2
pressuriz-
ation cycles. Microstructural analysis and comparison showed that
microfractures formed in the coal during first exposure to CO
2
. From
the microstructural and mechanical data, it was inferred that micro-
fracturing was responsible for enhanced CO
2
penetration into the
present samples. This, in turn allowed more homogeneous access of
CO
2
, and caused adsorption-induced swelling of matrix material not
previously accessed by CO
2
. It was further inferred that the enhanced
penetration, sorption and swelling, in turn, resulted in the observed
hysteresis in dimensional response and in the decrease in equilibration
time seen in subsequent exposure cycles. Since most microfractures
developed parallel to the bedding, roughly following maceralmaceral
and bedding/layer interfaces, and because the largest permanent strains
and strain hysteresis were measured perpendicular to the bedding, it
was inferred that the formation of microfractures was caused by
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 3
01 Solid fuels (preparation)
heterogeneous swelling, in combination with differential accessibility of
the coal microstructure. No evidence was found that CO
2
-induced
plasticization of the macromolecular structure of the coal matrix played
any role in the behaviour observed. Simple mechanical considerations
indicate that at in situ stresses corresponding to a depth of 1000
1500 m, i.e. effective stresses in the range 2535 MPa, adsorption-
induced microfractures are unlikely to form. This means that improved
access of CO
2
to coal matrix material for ECBM production can
probably be achieved only by inducing damage into coal seams, either
by injection of solvents/solutes, or by performing active mining of the
coal and/or the over- or underlying strata.
13/00011 Mineral transformations during high temperature
treatment of anthracite
Rodrigues, S. et al. International Journal of Coal Geology, 2012, 94,
191200.
SEM/EDX analysis has been applied in order to assess the miner-
alogical transformations occurring during high temperature treatment
of several different anthracites. At 1000

C (carbonization) loss of CO
2
from carbonates, S from sulfides and OH and/or H
2
O from clays
occurs, transforming these minerals to other inorganic phases such as
lime, pyrrhotite, and (Na, Mg) K-aluminosilicates, among others. Heat
treatment of the carbonized samples up to 1500, 2000, and 2500

C
resulted in: (i) a decrease in oxygenated mineralogical phases, which
are transformed to higher temperature silicates (grossite, anorthite,
kushiroite, etc.); (ii) carbide formation (SiC, TiC or Al
4
C
3
) by
carbothermal reactions; (iii) formation of alloys, especially a PbSn
alloy; and (iv) formation of iron silicides (Fe
2
Si), iron phosphides
(Fe
3
P), and nitrides (TiN and AlN). The new mineral phases are
closely related to the mineral matter in the raw anthracite samples.
Thus, samples richer in CaMg phases (carbonates and phosphates)
produced minerals such as monticellite, pyrope, gehlenite, grossite and
kushiroite; samples richer in Al-bearing phases (boehmite and
diaspore) gave rise to phases such as mullite, corundum and spinel;
and SiAl bearing phases (clay minerals) were associated with the
formation of minerals such as panunzite, plagioclase and cristobalite.
At the highest temperature of the process the majority of the elements
vaporized, and Ti seems to be the only element in the original mineral
matter that withstands treatment to 2500

C.
13/00012 Risk assessment of floor water inrush in
coal mines based on secondary fuzzy comprehensive
evaluation
Wang, Y. et al. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
Sciences, 2012, 52, 5055.
A secondary fuzzy comprehensive evaluation system is constructed to
evaluate the risk of floor water invasion in coal mines. Four first-grade
indices and 13 second-grade indices are determined based on the
principles of scientificity, rationality, operability and representative by
using fuzzy mathematics theory. Each index is quantitatively graded
according to five risk grades using fuzzy statistical method and expert
evaluation method, and the membership degree of every index is
constructed. The weight of every index is rationally distributed by
analytic hierarchy process. Evaluations of engineering practice are
carried through with hydrogeological data of six mining faces in China.
The satisfying evaluation results are consistent with engineering
practice.
13/00013 Stability analysis of the proposed hybrid method
of partial extraction for underground coal mining
Jaiswal, A. and Shrivastva, B. K. International Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 2012, 52, 103111.
The hybrid method of partial extraction from underground coal mines
has been proposed for better recovery without endangering the surface
features. The concept of panel stability, rather than pillar stability, has
been suggested for stability analysis of proposed method of partial
extraction. The methodology for assessing the panel stability is based
on the Salamon stability criterion along with pillar stability. It has been
outlined as: factor of safety should be more than two for larger pillars,
and more than one for smaller pillars; panel factor of safety should be
preferably more than two. Panel factor of safety, K
LMS
/K
C
, is defined
as a ratio of local mine stiffness, K
LMS
, and post failure stiffness of the
split coal pillars, K
C
. A worst-case scenario analysis has also been
suggested as a part of stability analysis by considering failure of split
pillars. A typical case study of the board and pillar system of mining
has been chosen to evaluate the applicability of proposed hybrid
method of partial extraction. It has a major sub-surface feature of
perennial stream. There are several pillars underlying this feature. Two
variations of hybrid method with galleries width of 7.0, 8.0 and 9.0 m
have been taken. It has been concluded from the analysis that by
adopting the hybrid method of partial extraction, coal production
could be improved substantially without compromising the stability of
the surface and underground structure.
13/00014 The role of surface interaction forces and mixing
in enhanced dewatering of coal preparation tailings
Ofori, P. et al. Fuel, 2012, 97, 262268.
Industrial waste containing colloidal particulate matter such as coal
and mineral processing tailings presents many environmental and
economic challenges. Effective management solutions for these
challenges require an improved understanding of colloidal forces
between tailings particles which control their flocculation and
subsequent dewatering. In this paper, the colloidal and dewatering
behaviours of four coal processing tailings were investigated in the
presence of four high molecular weight anionic polyelectrolytes using
the AFM (atomic force microscope) colloid probe technique, floccula-
tion and sedimentation testing, and colloid and surface characteriz-
ation. Averaged snap-off distances statistically determined from
thousands of force curves measured by AFM were obtained by dividing
the area between the force curve and the horizontal axis by the
maximum adhesion force. This novel assessment of the AFM results
showed that for each of the tailing samples and flocculants tested there
was statistically a maximum snap-off distance, which on average would
correspond to the optimum flocculant concentration. Under this
optimum concentration condition the adhesive strength is the strongest
to resist potential floc breakage caused by external hydrodynamic
forces. Flocculation and sedimentation tests also showed optimum
flocculant concentrations for the different tailings samples but these
concentrations were much higher than those corresponding to the
optimum adhesive strength found with the AFM measurements. This
was due to the large surface area of particles in the concentrated
suspension used in the settling tests compared with just a few particles
used in the atomic force measurement and therefore the two optimum
concentrations per unit surface area of particles would be similar.
Transport, storage
13/00015 A novel method to suppress spontaneous
ignition of coal stockpiles in a coal storage yard
Kim, C. J. and Sohn, C. H. Fuel Processing Technology, 2012, 100,
7383.
Spontaneous ignition of coal stockpiles and its suppression in a coal
storage yard are studied numerically. The process of coal ignition is
simulated with several physical and chemical properties. The main
purposes of the numerical simulation are to pursue novel suppression
methods and verify them. Without losing essential features of
spontaneous ignition, as simple numerical models as possible are used.
The numerical approach is validated by comparison with the
experimental data. The ignition mechanism is analysed and essential
elements for ignition are pursued. Based on the ignition mechanism,
three new methods are proposed in this study. They are to adopt
internal walls installed inside the pile, air blowing from the bottom of
the pile, and a dual barrier installed at the front and the rear of the
pile. Each method has been verified to retard spontaneous ignition
time more fundamentally than the existing methods and the expected
additional delay is about 1030 days. But, air blowing is effective in
suppression of spontaneous ignition only at higher rates than a critical
rate. More delay can be made by a combined application of these
methods. It is found that the proposed methods are viable and effective
in delay of coal ignition.
13/00016 Risk and mitigation of self-heating and
spontaneous combustion in underground coal storage
Sipila, J. et al. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries,
2012, 25, (3), 617622.
While the self-heating and spontaneous combustion of coal is a known
challenge at coal mines and storage sites, there are known methods for
mitigating this challenge for typical open stockpile storage. However,
closing the storage will reduce access for corrective action, and it is
then important to manage the storage and its transport system with
added attention without unduly adding cost or hindering availability.
This paper aims to discuss the risk, prevention and extinguishing of
fires in closed coal storage facilities, particularly in light of the
experience with the Salmisaari underground rock storage facility in
Finland. The observed autoignition events have indicated an array of
contributing factors, some of which are unique to underground silo
storage facilities. On the other hand, many features of the storage
facilities can be compared with other extant closed storage systems.
The factors affecting fire risk are described and the associated fault and
event trees are outlined for autoignition at underground storage.
Drawing upon the experiences with past events of self-heating and
spontaneous combustion, recommendations are given on cost-effective
preventive, corrective and other mitigating action for minimizing fire
risk and promoting storage availability.
4 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
01 Solid fuels (transport, storage)
Economics, business, marketing, policy
13/00017 An economic comparison assessment of lignite
and biomass IGCC power plants
Tsakomakas, N. G. et al. Applied Thermal Engineering, 2012, 38, 2630.
An economic assessment between lignite and biomass integrated
gasification combined cycle power plants (IGCC and BIGCC respect-
ively) for power generation was carried out. The two alternative power
plants are presented together with the selection of the appropriate
equipment. An economic evaluation was carried out for the two power
plants, taking into account a net power of 100 MW. The economic
evaluation was carried out using the methods of the net present value
and the internal rate of return. Finally, a sensitivity analysis was carried
out. Calculations have been carried out with an Excel spreadsheet. It
was shown that both investments are profitable throughout their
economic life. However, because of the difference in the selling price of
the MW h between the two power plants and to the cost of CO
2
emissions for the lignite power plant, the biomass plant is more
profitable with a net present value up to e417 millions; and an internal
rate of return of 23.33%. A threshold price of e27.28/t for CO
2
emissions was also determined.
13/00018 In situ stress field inversion and its application in
mining-induced rock mass movement
Zhao, H. et al. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
Sciences, 2012, 53, 120128.
Based on a series of experiments in numerical simulation, the model
boundary conditions for in situ stress field inversion and excavation are
discussed. Study results indicate that roller boundary conditions are
reasonable for the in situ stress field inversion before excavation
simulation, while, as a closed system, changing the roller boundary
conditions to fixed boundary conditions in the subsequent excavation is
optimal when the dimensions of the model borders are greater enough
than the zone of influence of the excavation. As a case study, a
comparative study of the mining-induced ground movement in a
steeply dipping mine is carried out in two different stress fields. The
results show that the mining-induced ground movement in the high-
level tectonic stress field clearly differs from that in the ideal self-weight
stress field. Because of the steep occurrence and large thickness of the
ore body, the mining-induced ground subsidence exhibits different
characteristics at different mining stages in the practical tectonic
environment. Further studies elucidate the causes of these differences
and clarify the effects of high-level tectonic stresses on rock mass
movement and deformation. Finally, based on GPS monitoring results
on the ground surface, the current ground subsidence is evaluated and
its development trend is predicted.
13/00019 International coal trade and restrictions on coal
consumption
Riker, D. A. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 12441249.
Coal consumption is a major source of CO
2
emissions and other air
pollutants and is therefore a focus of environmental policy. However,
countries that restrict their coal consumption will likely expand their
coal exports to foreign markets with fewer restrictions on consumption.
The adjustment in international trade will mitigate the impact on coal
industry employment but will also reverse some of the reduction in
global emissions. This paper quantifies the impact of restrictions on
coal consumption in the USA and several other large countries on
global coal consumption, trade, and industry employment. The impact
calculations are based on an econometric model of the international
coal market. The parameters of the model are fitted to panel data on
coal consumption and production in 53 countries. Efforts to limit a
countrys coal consumption will, to some extent, reduce the countrys
coal industry employment. International coal trade determines the
relative magnitude of these adjustments. The basic trade-off between
coal consumption and industry employment will shift as more countries
join in reducing coal consumption. If more countries restrict their coal
consumption, then leakage will be reduced, but the negative impact on
coal production and industry employment will be magnified.
13/00020 Looking for hysteresis in coal consumption in
the US
Congregado, E. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012,
16, (5), 33393343.
This paper estimated unobserved components models for coal con-
sumption in the USA. Defining hysteresis in terms of the interdepen-
dent evolution of a non-stationary natural component and a stationary
cyclical component, thereby distinguishing hysteresis from natural
component shocks, the results provide robust evidence of hysteresis,
although the hysteresis coefficient is time varying. This implies that
policy shocks in have permanent effects on coal consumption, although
with different intensity depending on the regime. Future work might
fruitfully apply the methodology used in this article to a broader range
of energy sources and revisiting the robustness of some previous
studies on energy consumption.
13/00021 Recovery and utilization of waste heat in a coal
based sponge iron process
Kumar, V. and Khanam, S. Chemical Engineering and Processing:
Process Intensification, 2012, 56, 1928.
The present work is an attempt to conserve energy in coal-based
sponge iron industry incorporating certain design modifications with-
out disturbing the process technology. A typical sponge iron plant has
been investigated to find out the potential areas where energy is being
wasted. To recover heat from these areas two design modifications,
case-1 and case-2, are proposed. Case-1 accounts for preheating of air
using waste gas exiting from ESP. However, for case-2 initially water is
heated using hot sponge iron exiting rotary kiln and further hot water is
used to preheat air. To compute coal demand of modified designs a
model is developed based on heat of reactions, feed preheating,
sensible and radiation losses, etc. Preheating of air up to 170

C for
case-1 reduces coal consumption by 8.7%. Consequently, waste gas
generation reduces by 16.7%. Thus, for case-1 profit is Rs 9.6 million/
year. However, for case-2 preheating of air to 80

C before entering the

kiln reduces coal and water consumption by 7.2% and 96.3%.
Consequently, cooling tower capacity is reduced by 37.2%. Due to
27.8% less profit for case-1 in comparison to case-2, case-1 offers
higher payback period than that of case-2. Thus, case-2 is selected as
best proposed design.
13/00022 Thermoeconomic operation optimization of a
coal-fired power plant
Xiong, J. et al. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 486496.
Thermoeconomic models, which combine the concept of cost in the
field of economics and the concept of exergy in the field of thermo-
dynamics, provide a possibility of optimizing complex energy-generat-
ing systems to achieve a best balance between thermodynamic
efficiency and economic cost (including investment cost and operation
cost). For the first time, operation optimization on a 300 MW coal-fired
power plant located in Yiyang (Hunan Province, China) is accom-
plished based on the structure theory of thermoeconomics. Two
optimization strategies, global optimization and local optimization,
are successively realized on the power plant. Both strategies aim to
minimize the total annual cost of the plant, and a 2.5% reduction in the
total annual cost and a 3.5% reduction in the total investment cost are
achieved. In addition, the costs of products of almost all units after
optimization processes decrease obviously. It is worth noting that local
optimization proposed in this paper attains almost the same perform-
ance as global optimization but with faster speed. Furthermore, sen-
sitivities of optimal operation parameters with respect to external
environmental parameters and the sensitivity of the objective function
(the total annual cost) with respect to decision variables (e.g. the
equipment efficiency) are presented.
13/00023 Underground coal-air gasification based solid
oxide fuel cell system
Prabu, V. and Jayanti, S. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 406414.
Underground coal gasification (UCG) is a potential clean coal
technology which converts coal into combustible gas in situ. The syngas
produced from the UCG process using dry air contains more steam, tar
and higher hydrocarbons compared to the conventional gasifiers. The
focus of the present work is to use solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) to
produce electrical power efficiently. To this end, a UCG system, based
on air alone as the gasifying medium, is integrated with the SOFC
system taking advantage of the high temperature exhaust from the
latter to reform the syngas for producing hydrogen. Additional power is
produced in the conventional way from a steam turbine making use of
the unused fuel in SOFC. A detailed energy analysis of this system
shows more than 4% thermal efficiency gain over an electricity
generating system based entirely on a steam turbine cycle.
Derived solid fuels
13/00024 Co-catalytic effect of sewage sludge-derived char
as the support of Fenton-like catalyst
Tu, Y. et al. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2012, 185186, 4451.
Sewage sludge-derived char was successfully employed as the support
of heterogeneous Fenton-like catalyst for the first time. Physicochem-
ical properties of the prepared sewage sludge-derived char supported
iron oxide catalyst (FeSC) have been evaluated by XRD, SEM, EDS
and N
2
-adsorption/desorption analysis. FeSC exhibited better perform-
ance in discoloration of AOII than wood sawdust-based carbon
supported iron oxide catalyst (FeWC) both in batch experiment and
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 5
01 Solid fuels (derived solid fuels)
continuous tests. The high inorganic components content of sewage
sludge was concluded to have strong correlations with the high catalytic
activity of FeSC. To further interpret the co-catalytic effect of
inorganic components in sewage sludge, the inorganic components
were removed from the sewage sludge and then a series of catalysts
were prepared by the addition of iron, as well as silica and/or alumina
to the sewage sludge free of the inorganic components. It was found
that the removal of inorganic fraction remarkably decreased the
catalytic activity of iron-containing catalyst. The insertion of SiO
2
favours the increase in catalytic activity due to the formation of both
hydrogen bonds between H
2
O
2
and siloxane bridges and the acidic
microenvironment near the surface of silica phase. While the addition
of Al
2
O
3
in sewage sludge as basic sites can facilitate the degradation of
H
2
O
2
, and the characteristic of Lewis acidity of alumina can accelerate
the reduction of Fe
3+
to Fe
2+
by H
2
O
2
.
13/00025 Flow behaviour of slags from coal and petroleum
coke blends
Duchesne, M. A. et al. Fuel, 2012, 97, 321328.
Petroleum coke may be used as a fuel for entrained-flow slagging
gasification. It may be blended with coal to provide a more attractive
feedstock. The coal provides the benefits of enhancing reactivity and
increasing the amount of slag coating the gasifier walls, while the
petroleum coke increases the heating value of the fuel blend. The
slagging behaviour of the petroleum coke or blend must be known to
determine if it is a suitable feedstock. In the present study, the slag
viscosities of coal, petroleum coke and coal/petroleum coke blends
were measured in the temperature range of 11751650

C. Two
different viscosity measurement apparatuses were used in separate
laboratories. Some viscosity measurements were repeated to test
reproducibility of the results. Also, slags with and without sulfur were
tested to determine whether the effect of sulfur can be neglected. The
largest deviation between repeated log (viscosity in Pa s) measurements
is 0.11. Both petroleum coke slags tested are suitable for operation at
or above 1275

C. The temperature range of operability for one coal

slag tested increased when blended with petroleum coke ash, but did
not significantly change for other coal slags tested. Some effects of
blending on viscosity behaviour can be explained by network former
and modifier theory. Other effects are attributed to solids formation
which was investigated via slag quenching experiments and FactSage
predictions. Below 1300

C, vanadium, a major component of pet-

roleum coke ashes, promotes the formation of spinel which increases
slag viscosity.
13/00026 In situ characterization of structural changes and
the fraction of aligned carbon nanotube networks produced
by stretching
Li, S. et al. Carbon, 2012, 50, (10), 38593867.
The mechanism of carbon nanotube (CNT) alignment during stretch-
ing was examined by the in situ characterization of carbon nanotube
networks (CNTNs) under tensile strains using X-ray and Raman
scattering techniques. A method of quantifying the inhomogeneous
alignment of macroscopic CNTNs is explored based on bulk property
measurements of their electrical anisotropy and X-ray diffraction
diagrams. The results show that the process of stretch-induced
alignment of CNTNs included straightening the waviness of the long
nanotube ropes, as well as the self-assembling and denser packing of
the nanotubes. For samples at a strain of 40%, the fraction of aligned
nanotubes was as high as 0.85. The aligned fraction of CNTs serves as
an important parameter for the quality control of the alignment
process and numerical simulations of structureproperty relationships
of CNTNs and their composites.
13/00027 Influence of nanotube characteristics on
electrical and thermal properties of MWCNT/polyamide 6,6
composites prepared by melt mixing
Caamano, C. et al. Carbon, 2012, 50, (10), 36943707.
Differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffraction, dynamic mechan-
ical analysis (DMA) and electrical conductivity measurements were
performed on multiwalled carbon nanotube/polyamide 6,6 composites
with four different types of well-characterized tubes manufactured
using fixed-bed catalytic processes. The tubes differed in diameter,
number of walls and surface chemistry. Except for one very poorly
formed set of tubes, there were not large differences in behaviour with
respect to modulus, maximum electrical conductivity and percolation
threshold; none of which differed by more than a factor of two for the
three types of tubes. However, the shape of the percolation region was
very different for the larger diameter tubes in that the percolation
region occurred over a much wider concentration. Glass transition and
crystallization/melting characteristics also showed very small differ-
ences between the three types of tubes. One unique observation made
in this work was that the glass transition temperature (T
g
) showed a
qualitatively different behaviour depending on what was used to
measure the transition: DSC indicated an increase in T
g
with added
nanotubes while DMA showed a decrease in T
g
. Other than the
difference being related to how the T
g
was measured, it is not clear
what caused the qualitatively different behaviour.
13/00028 Lignin as both fuel and fusing binder in
briquetted anthracite fines for foundry coke substitute
Lumadue, M. R. et al. Fuel, 2012, 97, 869875.
Lignin that had been extracted from kraft black liquor was investigated
as a fusing binder in briquetted anthracite fines for a foundry coke
substitute. Cupola heat zone pyrolytic temperatures of 3001550

C
were appraised, with the focus on 900

C. Briquettes with favourable

strength were made with 8692% anthracite fines, 2.38.6% lignin,
4.5% silicon metal powder, and 0.9% hydrolysed collagen (denatured
collagen) by mass. Briquettes were pyrolysed under a nitrogen
atmosphere or a starved air condition to simulate a cupola pyrolytic
heat zone, and then crushed after this pyrolysis so as to discern their
unconfined compressive (UC) strength. These tests mimicked key
features of the crushing load that coke endures in a cupola. After
30 min of 900

C pyrolysis, UC strength reached 22003000 kPa (320

440 psi), when these briquettes contained 4.5% softwood lignin or 2.3%
hardwood lignin. With _6.5% hardwood lignin, the UC strength after
900

C pyrolysis reached 60006500 kPa. When no lignin was incor-

porated into the briquette, the UC strength after 900

C pyrolysis was a
mere 200 kPa. Denatured collagen quantity affected lignin heat zone
strength, despite by itself losing strength around 300

C: with 4.5%
lignin present, 1.8% denatured collagen doubled the strength of 0.45%
denatured collagen briquettes. Adding tannic acid to the briquettes
greatly increased the UC strength as well. Lignin provided strength up
to 1400

C. Moreover above 1100

C, silicon carbide nanowires greatly

enhanced UC strength relative to lignin alone. Briquettes with lignin
gained UC strength very quickly when flash pyrolysed to 900

C, which
is important in the cupola. The results herein showed that the bindered
briquettes burned at an equal rate as did coke when these were burned
at 1100

C in air. The briquettes also contained an energy density that

was 38% higher by volume than that of coke. Harnessing these high
temperature pyrolytic lignin fusing reactions creates a valuable foundry
coke substitute for the future, as well as large scale applications for
otherwise underutilized industrial streams of lignin.
13/00029 On the use of single-film models to describe the
oxy-fuel combustion of pulverized coal char
Geier, M. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 675679.
Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulations traditionally rely on
the computational efficiency of single-film global kinetic oxidation
models to predict char particle temperatures and char conversion rates
in pulverized coal boilers. In oxy-fuel combustion with flue gas
recirculation (FGR), as is commonly employed, char combustion
occurs in the presence of elevated CO
2
levels and, frequently, elevated
water vapour levels (when employing wet FGR). Furthermore, local
oxygen concentrations can be quite high in the vicinity of oxygen
injection lances. The suitability of existing approaches to modelling
char combustion under these conditions has been unclear. In
particular, the authors previous work has shown that both boundary
layer conversion of CO and gasification reactions of steam and CO
2
need to be included to give reasonable agreement with the experimen-
tal measurements, for particles over 60 mm in size. This paper reports
on the development and application of an extended single-film reaction
model that includes both oxidation and gasification reactions. The
authors have systematically interrogated the performance of the model
in comparison to experimental data for two US coals (a Powder River
Basin subbituminous coal and a low-sulfur, high-volatile bituminous
coal) for a variety of model assumptions. While the extended single-
film model does not give perfect agreement with the data, reasonably
good agreement is achieved for high-temperature environments with
1236 vol.% O
2
and 16 vol.% H
2
O in either N
2
or CO
2
diluent. The
analysis shows that, to achieve such agreement with the data while
maintaining reasonable values for activation energy of the reactions,
incorporation of both steam and CO
2
gasification reactions is required.
13/00030 Pore pressure changes accompanying exchange
sorption of CO
2
/CH
4
in a coal briquette
Dutka, B. et al. Fuel Processing Technology, 2012, 100, 3034.
The paper presents the study of CO
2
/CH
4
exchange sorption in a coal
briquette. The briquette was formed inside a heavy-walled steel pipe
that served the purpose of a measuring chamber. The briquette with a
porosity of 8.3%, a diameter of 0.096 m and a length of 0.280 m was
used. Three laboratory experiments were conducted. The experiments
consisted in CO
2
injecting onto the input of the briquette previously
saturated with CH
4
. In each experiment, during the exchange sorption
process, the input CO
2
pressure and output gas mixture pressure were
stabilized at the level of 11, 12 and 13 bar at the input and 10 bar at the
output of the briquette. Pressure changes along the briquette and
concentration of the gas mixture flowing out of the briquette were
analysed. It was observed that a pore pressure depression moving along
the briquette accompanies the exchange sorption. The presence of the
6 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
01 Solid fuels (derived solid fuels)
pore pressure depression indicated existence of a separated zone where
exchange sorption takes place. It was also observed that from the
moment that CO
2
appeared at the output of the briquette, sudden
changes of its concentration were recorded. This phenomenon
confirms the thesis of the exchange zone occurrence accompanying
the CO
2
/CH
4
exchange sorption in the briquette. A description method
of the observed phenomenon was proposed.
13/00031 The effect of additives on coking pressure and
coke quality
Fernandez, A. M. et al. Fuel, 2012, 95, 642647.
An industrial coal blend (ICB) normally used in cokemaking was
selected for the study. A coal that is known to produce high coking
pressure was added to the industrial coal blend in two percentages, i.e.
20 and 25 wt%. To reduce the coking pressure generated due to the
addition of the dangerous coal to the ICB, two coals of different rank
normally used in the process of pulverized coal injection (PCI) in blast
furnaces and coke fines were used as additives. The pressure exerted
on the oven wall was measured by carbonizing the blends in a 17 kg
electrically heated movable wall oven. In addition, the permeability of
the coal plastic layer was assessed. The quality of the cokes produced
was evaluated by measuring their cold mechanical strength, reactivity
and post-reaction strength. It was found that, although coke fines are
the most effective additive in reducing coking pressure, they cause
considerable impairment to coke quality. On the other hand, the low
volatile PCI coal successfully reduces coking pressure without causing
any great impairment to coke quality.
02 LIQUID FUELS
Sources, properties, recovery
13/00032 A quasi-discrete model for droplet heating and
evaporation: application to diesel and gasoline fuels
Elwardany, A. E. and Sazhin, S. S. Fuel, 2012, 97, 685694.
The previously suggested quasi-discrete model for heating and
evaporation of complex multi-component hydrocarbon fuel droplets
is generalized to take into account the dependence of density, viscosity,
heat capacity and thermal conductivity of the liquid components on
carbon numbers and temperature. This model is applied to the
modelling of heating and evaporation of diesel and gasoline fuel
droplets. In agreement with the prediction of the previously reported
simplified version of this model in which density, viscosity, heat capa-
city and thermal conductivity of all liquid components were assumed to
be the same as for n-dodecane, it is pointed out that diesel fuel droplet
surface temperatures and radii, predicted by a rigorous model taking
into account the effect of all 20 quasi-components, are almost the same
as those predicted by the model using five quasi-components. For the
effective thermal conductivity/effective diffusivity (ETC/ED) model,
the number of quasi-components used can be reduced to three. In the
case of gasoline fuel, with the maximal number of quasi-components
equal to 13, a good approximation for the ETC/ED model can be
achieved based on the analysis of just three components. The differ-
ence in predictions of the 13 and 1 component models appears to be
particularly important when droplets evaporate in gas at a relatively
low temperature (450 K) and low pressure (0.3 MPa). In this case the
evaporation time predicted by the one component model is less than
half of the time predicted by the 13 component model. The surface
mass fraction of the lightest quasi-component in gasoline fuel mono-
tonically decreases with time, while the surface mass fraction of the
heaviest component monotonically increases with time. Surface mass
fractions of intermediate components initially increase with time, but at
later times they rapidly decrease with time.
13/00033 A shock tube and chemical kinetic modeling
study of the pyrolysis and oxidation of butanols
Yasunaga, K. et al. Combustion and Flame, 2012, 159, (6), 20092027.
The pyrolysis and oxidation of all four butanols (n-butanol, sec-
butanol, iso-butanol and tert-butanol) have been studied at pressures
from 1 to 4 atm and temperatures of 10001800 K behind reflected
shock waves. Gas chromatographic sampling at different reaction times
varying from 1.5 to 3.1 ms was used to measure reactant, intermediate
and product species profiles in a single-pulse shock tube. In addition,
ignition delays were determined at an average reflected shock pressure
of 3.5 atm at temperatures from 1250 to 1800 K. A detailed chemical
kinetic model consisting of 1892 reactions involving 284 species was
constructed and tested against species profiles and ignition delays. The
little-known chemistry of enols is included to explain the temperature
dependence of acetaldehyde produced in the thermal decomposition of
isobutanol.
13/00034 Ammonia-treated brown coal and its activity for
oxygen reduction reaction in polymer electrolyte fuel cell
Muraoka, M. et al. Fuel, 2012, 97, 211218.
Coal has been utilized as a non-precious metal catalyst for the oxygen
reduction reaction (ORR) in a polymer electrolyte fuel cell. The
Australia brown coal was nitrogen-doped at 6731123 K in a stream of
NH
3
. The raw and NH
3
-treated Australia brown coals were character-
ized on the basis of their N
2
adsorption, Raman spectroscopy and X-
ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The nitrogen doping of the coal at
1073 K increased the BET surface area from 10 to 671 m
2
/g having 95%
slit-shaped micropores with a type I monolayer adsorption. The
nitrogen-doped coal at 1073 K exhibited the highest potential of
0.85 V vs RHE (at 0.005 mA/cm
2
), which was evaluated by three-
electrode electrochemical measurements using a rotating ring disk
electrode in a 0.5 M H
2
SO
4
aqueous solution. The ORR activity of the
nitrogen-doped coal was related to the pyridine-N species, micro-
porosity and degree of disordered carbons in the coal. The iron
addition to the coal from 10 to 10
3
ppm increased the ORR onset
potential. The active structure of the coal-derived catalyst was
discussed based on the results of the XPS, Raman, N
2
adsorption
and iron effect.
13/00035 Artificial bacterial degradation and hydrous
pyrolysis of suberin: implications for hydrocarbon
generation of suberinite
Yao, S. et al. Organic Geochemistry, 2012, 47, 2233.
The organic maceral suberinite is widely believed to be a contributor to
immature or low mature oils with R
o
<0.5% in some coal and
terrigenous sequences. However, its evolution of hydrocarbon gener-
ation, especially in the relatively high maturation stage of R
o
>0.5%,
has not been sufficiently characterized. This issue was addressed herein
using periderm cork tissues of the modern angiosperm Quercus suber
(suberin), which is a possible bio-precursor of suberinite, in artificial
bacterial degradation and hydrous pyrolysis experiments. Integrated
studies were conducted, including analyses on the compositions of
hydrocarbon yields and the content variations that were generated
during the experiments, gas chromatography (GC) analyses of
generated oils and spectral fluorescence observations, and Rock-Eval
and Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopic studies on solid
residues. Analytical results indicate that suberin and suberinite have
long and complex hydrocarbon generation histories. In general, the
hydrocarbon that is generated during bacterial degradation is
predominantly gas and present in relatively limited amounts, while
the oils mainly are generated during hydrous pyrolysis. Furthermore,
the oil generation has two peaks that correspond to R
o
of approxi-
mately 0.350.50% and 0.801.10%. In composition, the early gen-
erated oil mainly consists of long chain waxy and oxygen containing
compounds, while the late generated oil is relatively enriched in
aromatic compounds. These features can be ascribed to the chemical
nature (e.g. composition and structure) of suberin. It is a type of
insoluble and high molecular weight polyester compound that contains
large quantities of long chain structure dicarboxylic acids and alcohols.
Consequently, the deoxygenization of these compounds can take place
under relatively low thermodynamic conditions, generating liquid oil
that is dominated by a long chain structure and oxygen-containing
waxy compounds. In contrast, the degradation of the phenolic com-
pounds results in the second oil generation peak. Therefore, suberinite
has a two stage and relatively long oil generation history and is a good
bio-precursor for coal-derived oil generation.
13/00036 Biomarkers in crude oil revealed by
comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography time-
of-flight mass spectrometry: depositional paleoenvironment
proxies
Oliveira, C. R. et al. Organic Geochemistry, 2012, 46, 154164.
Crude oil samples from two basins were analysed using comprehensive
two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass
spectrometry (GCGCTOFMS) to better understand the compo-
sitional heterogeneity of branched-cyclic hydrocarbons. GCGC
TOFMS and conventional GCMS results were compared. GCGC
TOFMS revealed a wide range of compounds, including tricyclic,
tetracyclic and pentacyclic terpane series, rearranged hopanes, methyl
hopanes, secohopanes, onoceranes and steranes. Assignment of methyl
hopane and 8,14-secohopane series other than onocerane isomers was
only possible due to the high peak capacity and sensitivity of GCGC.
The oils comprised a mixture of two end members: non-biodegraded oil
with abundant tricyclic terpanes and hopanes, and severely biode-
graded oil with abundant 8,14-secohopane and demethylated tricyclic
terpanes. A predominance of two distinct series, 3u-methylhopane and
onocerane, was detected only in the lacustrine samples (classification
based on biomarker parameters). In contrast, the predominance of a
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 7
02 Liquid fuels (sources, properties, recovery)
2c-methylhopane series and lack of onocerane were found only for the
marine oil sample. The results suggest that the distribution of 3u- and
2c-methylhopane series and the presence or absence of onocerane
isomers reflect genetic differences in the source organic matter and
that these compounds are new classes of biomarkers that can used as
depositional paleoenvironment proxies.
13/00037 Burning rates of liquid fuels in fire whirls
Lei, J. et al. Combustion and Flame, 2012, 159, (6), 21042114.
This paper presents semi-empirical investigations on the quasi-steady
burning rates of laminar and turbulent fire whirls established over
liquid fuel pools. The inflow boundary layer above the fuel surface
consists of two regions: outer reactive region and inner non-reactive
region. Based on the momentum boundary layer solutions with the
applications of stagnant film model and ChiltonColburn analogy, the
burning rates are correlated with ambient circulation and pool size for
laminar and turbulent fire whirls respectively. It is shown that in
general pool fires the mass and heat transfers on the fuel surface are
controlled by natural convection, while in fire whirls they are strongly
enhanced by forced convection. Fuel evaporation rate in the outer
region is relatively larger than that in the inner region. The large
proportion of fuel evaporated from the outer region is mainly due to its
larger area. The predictions agree well with the data from the present
experiments and the literature. Furthermore, the flame height is
confirmed to be proportional to the ambient circulation for both
laminar and turbulent liquid fire whirls.
13/00038 Classification of gasoline brand and origin by
Raman spectroscopy and a novel R-weighted LSSVM
algorithm
Li, S. and Dai, L.-k. Fuel, 2012, 96, 146152.
Raman spectroscopy, which is a kind of non-invasive measurement
technique and the precise molecule fingerprint, has been widely
applied to provide information on chemical structures and physical
forms, making it possible to be used for substance classification in
qualitative analysis. This study classifies Raman spectra of 128 gasoline
samples which are provided by three different refineries and belong to
three different brands (90#, 93# and 97#). Since samples are partly
overlapped in the principal component space, traditional classification
algorithms based on principal component analysis (PCA) cannot be
effective. Least squares support vector machine (LSSVM) with the
whole spectral range is introduced. Moreover, a novel local weighted
LSSVM algorithm is proposed to improve the classification accuracy.
The weight is constructed based on correlation coefficient R and this
algorithm can be denoted as R-weighted LSSVM. In this algorithm,
both of Euclidean distance and correlation coefficient are considered to
select neighbouring samples. LDA based on PCA, LSSVM, local
LSSVM and R-weighted LSSVM are compared in the classification
experiment. Experimental results show that Raman spectroscopy is an
effective means to classify gasoline brand and origin, and the R-
weighted LSSVM algorithm gives the best classification result.
13/00039 Determination of octane numbers in gasoline by
distillation curves and partial least squares regression
Mendes, G. et al. Fuel, 2012, 97, 131136.
In this work, distillation curves (ASTM D86) associated with multi-
variate calibration (PLS-partial least squares) were used to predict
MON (motor octane number) and RON (research octane number)
parameters of automotive fuel RMSEC getting values (root mean
square error of calibration) and RMSEP (root mean square error of
prediction) smaller than the literature. RMSEC values obtained were
0.051 and 0.078, and RMSEP values were 0.063 and 0.085 for MON
and RON, respectively. These low values along with high accuracy,
when compared to standard test methods (ASTM D2700 and ASTM
D2999), indicated that the PLS models were efficient to predict MON
and RON values and can be used as an alternative to control quality
for automotive gasoline.
13/00040 Evolution of petrophysical properties of oil
shales during high-temperature compaction tests:
implications for petroleum expulsion
Eseme, E. et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 2012, 31, (1), 110124.
The transport properties of Permian to Miocene oil shales (Torbanite,
Posidonia, Messel, Himmetoglu, and Condor) were studied using
petrophysical and geochemical techniques. The aims of this study were
to assess permeability of oil shales, evaluate the evolution of porosity,
specific surface area and intergranular permeability during high
temperature compaction tests and to verify the suitability of inter-
granular permeability for petroleum expulsion. Measured permeability
coefficients for two samples were 0.72 10
21
m
2
for the Eocene
Messel shale and 2.63 10
21
m
2
for the Lower Jurassic Posidonia
shale from south Germany, respectively. BET specific surface areas of
the original samples ranged from 0.7 to 10.6 m
2
/g and decreased after
compaction to values from 0.3 to 3.7 m
2
/g. Initial porosity values ranged
from 7.6 to 20.1% for pre-deformation and from 9.99 to 20.7% for
post-deformation samples. Porosity increased during the high-tem-
perature compaction experiments due to petroleum generation and
expulsion. Permeability coefficients estimated using the Kozeny
Carman equation varied from 6.97 10
24
to 5.22 10
21
m
2
for pre-
deformation and from 0.2 10
21
to 4.8 10
21
m
2
for post-defor-
mation samples reflecting the evolution of their porosity and BET
specific surface areas. Measured and calculated permeability were
similar for the Messel shale whereas calculated permeability was two
orders of magnitude lower for the Posidonia shale from south
Germany. Petroleum expulsion efficiencies under the experimental
conditions ranged from 38.6% for the Torbanite to 96.2% for the
Posidonia shale from south Germany. They showed strong positive
correlation with the petroleum generation index (R
2
=0.91) and poor
correlations with porosity (R
2
=0.46), average pore throat diameters
(R
2
=0.22), and compaction (R
2
=0.02). Estimated minimum pore-
system saturations for petroleum expulsion during the experiments
were 12% for the Torbanite and 30% for the Posidonia shale from
north Germany. Pore-system saturation determines whether expulsion
occurs mainly through matrix or fracture permeability. For samples
with saturation levels above 20%, fracture permeability dominated
during the experiments. Evidence based on the measured permeability
coefficients, expulsion flow rates, consideration of capillary displace-
ment during generation-related pore invasion and the existence of
transport porosity suggests that fracture permeability is the principal
avenue of petroleum expulsion from source rocks. This conclusion is
supported by microscopic observations.
13/00041 Geochemistry, origin and correlation of crude oils
in Lower Cretaceous sedimentary sequences of the southern
Mesopotamian Basin, southern Iraq
Abeed, Q. et al. Organic Geochemistry, 2012, 46, 113126.
Thirty-one crude oil samples from Lower Cretaceous reservoirs in
southern Iraq were analysed using bulk property and molecular
methods to determine their maturity and biomarker characteristics,
as well as to obtain information on their respective source rocks. All
the oils are unaltered, non-biodegraded, have high sulfur content and
API gravity is in the range for light to heavy oil (1940

API). They are

characterized by low Pr/Ph values, even/odd predominance and front-
end biased n-alkane distributions. Based on these parameters the oils
were generated and expelled from a marine carbonate source rock
bearing Type II-S kerogen. Compositional similarities of hopane and
sterane biomarkers with those from potential source rocks allowed
identification of the Upper JurassicLower Cretaceous Sulaiy and
Yamama carbonate succession as the effective source beds. A similar
composition of normal and isoprenoid hydrocarbons among the oils
suggests an origin from a common source rock. However, biomarker
maturity ratios indicate a wide range of maturity. This appears to result
from the type of burial history of the source rock, characterized by a
slow passage through the liquid window interval during an extended
period of geologic time.
13/00042 Interfacial tension behavior of double long-chain
1,3,5-triazine surfactants for enhanced oil recovery
Qiao, W. et al. Fuel, 2012, 96, 220225.
The paper is aimed at studying the influencing factors of producing
ultra-low interfacial tension (IFT) under alkali-free systems, including
molecular structures as well as concentrations of double long-chain
1,3,5-triazine surfactants (A-DCTn-8, n =8, 10, 12, 14), temperature,
electrolyte, the property of oil phase, and mass ratios of surfactant
homologues mixtures. It was found that only A-DCT108 and A-
DCT128 could reduce IFTs to ultra-low value (<10
2
mNm
1
) at
wide surfactant concentration range against different oil phases. In
addition, the dynamic interfacial tensions (DIFTs) of A-DCT108 and
A-DCT128 could maintain ultra-low value under the conditions of
higher temperature. The results might be of theoretic and realistic
significance in the enhanced oil recovery. The DIFTs of A-DCT108 in
increased with higher salinity. The effects of sodium chloride on DIFTs
of A-DCT128 were not obvious, whereas the adding of a small
quantity of sodium carbonate could lower its DIFTs up to 12 orders of
magnitude. After investigating the DIFTs of A-DCT128/A-DCT88
mixtures with different mass ratios, it was found that this kind of
mixtures exhibited good synergism. This synergism reduced their
DIFTs to ultra-low value and changed the time to reach minimum
DIFT value. The minimum alkane carbon number (n
min
) of this kind of
surfactants were also investigated, and it was found that the n
min
of
them were associated with their structures.
13/00043 Investigation of Chinese oil shale resources
comprehensive utilization performance
Wang, S. et al. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 224232.
A novel comprehensive utilization system of oil shale involving retort
subsystem, combustion subsystem, electricity generation and ash
processing subsystem is recommended for Huadian oil shale. To
ensure the thermal balance and stable operation of the whole system,
part of non-condensable gases from retort process, as auxiliary fuel, are
8 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
02 Liquid fuels (sources, properties, recovery)
introduced into a combustor connected before the CFB furnace. The
system performance is simulated using ASPEN software tool in this
paper. The influence of retorting temperature, residence time,
temperature and pressure of the CFB furnace, content of oil shale
for combustion, content of non-condensable gases for combustion on
the system performance are discussed. In order to explore advantages
of this system, a retort system and a combustion system are
investigated. The results show that increasing retorting temperature,
residence time, pressure of CFB furnace and content of non-
condensable gases for combustion has positive significant effect on
improving the total profit and the output energy efficient of the
comprehensive utilization system. The solid heat carrier technology is
more adaptable for this system. Compared with other utilization modes
for oil shale, the comprehensive utilization system has higher
utilization efficiency of oil shale resources, more diversified products,
lower pollutants emission and higher total profit.
13/00044 Laboratory scale experimental analysis of steam-
over-solvent injection in fractured reservoirs (SOS-FR) for
heavy-oil recovery
Al-Bahlani, A. M. and Babadagli, T. Journal of Petroleum Science and
Engineering, 2012, 8485, 4256.
Heavy oil trapped in fractured carbonate reservoirs possesses a great
challenge to the petroleum industry due to high oil viscosity, low matrix
permeability, and unfavourable wettability of the matrix. Thermal
recovery methods (mainly steam injection) show a promising way
forward to unlock these reserves. Yet, previous experiences revealed
that heating the matrix to drain heavy-oil by gravity is a slow and
inefficient process due to low matrix recovery caused by unfavourable
matrix properties (oil wetness and low permeability). Acceleration of
matrix-fracture interaction by changing the matrix and oil properties
could be possible by injecting the proper hydrocarbon solvent
alternately with steam as reported in earlier work. This process, called
steam-over-solvent injection in fractured reservoirs (SOS-FR), consists
of several cycles, each having three phases: (1) steam/hot water
injection; (2) solvent injection; and (3) steam/hot water injection. This
paper reports a detailed experimental analysis of this new method.
Static and dynamic tests were conducted by exposing heavy-oil
saturated fractured rocks to hot water and solvent alternately. Oil-
wet sandstone and carbonate samples were saturated with heavy-crude
oil and tested against different solvents, namely heptane, kerosene,
decane and light crude. Fractured cores were tested under dynamic
conditions with different solvent injection rates to explore the rate
dependency of the process. The physics of the injection rate and the
role of asphaltene as a bi-product were examined and discussed.
Understanding the physics of this new technique will contribute to the
development of an alternative method at field conditions for unlocking
trapped heavy matrix oil from oil-wet, fractured, and deep carbonate
fields.
13/00045 Oil exploration and perceptions of scarcity:
the fallacy of early success
Jakobsson, K. et al. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 12261233.
It has been suggested that oil exploration may lead to false perceptions
of decreasing scarcity. This study performs a simulation of the
exploration process using Bayesian updating. The approach isolated
the information effect on the success rate and also quantified the
subjective expectation of the total resource size. The area under
exploration consists of a number of regions which may differ in their oil
content. Exploration is performed with the goal to maximize the
expected success rate. The resulting information about the distribution
of oil and the total resource size is assumed public knowledge. A
number of scenarios with variations in the dimensions of the area
under exploration, the oil distribution and initial beliefs are con-
sidered. The results indicate that the information effect on the success
rate is significant but brief it might have a considerable impact on
price but is an unlikely mechanism behind a long-term declining price
trend. However, the information effect on expectations is gradual and
persistent. Since exploration is performed in regions where the
expected success rate is the highest, the historical success rate will
not be representative of the area as a whole. An explorer will tend to
overestimate the total resource size, thereby suggesting an alternative
mechanism for false perceptions of decreasing scarcity, a mechanism
that could be called the fallacy of early success.
13/00046 Petroleum generation and charge history of the
northern Dongying Depression, Bohai Bay Basin, China:
insight from integrated fluid inclusion analysis and basin
modelling
Guo, X. et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 2012, 32, (1), 2135.
The petroleum generation and charge history of the northern Dongying
Depression, Bohai Bay Basin was investigated using an integrated fluid
inclusion analysis workflow and geohistory modelling. One and two-
dimensional basin modelling was performed to unravel the oil
generation history of the Eocene Shahejie Formation (Es3 and Es4)
source rocks based on the reconstruction of the burial, thermal and
maturity history. Calibration of the model with thermal maturity and
borehole temperature data using a rift basin heat flow model indicates
that the upper interval of the Es4 source rocks began to generate oil at
around 35 Ma, reached a maturity level of 0.7% R
o
at 3130 Ma and a
peak hydrocarbon generation at 2423 Ma. The lower interval of the
Es3 source rocks began to generate oil at around 3332 Ma and
reached a maturity of 0.7% R
o
at about 2726 Ma. Oil generation from
the lower Es3 and upper Es4 source rocks occurred in three phases with
the first phase from approximately 3020 Ma; the second phase from
approximately 205 Ma; and the third phase from 5 Ma to the present
day. The first and third phases were the two predominant phases of
intense oil generation. Samples from the Es3 and Es4 reservoir intervals
in 12 wells at depth intervals between 2677.7 m and 4323.0 m were
investigated using an integrated fluid inclusion workflow including
petrography, fluorescence spectroscopy and microthermometry to
determine the petroleum charge history in the northern Dongying
Depression. Abundant oil inclusions with a range of fluorescence col-
ours from near yellow to near blue were observed and were interpreted
to represent two episodes of hydrocarbon charge based on the fluid
inclusion petrography, fluorescence spectroscopy and microthermome-
try data. Two episodes of oil charge were determined at 2420 Ma and
43 Ma, respectively with the second episode being the predominant
period for the oil accumulation in the northern Dongying Depression.
The oil charge occurred during or immediately after the modelled
intense oil generation and coincided with a regional uplift and a rapid
subsidence, suggesting that the hydrocarbon migration from the
already overpressured source rocks may have been triggered by the
regional uplift and rapid subsidence. The expelled oil was then charged
to the already established traps in the northern Dongying Depression.
The proximal locations of the reservoirs to the generative kitchens and
the short oil migration distance facilitate the intimate relationship
between oil generation, migration and accumulation.
13/00047 Petroleum geochemistry of the Potwar Basin,
Pakistan: II oil classification based on heterocyclic and
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
Asif, M. and Fazeelat, T. Applied Geochemistry, 2012, 27, (8), 1655
1665.
In a previous study, oils in the Potwar Basin (Upper Indus) of Pakistan
were correlated based on the dissimilarity of source and depositional
environment of organic matter (OM) using biomarkers and bulk stable
isotopes. This study is aimed at supporting the classification of Potwar
Basin oils into three groups (A, B and C) using the distribution of
alkylnaphthalenes, alkylphenanthrenes, alkyldibenzothiophenes, alkyl-
dibenzofurans, alkylfluorenes, alkylbiphenyls, triaromatic steroids,
methyl triaromatic steroids, retene, methyl retenes and cadalene. The
higher relative abundance of specific methyl isomers of naphthalene
and phenanthrene and the presence of diagnostic aromatic biomarkers
clearly indicate the terrigenous and oxic depositional environment of
OM for group A oil. Group B and C oils are of marine origin and the
aforementioned heterocyclic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(HCs) differentiate them clearly into two different groups. The relative
percentages of heterocyclic aromatic HCs reveal that the distribution of
these compounds is controlled by the depositional environment of the
OM. Sulfur-containing heterocyclic aromatic HCs are higher in crude
oils generated from source rocks deposited in suboxic depositional
environments, while oxygen-containing heterocyclic aromatic HCs in
combination with alkylfluorenes are higher in marine oxic and deltaic
oils. Biomarker and aromatic HC parameters do not indicate
significant differences in the thermal maturity of Potwar Basin oils.
Triaromatic and methyl triaromatic steroids support the division of
Potwar Basin oils into the three groups and their relative abundances
are related to source OM rather than thermal maturity. Significantly
higher amounts of C
20
and C
21
triaromtic steroids and the presence or
absence of long chain triaromatic steroids (C
25
, C
26
, C
27
, and C
28
)
indicates that these compounds are probably formed from different
biological precursors in each group. Different isomers of methyl
substituted triaromatic steroids are present only for short chain
compounds (C
20
C
22
) and the origin of these compounds may be
short chain methyl steranes from unknown biological precursors.
13/00048 Rock mechanics characteristic of complex
formation and faster drilling techniques in western South
China Sea oilfields
Zhu, H. Y. et al. Ocean Engineering, 2012, 44, 3345.
In order to increase the rate of penetration (ROP) and to reduce cost,
the authors tested detritus for mineral components to study the
lithological characters of the deep-sea complex formation of western
South China Sea oilfields. The prediction models of rock mechanics
parameters were established based on the experiments results of the
uniaxial compressive strength (UCS), drillability, hardness, plasticity
and abrasivity tests of cores sampled from the complex formation. They
plotted profiles of rock mechanics parameters of 30 wells and three
dimensional (3D) drillability planes using the log data to reveal the
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 9
02 Liquid fuels (sources, properties, recovery)
complex formations distribution and their rock mechanical properties.
Then, the rock breaking mechanism of complex formation of cone and
PDC bit are studied. According to rock mechanics characteristic of
complex formation and adjacent well drilling data, the authors
recommend the bit structure, drilling methods and drilling parameters
for the northern Gulf Basin (NGB) and Pearl River Mouth Basin
(PRMB) oilfields. The research results are used to guide the drilling
work of Z-1091 and Z-1118AS1 well in the NGB and C-1421
well in the PRMB, compared with the adjacent wells, the average
drilling footage and ROP increase by 98% and 117.8%, respectively.
13/00049 The pyrolysis, extraction and kinetics of Buton oil
sand bitumen
Ma, Y. and Li, S. Fuel Processing Technology, 2012, 100, 1115.
In this paper, the pyrolysis and extraction experiments on Buton oil
sand bitumen were carried out. The contents of oil, water, gas, and
semi-coke were determined and the pyrolysates were evaluated. The
averaged oil content of Buton oil sand is about 20%. As measured by
DeanStark toluene extraction, oil sand bitumen from Buton has the
averaged bitumen content of about 30%. Three kinds of solvents were
used to evaluate the bitumen recovery. The optimum conditions of
solvent extraction were determined. The pyrolysates and bitumen were
analysed. The pyrolysis kinetics of oil sand were performed using the
differential scanning calorimetry at different heating rates of 15, 20, 25
and 30

C/min. The kinetic parameters (apparent activation energy E

and frequency factor A) of oil sand pyrolysis were determined using
CoatsRedfern method. The value of apparent activation energy E was
about 20 kJmol
1
, corresponding to the conversion of 535%. The
apparent activation energy was nearly 40 kJmol
1
while the conversion
ranges from 40% to 95%.
Transport, refining, quality, storage
13/00050 Deep desulfurization of gas oil over NiMo
catalysts supported on aluminazirconia composites
Al-Daous, M. A. and Ali, S. A. Fuel, 2012, 97, 662669.
A series of NiMo catalysts supported on Al
2
O
3
ZrO
2
composites
containing 0, 2.5, 5 and 10 wt% ZrO
2
was synthesized, characterized
and evaluated for deep desulfurization of gas oil. X-ray diffraction
patterns of the supports indicate homogenous dispersion of 2.510 wt%
of ZrO
2
in bulk Al
2
O
3
. Mono-modal pore-size distribution was
observed with a decrease in average pore-size with increasing ZrO
2
content. NH
3
-TPD results show that incorporation of 5 wt% or more
ZrO
2
neutralized the weak acid sites of Al
2
O
3
and generated a
different type of stronger acid sites. UVvisible diffuse reflectance
spectroscopy results indicate the presence of tetrahedral and octahed-
ral Mo
6+
ions species along with an increase in octahedral species with
addition of ZrO
2
possibly due to weaker interaction of active metals
and composite support. This result is also supported by H
2
-TPR and
CO chemisorption measurements. Deep desulfurization of gas oil,
carried out in a bench-scale flow reactor at 320, 340 and 360

C,
indicate that the addition of ZrO
2
increased the catalytic activity
especially at higher temperature. Compared to Al
2
O
3
-based catalyst,
the 1.5 order HDS rate constant was about 1.3, 1.8 and 2.5 times higher
for catalysts containing 2.5, 5 and 10 wt% ZrO
2
, respectively. A
correlation was found between the enhancement of hydrogenation
activity of sulfided catalysts and the reducibility of their oxide pre-
cursors, as determined by the amount of hydrogen consumed in TPR
experiments followed by mass spectroscopy.
13/00051 Distribution of acids and nitrogen-containing
compounds in biodegraded oils of the Liaohe Basin by
negative ion ESI FT-ICR MS
Liao, Y. et al. Organic Geochemistry, 2012, 47, 5165.
Seven reservoir core (tar sand) bitumens of identical source and similar
maturity from the Liaohe Basin of northeast China possess a natural
sequence of increasing severity of biodegradation. This set of samples
provides us an opportunity to study the change in oil composition or
compound class distributions with biodegradation severity by negative
ion electrospray Fourier transform-ion cyclotron resonance mass
spectrometry (FT ICR-MS). The bitumen extracts from two columns
(Es3 and Es1) were separated into maltene and asphaltene fractions
for analysis of heteroatomic species by ESI FT-ICR MS. The maltene
fractions were found to mainly contain N1, N1O1, N1O2, N1O3, O1,
O2, O3 and O4 classes, while the asphaltene fractions mainly contain
N1, N2O1, N1O1, N1O2, N1O3, N1O4, O2, O3, O4 and O5 classes.
These species identified by FT-ICR MS in asphaltene fractions are
likely to be chemisorbed/coprecipitated compounds, or the species
precipitated due to high polarity during deasphaltene process. The
susceptibility of compound classes and homologous series to biode-
gradation was studied based on the relative abundances. The results
indicate that microorganisms alter the distribution of acids and
nitrogen-containing compounds by selective removal and preservation
of certain classes of compounds according to their susceptibility to
biodegradation. For example, O2 and N1O2 classes increase signifi-
cantly while N1 and N1O1 classes decrease with biodegradation. The
differences in the susceptibility to microbial alteration within acyclic
acids, four- or five-ring acids and one- or two-ring acids are discussed
and the differences in the susceptibility of homologous series of
heteroatom-containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are also
discussed in this work.
13/00052 Effect of water density and air pressure on partial
oxidation of bitumen in supercritical water
Sato, T. et al. Fuel, 2012, 95, 347351.
Partial oxidation of bitumen was examined in supercritical water from
653 to 723 K at a water/oil ratio from 0 to 3 and up to 5.1 MPa of initial
air pressure. The contents in the reactor were separated into a water-
rich phase and an oil-rich phase. Most of oxygen was consumed within
30 min and the main gases produced were CO, CO
2
and methane. The
low temperature gave a higher CO/(CO+CO
2
) ratio and suppressed
coke formation. The amount of total gas tended to decrease and the
ratio of CO/(CO+CO
2
) increased about two times with the increase in
water/oil ratio from 0.5 to 3. The high water/oil ratio was preferred for
selective partial oxidation to produce CO, which means that the effect
of the enhancement of partial oxidation by supercritical water was
probably larger than that of CO oxidation by water and water gas shift
reaction. The increase in initial air pressure increased the amount of
CO and CO
2
and decreased the ratio of CO/(CO+CO
2
). The total
oxidation route was enhanced under high air pressure.
13/00053 Risk-based optimization of the design of
on-shore pipeline shutdown systems
Medina, H. et al. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries,
2012, 25, (3), 489493.
Crude oil and other liquid materials are transported in large quantities
through pipelines. Pipelines are an efficient and safe transport way as
compared to both rail and road transportation, both from the economic
and environmental points of view. Nevertheless, loss of containment
accidents can occur due to external action a mechanical impact, for
example or to corrosion, aging, etc. Even though the frequency of
such events is certainly very low, the effects and consequences on
environment can be very important. The consequences of accidents in
pipelines can be efficiently reduced through a suitable design of the
whole system. One of the points which must be decided in the design is
the installation of blocking valves at appropriate distances, so that
emergency shutdowns can interrupt the flow of substance and isolate
the section where the loss of containment has taken place. In the case
of pipe rupture the amount released is therefore limited to the content
between two consecutive valves, usually placed according to heuristic
criteria. However, if too many valves are used, the capital cost of
equipment increases excessively, and if too few are used, the risk of
serious accidents increases. This paper considers the possibility of im-
proving the design of such systems by applying risk-based optimization
criteria. The authors propose an optimization methodology to solve
this conflict by means of an objective function that analyses the varia-
tions in overall costs, including the cost of the investment (with specific
reference to blocking valves) and the cost of accidents. The result is an
optimum situation in which costs are kept to a minimum. As an
example, the authors apply the methodology to the transportation of
gasoline by pipeline.
13/00054 Settling behavior of spherical particles in
fiber-containing drilling fluids
Elgaddafi, R. et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 2012,
8485, 2028.
Fibre-containing fluids are utilized in many industrial applications. In
the petroleum industry, fibre suspensions are used to transport rock
cuttings from the bottom of the hole to the surface. Moreover, fibrous
fluids are applied in fracturing operations to transport proppant
particles to the fractured space. Solids transport performance of these
fluids largely depends on the settling behaviour of suspended particles.
This article presents results of experimental and theoretical investi-
gations conducted on the settling behaviour of 28 mm spherical
particles in fibre-containing fluids. Experiments were carried out in a 2-
m long and 100-mm diameter transparent cylinder. Both Newtonian
and non-Newtonian fluids were tested. A moving digital camera system
was used to track a particle while it settled. The camera records were
used to determine the settling velocity of each particle as a function of
time. Fibre concentration was varied from 0% to 0.08% by weight.
When a particle settles in the fibrous fluid, it experiences fibre drag in
addition to conventional hydrodynamic resistance, i.e. viscous drag.
Measured terminal velocity was used to compute the viscous com-
ponent of the total drag. Subsequently, applying the momentum
balance, the fibre drag component acting on the particle was deter-
mined from the total drag. Results show that the fibre drag is a
10 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
02 Liquid fuels (transport, refining, quality, storage)
function of the particles projected area, settling velocity, fibre drag
coefficient, and density difference between the fluid and particle. Using
experimental data, a semi-empirical model was developed to predict
terminal settling velocity of a particle in fibre-containing fluids. The
correlation is valid for both Newtonian and non-Newtonian base fluids
that have low concentrations of fully dispersed fibres with a length and
diameter of 10 mm and 100 mm, respectively.
13/00055 Soot formation from a distillation cut of a
FischerTropsch diesel fuel: a shock tube study
Mathieu, O. et al. Combustion and Flame, 2012, 159, (6), 21922201.
The kinetics of soot formation from FischerTropsch (FT) fuels was
studied in a heated shock tube under homogeneous conditions. Soot
induction delay time and soot yield were measured between 10 and
17 atm using a distillation cut at 403 K of a FT fuel diesel. Two fuel
concentrations were investigated in pyrolysis: 0.2% and 0.4% FT in Ar.
Equivalence ratios () =18 and 5 were also investigated for the highest
fuel concentration. During this study, a second growth of the soot
volume fraction profile was observed with the highest fuel concen-
tration in pyrolysis and at =18. It was shown that this second growth
appears only at temperatures higher than the temperature at which the
soot yield is at a maximum. Under the conditions investigated, the soot
induction delay time was found not to be very sensitive to the fuel
concentration. A careful analysis of the soot volume fraction profiles
showed that this finding was linked to the measurement method usually
adopted. Nevertheless, this method was found adequate for a
systematic comparison between different fuels or for an investigation
of the oxygen concentration effects. The addition of oxygen to the
mixture promotes soot formation in its early stages by decreasing the
soot induction delay time. A shift of the soot yield curve toward lower
temperatures was also observed. Moreover, oxygen addition reduces
the amount of soot produced. This reduction is proportional to the O
2
concentration. Comparisons with literature data showed that a FT fuel
primarily composed of n-paraffins can be correctly represented by an n-
paraffin with a molecular size comparable to the average molecular size
of the FT fuel. The maximum soot yield of the FT distillation cut
studied was not significantly different from that of a diesel fuel
surrogate previously studied.
13/00056 Variation in abundance and distribution of
diamondoids during oil cracking
Fang, C. et al. Organic Geochemistry, 2012, 47, 18.
In this study, changes in the abundance and distribution of diamond-
oids in petroleum with thermal maturity were investigated by a
simulation oil cracking experiment. Highly sensitive and selective gas
chromatographytriple quadrupole mass spectrometry (GCMSMS)
was employed to quantify diamondoids at ppm and sub-ppm levels. The
results indicate that diamondoids were generated primarily within the
maturity range 1.02.1% EasyRo and destroyed at high thermal
maturity (>2.1% EasyRo). Hence, the occurrence of high concen-
trations of diamondoids probably corresponds to the maturity range
from the wet gas to the early dry gas stage (i.e., 1.52.5% EasyRo).
Good correlations were observed between a few ratios of diamondoids
(i.e. EAI, DMAI-1, DMDI-1 and TMAI-1) and EasyRo. This finding
indicates that these parameters may be useful maturity indices for
organic matter from the late oil window to the dry gas window.
Economics, business, marketing, policy
13/00057 A dynamic programming model of Chinas
strategic petroleum reserve: general strategy and the effect
of emergencies
Wu, G. et al. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 12341243.
To protect the security of energy supply, China is building national
strategic petroleum reserve (SPR). This study presents a dynamic
programming model to determine the optimal stockpiling and draw-
down strategies for Chinas SPR under various scenarios, focusing on
minimizing the total cost of reserves. In contrast to previous research,
the oil price given in the model is exogenous on a monthly instead of
annual basis, with a view to more realistic simulation of optimal
strategies each year. The model results show that in the case where
stockpiling affects oil prices, a given SPR size will be achieved earlier
than when stockpiling does not affect oil prices. In different emergency
conditions, the optimal stockpiling and drawdown strategies of Chinas
SPR are very different. When an emergency occurs, the shock of
stockpiling on the oil price per barrel could range from $0.49 to $6.35,
while the impact of drawdown on the oil price per barrel could range
from $6.22 to $0.48.
13/00058 Analysis about the seasonality of Chinas crude
oil import based on X-12-ARIMA
Zhou, Z.-b. and Dong, X.-c. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 281288.
The aim of this study is to examine the potential seasonality of Chinas
crude oil import in hope of helping the stakeholders with inventory
control and production planning. In order to proximately achieve the
goal, X-12-ARIMA method was used to adjust the monthly series and
the quarterly series of Chinas crude oil net import in the last 16 years.
The results show that the quarterly series is better than the monthly
series in terms of seasonality adjustment; the seasonal factors tend to
be positive in spring and summer quarters while negative in fall and
winter quarters; and the former three seasonal factors are growing
stronger while the winter factor weaker in recent years.
13/00059 Assessment of strategies for CO
2
abatement in
the European petroleum refining industry
Johansson, D. et al. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 375386.
Petroleum oil refineries account for almost 8% of the total CO
2
emissions from industry in the European Union (EU). In this paper,
the European petroleum refining industry is investigated and the
prospects for future CO
2
abatement in relation to associated infra-
structure are assessed. A more efficient use of the adjacent infra-
structure, e.g. district heating networks, natural gas grids, neighbouring
industries, and CO
2
transport and storage systems, could provide
opportunities for additional CO
2
emissions reduction. It is shown that
access to infrastructures that can facilitate CO
2
abatement varies
significantly across countries and between individual refineries. The
assessment shows that short-term mitigation options, i.e. fuel substi-
tution and energy efficiency measures, could reduce CO
2
emissions by
940 MtCO
2
/year (626% of the total refinery emissions). It is further
shown that carbon capture and storage offers the greatest potential for
more significant emission reductions in the longer term. However, the
potential for CO
2
capture varies significantly depending on the choice
of technology, CO
2
source, and scope of implementation (580% of the
total refinery emissions).
13/00060 Clustering in crude oil prices and the target
pricing zone hypothesis
Bharati, R. et al. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 11151123.
This paper studies the target pricing zone (TPZ) hypothesis for crude
oil by examining price clustering in the dollar digit. It is hypothesized
that price clustering occurs within an established TPZ if OPEC is able
to defend the upper and lower bounds through output changes. The
results show that prices strongly cluster around the dollar digit value of
nine within the TPZ sub-periods, but not outside the sub-periods.
Furthermore, the degree of clustering declines when production
capacity utilization is high and when production significantly exceeds
quotas, consistent with OPECs inability to defend the zone. Nine-
centred clustering also results in lower contemporaneous and next-day
volatility. These results support the target pricing zone hypothesis of
crude oil.
13/00061 Crude oil conservation policy hypothesis in
OECD (organisation for economic cooperation and
development) countries: a multivariate panel Granger
causality test
Behmiri, N. B. and Manso, J. R. P. Energy, 2012, 43, (1), 253260.
This study examines the Granger causality among crude oil consump-
tion, crude oil price, dollar exchange rate and economic growth in 27
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
countries over the period 19762009 within a panel multivariate
framework. Panel cointegration tests showed the existence of long-
run relationships among crude oil consumption, crude oil price and
gross domestic product (GDP); and panel Granger causality test results
provided empirical evidence of causality relationships running from
crude oil price to crude oil consumption and also to GDP; and a
bidirectional causality relationship among crude oil consumption and
GDP, both in the short and long runs (feedback hypothesis). These
results mean that crude oil conservation policies affect OECD
economic growth in the short and long runs, and therefore, policy-
makers should consider that increasing crude oil price or reducing
crude oil consumption adversely impacts on the economic growth rate
of the OECD countries.
13/00062 Does the Canadian economy suffer from Dutch
disease?
Beine, M. et al. Resource and Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 468492.
The authors argue that the failure to disentangle the evolution of the
Canadian currency from the US currency leads to potentially incorrect
conclusions regarding the case of Dutch disease in Canada. They
propose a new approach that is aimed at extracting both currency
components and energy- and commodity-price components from
observed exchange rates and prices. They first analyse the separate
influence of commodity prices on the Canadian and the US currency
components. They then estimate the separate impact of the two
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 11
02 Liquid fuels (economics, business, marketing, policy)
currency components on the shares of manufacturing employment in
Canada. Between 33% and 39% of the manufacturing employment loss
that was due to exchange rate developments between 2002 and 2007 is
related to the Dutch disease phenomenon. The remaining proportion
of the employment loss can be ascribed to the weakness of the USA.
13/00063 Energy-use analysis and evaluation of distillation
systems through avoidable exergy destruction and
investment costs
Wei, Z. et al. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 424433.
Based on the concepts of avoidable/unavoidable exergy destructions
and investment costs, this article presents an exergy analysis and an
exergoeconomic evaluation to identify the potential energy savings in
distillation processes. Methods for calculating the avoidable/unavoid-
able exergy destructions and investment costs for distillation columns,
and hot-utility/cold-utility heat exchangers are proposed. For a
distillation column, the unavoidable exergy destruction is estimated
through the minimum reflux ratio, and the unavoidable investment cost
is determined according to the minimum theoretical stage number
obtained under the condition of total reflux. For the utility heat
exchangers, the unavoidable exergy destruction is estimated through
the minimum possible temperature difference, and the unavoidable
investment cost corresponds to the maximum allowed temperature
difference that is related to practical applications. A light-ends separ-
ation plant is used to demonstrate the performance of the proposed
approach. The results indicate that the exergy-savings potential enables
comparisons of energy-savings potentials among different system com-
ponents, and the value of the cost-savings potential points out the cost
that could be avoided in todays technological and economic environ-
ment. The modified exergoeconomic factor provides the improvement
direction in a more accurate way compared with the conventional one.
13/00064 Geo-microbial and light gaseous hydrocarbon
anomalies in the near surface soils of Deccan Syneclise
Basin, India: implications to hydrocarbon resource potential
Rasheed, M. A. et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering,
2012, 8485, 3341.
Deccan Syneclise Basin is considered geologically prospective for oil
and gas reserves; however, a major part of the basin is covered by the
Deccan Traps, hindering the exploration of Mesozoic hydrocarbon
targets. Surface geochemical prospecting, based on micro-seepage of
hydrocarbons from subsurface accumulations, could be advantageous
in such areas. Surface geochemical prospecting method was applied in
Deccan Syneclise for evaluation of hydrocarbon resource potential of
the basin. The gas chromatographic analyses of adsorbed soil gasses
showed the presence of C
1
to C
4
hydrocarbons. The concentrations of
adsorbed soil gasses ranged for methane (C
1
) =1 to 483 ppb, ethane
(C
2
) =1 to 83 ppb, propane (C
3
) =1 to 38 ppb, butane (nC
4
) =1 to
60 ppb and C
2+
=1 to 129 ppb, respectively. The scatter plots
between C
1
and C
4
components depict linear trend indicating that all
the gasses are derived from the same source. The carbon isotope
composition of adsorbed methane was measured using gas chromatog-
raphycombustion-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GCC-IRMS).
The values for methane c
13
C
1
varied from 39.9 to 19.9% versus
the Vienna PeeDee Belemnite (VPDB). The carbon isotope ratio
distribution pattern represents isotopic characteristics pertaining to
hydrocarbon gasses derived from thermogenic sources. The propane
oxidizing bacteria (POB) ranged between 1.0 10
2
and 12.8 10
5
cfu/g
of soil. The adsorbed light gaseous hydrocarbons and propane
oxidizing bacterial anomalies found in and around Aurangabad,
Ahmednagar, Shirdi, Akola, Bhusawal and Indore areas are considered
to be promising for future hydrocarbon research and exploration.
13/00065 High octane number ethanolgasoline blends:
quantifying the potential benefits in the United States
Anderson, J. E. et al. Fuel, 2012, 97, 585594.
Ethanol provides a significant contribution to road transportation fuel
in the USA, Brazil and elsewhere. Renewable fuels regulations in the
USA and European Union imply that ethanol use will continue to
increase in the near future. The high octane rating of ethanol could be
used in a mid-level ethanol blend to increase the minimum octane
number (research octane number, RON) of regular-grade gasoline.
Higher RON would enable greater thermal efficiency in future engines
through higher compression ratio (CR) and/or more aggressive
turbocharging and downsizing, and in current engines on the road
today through more aggressive spark timing under some driving
conditions. Such an approach would differ from the current practice
of blending ethanol into a gasoline blendstock formulated with lower
octane rating such that the net octane rating of the resulting final blend
is unchanged from historical levels. Developing scenarios of future
ethanol availability, it is estimated that large increases (47 points) in
the RON of US gasoline are possible by blending in an additional 10
20%v ethanol above the 10% already present. Keeping the blendstock
RON at 88 (which provides E10 with -92.5 RON), the authors estimate
RON would be increased to 94.3 for E15 to as much as 98.6 for E30.
Even further RON increases may be achievable assuming changes to
the blendstock RON and/or hydrocarbon composition. For example, an
increase in blendstock RON from 88 to 92 would increase the RON of
E10 from 92.5 to 95.6, and would provide higher RON with additional
ethanol content (e.g. RON of 97.1 for E15 to 100.6 for E30). Potential
CR increases are estimated for the different estimates of future octane
number, including the effect of increased evaporative cooling from
ethanol in direct injection engines. For the ethanol and blendstock
RON scenarios considered, CR increases were estimated to be on the
order of 13 CR-units for port fuel injection engines as well as for
direct injection engines in which the greater evaporative cooling of
ethanol can be fully utilized. Impacts to the fuel refining and blending
sector and transition considerations are discussed. While additional
work is needed to quantify and optimize the costs and benefits for both
the automotive and refining sectors and for consumers, it appears that
substantial societal benefits may be associated with capitalizing on the
inherent high octane rating of ethanol in future higher octane number
ethanolgasoline blends.
13/00066 Market power analysis for oil pipelines facing
excess demand
Savitski, D. W. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 955960.
The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission may grant market-based
rates to oil pipelines in the USA on a showing that they lack market
power. The Commission defines market power as the ability to
profitably increase price above the competitive level for a significant
period. Because comparing tariffs alone is generally meaningless for
identifying good transportation alternatives, the Commission tends to
rely on netback price and delivered price analyses to evaluate market
power. When the applicants tariff is a poor proxy for the competitive
tariff, as evidenced by significant excess demand, using the tariff biases
the analysis in favour of finding market power, a reverse cellophane
trap. Estimating the competitive tariff to avoid this bias is complicated
by the spatial aspect of transportation. This paper suggests several ways
to estimate the competitive tariff based on netback and delivered
prices, or based on estimated cost, and provides an example.
13/00067 Modeling the operating costs for petroleum
exploration and development projects
Luo, D. and Zhao, X. Energy, 2012, 40, (1), 189195.
Since the operating cost is among the most sensitive factors to un-
certainties in economic evaluation of petroleum exploration and
development projects, scientific prediction of the operating cost plays
an important role in accurately evaluating the viability of projects. This
paper establishes the operating cost prediction model based on
production decline law and learning curves through analysing the
impact of resource depletion and technological advances on unit
operating cost. This analysis quantifies the effects of both learning and
depletion on operating costs, and also introduces an assessment of the
economic limit of stimulation treatments, which is set by comparing the
unit operating cost before and after the treatments are taken. The
results show the effect of resource depletion overwhelming that of
technological advances for a single oilfield, and thus the operating cost
is increasing over its life cycle. The influence of each parameter on the
operating cost is examined, the unit operating cost in plateau phase
having the largest influence. Over time, the effect of constant decline
rate of the exponential decline is gradually overtaking that of unit
operating cost. This model is applied in several oilfields in Tunisia, and
all the exam results meet accuracy requirements.
13/00068 Oil price shocks and European industries
Scholtens, B. and Yurtsever, C. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 1187
1195.
This paper investigates the impact of oil price shocks at the industry
level in the Euro area for the period 19832007. Different oil price
specifications and dynamic VAR models and multivariate regression
are used to investigate how 38 different industries respond to oil price
shocks. Specific attention is paid to the asymmetry of the industries
responses regarding oil price increases and decreases. It was found that
the impact of oil price shocks substantially differs along the different
industries. The significance of this result also differs along the various
oil price specifications. The results are quite robust to the way in which
the problem is modelled.
13/00069 On the analysis of hydrocarbon leaks in the
Norwegian offshore industry
Vinnem, J. E. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 2012,
25, (4), 709717.
There have been several major offshore accidents in different offshore
regions since 2005. In Norway there have been several very serious
near-misses during the past 10 years, several of which involving serious
hydrocarbon leaks with catastrophic fire and explosion potential. All
these severe occurrences demonstrate the importance of learning from
major accident precursors in order to appraise the risk potential
involved in critical offshore operations. This paper is based on analysis
12 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
02 Liquid fuels (economics, business, marketing, policy)
of about 175 hydrocarbon leaks in the period 20012010. Regulatory
requirements in Norway are aimed at preventing as far as possible such
occurrences during night time, but the analysis shows that this has been
far from successful. The industry has for many years claimed that the
maintenance personnel are the main group of employees involved in
causing these leaks. This study has shown that leaks during the
execution of maintenance and modification are less than half of the
leaks, and that failures during the preparation for carrying out
maintenance tasks are more frequent. Such preparations have often
been conducted during night shift. The analysis gives a strong incentive
to change this practice.
Derived liquid fuels
13/00070 Effect of K and CeO
2
promoters on the activity of
Co/SiO
2
catalyst for liquid fuel production from syngas
Khobragade, M. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 385394.
Effect of potassium and ceria promotion on the activity and selectivity
of Co/SiO
2
catalyst was investigated for CO hydrogenation in a high-
pressure reactor. Five different SiO
2
-supported cobalt catalysts
promoted with K and CeO
2
were synthesized by sol gel followed and
wet impregnation. These catalysts were characterized by BET surface
area, pore volume, TGA, TPR, SEM, TEM, and chemisorptions
methods. The cobalt particles were well dispersed in sol gel method in
presence of complexing agent. The major phase obtained was Co
3
O
4
and the average metal particle size as determined from the hydrogen
chemisorptions and TEM studies varied from 20 to 60 nm. The
performance of these catalysts were compared at 250

C and 20 bar
pressure and at a weight hourly space time of (W/F
o
) 1000 kg (cata-
lyst) s/Nm
3
. Incorporation of K and CeO
2
significantly influenced the
catalyst reducibility due to increased metal support interaction. The
CO conversion and C
5+
selectivity were highest for ceria doped Co/
SiO
2
catalyst. Both K and CeO
2
promoted Co/SiO
2
were found active
and stable for the FTS reaction, however compared to K promoted
catalyst ceria promoted catalyst notably improved the C
5+
selectivity,
while suppressing the CH
4
and coke formation.
13/00071 Efficient conversion of pure and mixed terpene
feedstocks to high density fuels
Meylemans, H. A. et al. Fuel, 2012, 97, 560568.
A series of high density renewable fuels has been synthesized through
selective dimerization of c-pinene, camphene, limonene, and crude
turpentine using the heterogeneous catalysts Nafion, Nafion SAC-13,
and Montmorillonite K-10. Terpene dimers are produced in up to 90%
yield depending on the feedstock. The preferred catalyst, Nafion SAC-
13, could be recovered by simple filtration and reused up to eight times
without any significant decrease in activity. The fuels produced by this
process have net heats of combustion ranging from 137,000 to
142,000 btu/gal which are comparable to the tactical missile fuel JP-
10. Fuels derived from both c-pinene and camphene have similar
viscosities, densities, and net heats of combustion due to isomerization
of c-pinene to camphene prior to dimerization. In contrast, limonene
dimers exhibit a much lower density and viscosity due to their ring
opened structures. DSC analysis of the dimer fuels revealed freezing
points of 54, 52 and 78

C for dimers derived from camphene, c-

pinene, and limonene, respectively. Empirical results and a terpene
adsorption study suggest that the dimerization reaction proceeds
through initial coordination of c-pinene to catalytic sites followed by
cross-coupling with camphene. The ultra-performance renewable fuels
described in this work have potential applications as significant
components of jet, diesel, and tactical fuels.
13/00072 Ethanol concentration by forward osmosis with
solar-regenerated draw solution
Schrier, J. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (5), 13511358.
Production of fuel-grade ethanol requires removing excess water
following fermentation, which is typically performed by an energy
intensive distillation process. This paper proposes a simple, low cost,
and scalable alternative method of removing water using forward
osmosis. The draw solution is an aqueous brine that is regenerated by
solar evaporation. Separation limits of this approach are calculated
using the van Laar equation for the non-ideality of the ethanol/water
mixture, and experimentally measured activities for aqueous solutions
of NaCl, CaCl
2
, K
2
HPO
4
, and K
4
P
2
O
7
. The study focuses on pro-
duction of 95%, 50% and 30% (w/w) ethanol solutions as fuel for
cooking stoves and homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI)
engines, both of which tolerate larger amounts of water in the product.
Evaporation-limited production rates are computed using long-term
meteorological data for sites in Ethiopia, Thailand, Brazil, and India.
These calculations can be used to determine the size requirements
necessary for a given daily production rate for any desired ethanol
concentration.
13/00073 Gasoline-range hydrocarbon production using
biomass derived synthesis gas over Mo/H
+
ZSM-5
Street, J. et al. Fuel, 2012, 96, 239249.
Biomass-derived hydrocarbons that include gasoline, diesel, and jet
fuel can help replace finite fossil fuel hydrocarbons of the same range.
The objective of this study was to prove that gasoline-range hydro-
carbons could be created from gasified woody biomass (producer gas)
using thermochemical conversion with a Mo/H
+
ZSM-5 catalyst and
compare these results to gasoline-range hydrocarbons created from
contaminate-free synthesis gas (syngas). This study was also performed
to help understand obstacles related to a scaled-up reactor system
using a Mo/H
+
ZSM-5 catalyst with producer gas. The CO conversion,
C selectivity and amount of product created from each type of gas were
examined. Contaminate-free syngas composed of 40% H
2
, 20% CO,
12% CO
2
, 2% CH
4
, and 26% N
2
(2:1 H
2
CO) was used to test near
ideal stoichiometric molar values comparable to producer gas for gas to
liquid creation. Contaminate-free syngas composed of 19% H
2
,
20% CO, 12% CO
2
, 2% CH
4
, 47% N
2
and producer gas composed of
19% H
2
, 20% CO, 12% CO
2
, 2% CH
4
, and 46% N
2
was also used in
this study to determine the feasibility of using gasified biomass syngas
to produce gasoline-range hydrocarbons. The liquid hydrocarbon
(organic phase) yield for the 2:1 syngas, 1:1 syngas and producer gas
was 0.00844 0.00315, 0.00327 0.00101, and 0.00040 0.00058%,
respectively.
13/00074 Hybrid and single feedstock energy processes for
liquid transportation fuels: a critical review
Floudas, C. A. et al. Computers & Chemical Engineering, 2012, 41,
2451.
This review provides a detailed account of the key contributions within
the energy communities with specific emphasis on thermochemically
based hybrid energy systems for liquid transportation fuels. Specifi-
cally, the advances in the indirect liquefaction of coal to liquid, natural
gas to liquid, biomass to liquid, coal and natural gas to liquid, coal and
biomass to liquid, natural gas and biomass to liquid, and coal, biomass,
and natural gas to liquid are presented. This review is the first work
that provides a comprehensive description of the contributions for the
single-feedstock energy systems and the hybrid feedstock energy
systems, for single stand-alone processes and energy supply chain
networks. The focus is on contributions in (a) conceptual design,
(b) process simulation, (c) economic analysis, (d) heat integration,
(e) power integration, (f) water integration, (g) process synthesis,
(h) life cycle analysis, (i) sensitivity analysis, (j) uncertainty issues and
(k) supply chain. A classification of the contributions based on the
products, as well as different research groups is also provided.
13/00075 Model predictive control and neural network
predictive control of TAME reactive distillation column
Sharma, N. and Singh, K. Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process
Intensification, 2012, 59, 921.
Model predictive control (MPC) is an advantageous methodology to
control the non-linear processes such as tert-amyl methyl ether
(TAME). Multiple reactions of the system make the synthesis of the
TAME process more complicated which exhibits highly non-linear
behaviour. The need to handle such difficult control problem has led to
use neural network in MPC. In the present work, three different
control strategies, namely conventional PID control, model predictive
control and neural network predictive control (NNPC) are im-
plemented to a TAME reactive distillation column (RDC). All these
controllers are compared and it is found that NNPC and MPC give
smoother and better control performance than the PID controller for
both set point change and 10% load change in feed flow rate of
methanol.
13/00076 Tar formation in a steam-O
2
blown CFB gasifier
and a steam blown PBFB gasifier (BabyHPR): comparison
between different on-line measurement techniques and the
off-line SPA sampling and analysis method
Meng, X. et al. Fuel Processing Technology, 2012, 100, 1629.
Two on-line tar measurement campaigns were carried out using an
atmospheric pressure 100 kW
th
steam-O
2
blown circulating fluidized
bed (CFB) gasifier at the Delft University of Technology in the
Netherlands and a 3040kW
th
steam blown pressurized bubbling
fluidized bed (PBFB) gasifier BabyHPR (Heatpipe Reformer) at the
Technical University Munich in Germany. Agrol, willow and dry
distillers grains with solubles (DDGS) were used. An FID-based on-
line tar analyser (OTA), an induced fluorescence spectroscopy (LIFS)
based on-line laser instrument, and off-line solid phase adsorption
(SPA) were used to quantify tar content. In general, there was a fairly
good agreement between the measured results of the 10 corresponding
individual tar compounds obtained from Agrol and willow CFB and
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 13
02 Liquid fuels (derived liquid fuels)
PBFB atmospheric pressure tests using the SPA and LIFS methods.
The measured tar concentration difference between these two methods
was less than 10%. However, a higher difference (up to 30%) was
observed for fluoranthene and pyrene obtained from DDGS CFB test
as well as those obtained from willow PBFB under pressure test. The
total tar concentration measured by the LIFS, SPA and OTA methods
varied in a comparable way with changing process parameters. Both the
LIFS and OTA methods can be used as indicators to observe gasifiers
performance change in real time, but a regular calibration of the OTA
analyser is required to achieve good and reliable results.
03 GASEOUS FUELS
Sources, properties, recovery, treatment
13/00077 A density-diffusivity approach for the unsteady
state analysis of natural gas reservoirs
Ye, P. and Ayala H., L. F. Journal of Natural Gas Science and
Engineering, 2012, 7, 2334.
The traditional approach employed in the analytical analysis of
unsteady state responses for natural gas reservoirs is firmly based on
recasting the non-linear pressure diffusivity equation in terms of
pseudo variables or pseudofunctions namely, pseudo-pressure and
pseudotime able to render the equation amenable to analytical
treatment. Because the pseudofunction-based approach succeeds in
linearizing the diffusivity equation and generating the required
benchmark analytical solutions, the implementation of pseudo-vari-
ables is understood to be essential to unsteady state analysis of natural
gas reservoirs. In this study, the authors propose an approach for the
analytical solution of unsteady flow in natural gas reservoirs based on
the use of the density-diffusivity equation. To demonstrate its validity
and range of application, the authors discuss analytical arguments and
perform numerical simulations to corroborate its performance for
some of the most widely used inner boundary conditions (BCs):
constant pressure and constant rate production. By implementing the
concept of depletion-driven dimensionless parameters, the proposed
density-diffusivity approximation is able to successfully describe
reservoir unsteady behaviour while keeping all variables involved in
the analysis firmly grounded on physical intuition. In addition, it is
shown that the proposed approach also provides a new avenue for the
interpretation of liquid type-curves in gas analysis and the iteration-
free estimation of original gas in place based on the analysis of
boundary-dominated production data.
13/00078 Effect of organic-matter type and thermal maturity
on methane adsorption in shale-gas systems
Zhang, T. et al. Organic Geochemistry, 2012, 47, 120131.
A series of methane (CH
4
) adsorption experiments on bulk organic
rich shales and their isolated kerogens were conducted at 35, 50 and
65

C and CH
4
pressure of up to 15 MPa under dry conditions. Samples
from the Eocene Green River Formation, DevonianMississippian
Woodford Shale and Upper Cretaceous Cameo coal were studied to
examine how differences in organic matter type affect natural gas
adsorption. Vitrinite reflectance values of these samples ranged from
0.56 to 0.58% R
o
. In addition, thermal maturity effects were deter-
mined on three Mississippian Barnett Shale samples with measured
vitrinite reflectance values of 0.58, 0.81 and 2.01% R
o
. For all bulk and
isolated kerogen samples, the total amount of methane adsorbed was
directly proportional to the total organic carbon (TOC) content of the
sample and the average maximum amount of gas sorption was
1.36 mmol of methane per gram of TOC. These results indicate that
sorption on organic matter plays a critical role in shale-gas storage.
Under the experimental conditions, differences in thermal maturity
showed no significant effect on the total amount of gas sorbed.
Experimental sorption isotherms could be fitted with good accuracy by
the Langmuir function by adjusting the Langmuir pressure (P
L
) and
maximum sorption capacity (
max
). The lowest maturity sample
(%R
o
=0.56) displayed a Langmuir pressure (P
L
) of 5.15 MPa,
significantly larger than the 2.33 MPa observed for the highest maturity
(%R
o
>2.01) sample at 50

C. The value of the Langmuir pressure (P

L
)
changes with kerogen type in the following sequence: type I >type
II >type III. The thermodynamic parameters of CH
4
adsorption on
organic rich shales were determined based on the experimental CH
4
isotherms. For the adsorption of CH
4
on organic rich shales and their
isolated kerogen, the heat of adsorption (q) and the standard entropy
(s
0
) range from 7.328.0 kJ/mol and from 36.2 to 92.2 J/mol/K,
respectively.
13/00079 Evaluation of the synergetic gas-enrichment and
higher-permeability regions for coalbed methane recovery
with a fuzzy model
Liu, H. et al. Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 426439.
Determination of the synergetic region with both coalbed methane
(CBM) enrichment and higher permeability and its distribution is
fundamentally crucial to optimize well design and pattern arrangement
for CBM recovery from coal. To address this issue, a predictive model
was developed based on fuzzy theory by taking into account the main
geological factors that affect the gas enrichment and permeability in
coal reservoirs. Following the statistical analysis on a number of
geological parameters, Euclid approach degree (a comprehensive
evaluation coefficient) and fuzzy matter-elements were determined
and integrated into the model. The information entropy method was
used to evaluate the effect weight of each geologic factor on overall
object of the synergetic gas-enrichment and higher-permeability
region. The model was applied to the coal seam No. 3 of a developing
coal block in the south of Qinshui basin as an example. The results
show that the geological factors such as coal rank, gas saturation,
coping thickness, transitional coal structure, and volatile content
determine the distributions of the synergetic gas-enrichment and
higher-permeability region with higher weight coefficients over 9%.
Compared with these key factors, the factors such as coal thickness, gas
content, methane concentration, ash content, principal stress differ-
ence, fracture density, porosity, and burial depth have only the weight
coefficients of <5% and their effects on the synergetic region are very
limited. The other factors including reservoir temperature, ground-
water level, minimum principal stress, and water content exhibit the
moderate impact featured by the weight coefficients varying from 5%
to 9%. The model prediction provided a flood/contour map to visualize
the synergetic gas-enrichment and higher-permeability regions. With
this map, the selected coal block can be classified as extremely
favourable, favourable, relatively favourable and unfavourable areas
for CBM recovery based on the Euclid approach degree. The extremely
favourable and favourable areas mainly distribute in the centre and the
southwest of the coal block; the relatively favourable area locates in
most part of the coal block; the unfavourable area dispersedly
distributes in the south along the eastwest direction. The distribution
of the synergetic regions is obviously controlled by the coal structure.
The prediction results were verified with the distributions of most CBM
wells performed in the same coal block, showing that the model
prediction is reasonably agreeable with reality. The model developed in
this study can be used as a feasible tool to predict the favourable well
locations and optimize the well patterns for CBM recovery.
13/00080 Landfill gas upgrading with pilot-scale water
scrubber: performance assessment with absorption water
recycling
Lantela, J. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 92, 307314.
A pilot-scale counter current absorption process for upgrading
municipal solid waste (MSW) landfill gas to produce vehicle fuel was
studied using absorption, desorption and drying units and water as an
absorbent. Continuous water recycling was used without adding new
water to the system. The process parameters were defined by a
previous study made with this pilot system. The effect of pressure (20
25 bar), temperature (1025

C) and water flow speed (5.511 l/min) on

the upgrading performance, trace compounds (siloxanes, halogenated
compounds) and water quality were investigated. Raw landfill gas flow
was kept constant at 7.41 Nm
3
/h. Methane (CH
4
) and carbon dioxide
(CO
2
) contents in the product gas were 8690% and 4.58.0% with all
studied pressures and temperatures. The remaining fraction in product
gas was nitrogen (N
2
) (from 1% to 7%). Organic silicon compounds
(siloxanes) were reduced by 16.6% and halogenated compounds simi-
larly by 90.1% by water absorption. From studied process parameters,
only water flow speed affected the removal of siloxanes and halogen
compounds. The absorbent water pH was between 4.44.9, sulfide
concentration between 0.11.0 mg/l and carbonate concentration
between 5001000 mg/l. The product gas drying system reduced the
siloxane concentration by 99.1% and halogenated compounds by 99.9%
compared to the raw landfill gas. In conclusion, the pilot-scale gas
upgrading process studied appears to be able to produce gas with high
energy content (approximately 8690% methane) using a closed water
circulation system. When using a standard gas drying system, all trace
compounds can be removed by over 99% compared to raw landfill gas.
13/00081 Numerical simulation of gas production potential
from permafrost hydrate deposits by huff and puff method in
a single horizontal well in Qilian Mountain, Qinghai province
Li, X.-S. et al. Energy, 2012, 40, (1), 5975.
Based on the geological data of the QinghaiTibet plateau permafrost,
such as the permafrost ground temperature, the thermal gradient
within and below the frozen layer, the authors carried out a numerical
investigation into the gas production potential from hydrates at the
DK-3 drilling site of the Qilian mountain permafrost. This site is
located in the north of the QinghaiTibet plateau. The authors used
14 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
03 Gaseous fuels (sources, properties, recovery, treatment)
the huff and puff method using a single horizontal well in the middle of
the hydrate-bearing layer. The simulation results indicated that
desirable gas-to-water ratio and energy efficiency can be obtained
under suitable injection and production conditions in the huff and puff
process. However, the absolute gas production rate remains low during
the whole production process. The sensitivity analysis indicated that
the gas production performance is strongly dependent on the intrinsic
permeability of the hydrate deposits, the sediment porosity, the
injection and production rates, the temperature of the injected water,
the irreducible water saturation and P
01
. The relative permeability
exponents appeared to have limited effect on the gas production
behaviour using the huff and puff method. The sensitivity analysis also
indicated that the production potential of the natural gas hydrate
deposit will be better than that of pure methane hydrate in this
simulation.
13/00082 Optimized foamers for natural gas well
deliquification: a statistical design approach
Huang, F. and Nguyen, D. Fuel, 2012, 97, 523530.
Liquid foamers have gained their popularity in deliquifying aged natu-
ral gas wells and coalbed methane wells due to their cost-effectiveness
and ease of application. Foamers are usually combinational products
with corrosion inhibitors (CIs) and scale inhibitors (SIs) included to
provide additional benefits such as corrosion protection and addressing
the scaling issues in these applications. Organic solvents are often used
to improve secondary properties such as pour point, viscosity and/or
pumpablity of the foamer formulations. Designing an effective multi-
functional foamer is more an art than science in production chemicals
for the oil and gas industry. In this paper, design of experiments
methods were utilized to investigate synergism and antagonism in
foamer formulations containing different surfactants, CI and ethylene
glycol monobutyl ether as the winterization solvent. Correlations
between formulation compositions and performances such as liquid
unloading efficiency, corrosion protection, pour point and cost-
effectiveness were studied. Models were developed based on these
correlations and validated for performance prediction. In addition, the
synergism observed in liquid unloading performance of formulations
containing binary surfactants mixture was probed by studying the
critical micelle concentration and molecular interaction in aqueous
solutions. The composition of mixed micelles and the interaction
parameter u obtained using Rubinghs theory, were also discussed.
13/00083 Permeability of shale by the beam-bending
method
Zhang, J. and Scherer, G. W. International Journal of Rock Mechanics
and Mining Sciences, 2012, 53, 179191.
The beam-bending method permits measurement of liquid per-
meability in the nanoDarcy range in a few minutes to a few hours.
This technique has been applied successfully to determine the permea-
bility, as well as the viscoelastic properties, of isotropic materials with
low permeability, such as gels, porous glass, and cement paste. The
method has been extended to measure transversely anisotropic
materials, such as sedimentary rock, to find the permeability parallel
and perpendicular to the bedding. In this study, measurements have
been made on a set of shales from varying depths and locations in the
continental USA. The measured permeabilities range from 0.009 to 400
nanoDarcies (nD= 10
21
m
2
). The permeability in the direction
parallel to the bedding orientation was larger than that perpendicular
to the bedding orientation, by a factor ranging from 1.2 to 6. This is the
first instance of using the beam-bending method to measure the
permeabilities of shale in different orientations. The measured
permeabilities were compared to the KozenyCarman and Katz
Thompson models. The pore geometry parameters used in the models,
such as the pore size distribution, characteristic pore diameters,
porosity, and tortuosity were measured using mercury intrusion
porosimetry, gravimetry, and electrical conductivity, respectively. The
measured permeability values match better with the predictions from
the KatzThompson equation.
13/00084 Potential of microbial methane formation in a
high-temperature hydrocarbon seep
Ling, Y.-C. et al. Applied Geochemistry, 2012, 27, (8), 16661678.
Hydrocarbon seepage is a surface expression where fluids mixed with
sediments and hydrocarbons are expelled through fracture systems that
potentially tap into gaspetroleum reservoirs. Hydrocarbons released
from most seeps appear to be thermogenic on the basis of their relative
abundance and isotopic composition. The potential for subsurface
microbial processes modifying these geochemical fingerprints remains
poorly constrained. In this study, microcosm incubations were con-
ducted on mud slurries supplied with/without various methanogenic
precursors at temperatures ranging from ambient conditions to 90

C,
in order to assess microbial CH
4
formation in the subsurface beneath
hydrocarbon seeps. The analyses indicated that CH
4
production was
positive at _80

C, regardless of whether or not or which precursors

were added. However, the pattern of CH
4
production rates varied with
the precursor and temperature. In general, the optimum CH
4
production from H
2
/CO
2
and formate occurred over a wide range of
temperatures (_40

C), whereas that from acetate, methanol and

methylamine was restricted to relatively lower temperatures (40
50

C). The CH
4
recoveries, together with the C isotopic compositions
of CH
4
, further indicated that the quantities of CH
4
produced could
not completely account for the quantities of precursor consumed,
suggesting that a complex metabolic network was involved in the
transformation of the added precursor and organic C inherited from
inoculated sediments. Microbial CH
4
was estimated to constitute 7
61% of the CH
4
observed using experimentally-derived apparent
isotope fractionations as the end member compositions. This illustrates
the possibility that microbial CH
4
produced at shallower depths could
quantitatively and isotopically alter deeply-sourced thermogenic CH
4
in hydrocarbon seep environments.
13/00085 Radiative slab heating analysis for various fuel
gas compositions in an axial-fired reheating furnace
Han, S. H. and Chang, D. International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer, 2012, 55, (1516), 40294036.
A transient radiative slab heating analysis was performed to investigate
the effect of various fuel mixtures on the performance of an axial-fired
reheating furnace. The various fuel mixtures tested were assumed to be
attained by mixing coke oven gas and blast furnace gas, which are the
two main byproduct gases found in the integrated steel mill industry.
The numerical prediction of radiative heat transfer was calculated
using an FVM radiation solving method, which is a well-known and
efficient method for curvilinear coordinates. The WSGGM (weighted
sum of grey gas model) was also adopted to calculate the radiative heat
transfer in composition dependent media. The entire furnace was
divided into 14 sub-zones to calculate the radiative thermal character-
istics of the furnace without flow field calculations. Each sub-zone was
assumed to have homogeneous media and wall temperatures. All of the
medium and wall temperatures were computed by calculating the
overall heat balance using some relevant assumptions. The overall heat
balance was satisfied when the net heat input equalled the three
sources of heat loss in each sub-zone, wall loss, skid loss, and slab
heating loss.
13/00086 Simulation and optimization of refrigeration cycle
in NGL recovery plants with exergy-pinch analysis
Ghorbani, B. et al. Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering,
2012, 7, 3543.
In this study, a combination between pinch and exergy analysis was
applied for refrigeration cycle in natural gas liquid (NGL) recovery
plant. Pinch analysis is an established systematic tool for the optimal
design and retrofit of energy recovery systems. Unfortunately, one of
the main limitations of pinch analysis technique in optimizing energy
recovery systems is that it can only deal with heat transfer processes,
not processes involving power utilization. Hence, for optimization of
shaft work, an exergy-pinch method should be used. A commercial
simulator was used to obtain thermodynamic properties of the process
streams and to perform mass and energy balances. The equations of
exergy destruction and exergetic efficiency for the main system
components such as heat exchangers, compressors and throttle valves
were developed. First, the refrigeration cycle of the NGL plant was
analysed and optimized by combined exergy-pinch analysis. In doing
so, the work of the compressor was reduced to 170 kW. In the last part,
the refrigerant was replaced with R-600a which resulted in the
reduction of work of compressor and refrigerant mass flow rate by
about 570 kw and 11.5%, respectively.
Transport, storage
13/00087 A simple predictive tool to estimate flow
coefficient for subsonic natural gas flow through
nozzle-type chokes
Bahadori, A. Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering, 2012, 7,
16.
In this work, a simple-to-use method is developed to estimate the
choke flow coefficient for natural gas subsonic flow through nozzle-
type chokes as a function of Reynolds number and the ratio of choke
diameter to pipe diameter. The results can be used in follow-up
calculations for rapid estimation of gas passage through a choke under
subsonic flow conditions for Reynolds number and the ratio of choke
diameter to pipe diameter between 0.4 and 0.75. Estimations are found
to be in excellent agreement with reported data in the literature with
average absolute deviation being less than 0.3%. The tool developed in
this study can be of immense practical value for petroleum engineers to
have a quick check of gas flow through chokes at various conditions
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 15
03 Gaseous fuels (transport, storage)
without opting for any field trials. In particular, engineers would find
the approach to be user-friendly with transparent calculations involving
no complex expressions.
13/00088 Crude oil price forecasting: experimental
evidence from wavelet decomposition and neural network
modeling
Jammazi, R. and Aloui, C. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (3), 828841.
Oil price prediction has usually proved to be an intractable task due to
the intrinsic complexity of oil market mechanism. In addition, the
recent oil shock and its consequences relaunch the debate on
understanding the behaviour underlying the expected oil prices.
Combining the dynamic properties of multilayer back propagation
neural network and the recent Harr A trous wavelet decomposition, a
hybrid model HTW-MPNN is implemented to achieve prominent
prediction of crude oil price. While recent studies focus on the deter-
mination of the best forecasting model by comparing various neural
architectures or applying several decomposition techniques to the
ANN, the new insight of this paper is to target the issue of the transfer
function selection providing robust simulations on both in sample and
out of sample basis. Based on a previous study, the authors used three
variants of activation function namely sigmoid, bipolar sigmoid and
hyperbolic tangent in order to test the models flexibility. Furthermore,
the forecasting robustness is checked through several levels of input
hidden nodes. Comparatively, results of HTW-MBPNN perform better
than the conventional BPNN. These conclusions add a major attribute
to the previous studies corroborating the Occam razors principle,
especially when simulations are constructed through training and
testing phases simultaneously. Finally, more eligible forecasting power
is found according to the wavelet oil price signal which appears to be
the closest to the real anticipations of future oil price fluctuations.
13/00089 Detection of bottlenecks and ways to overcome
emergency situations in gas transportation networks on the
example of the European gas pipeline network
Voropai, N. I. et al. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 39.
The paper presents a technique for detection of bottlenecks in gas
transportation networks in emergency situations. The described
approach makes it possible to formulate the optimal ways to tackle
negative consequences for gas consumers. The technique is based on
the oil and gas software developed at Energy Systems Institute SB
RAS and is exemplified with the European gas pipeline network.
13/00090 Experimental investigation into methane hydrate
production during three-dimensional thermal huff and puff
Li, X.-S. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 4857.
In this work, the decomposition behaviours of methane hydrate in the
porous media are investigated in the three-dimensional cubic hydrate
simulator using the huff and puff method with a single well with the
different injection temperatures and different injection time. The
changes of the system pressure are analysed by using the biggest
increasing degree of the system pressure during injection stage and the
biggest increasing degree of the system pressure during soaking stage,
and the result shows that the injection time has more obvious effect on
the system pressure than the injection temperature. The cumulative
volume of the produced gas increases with the increases of the injection
temperature and injection time. The higher injection temperature
results in the smaller volume of the produced water; whereas the higher
injection time results in the bigger volume of the produced water. In
addition, increasing the injection temperature and injection time may
not enhance the thermal efficiency and energy efficiency. The optimum
period for the gas production is the first four to five cycles. The highest
energy efficiency can be obtained at the injection temperature of
130

C and the injection time of 5 min. Furthermore, the experiment

verifies that a moving decomposition boundary occurs in the hydrate
decomposition process, and there is a maximum decomposition boun-
dary with the thermal huff and puff cycle. In addition, the injected heat
does not diffuse isotropically.
13/00091 Source and origin of active and fossil thermal
spring systems, northern Upper Rhine Graben, Germany
Loges, A. et al. Applied Geochemistry, 2012, 27, (6), 11531169.
Thermal water samples and related young and fossil mineralization
from a geothermal system at the northern margin of the Upper Rhine
Graben have been investigated by combining hydrochemistry with
stable and Sr isotope geochemistry. Actively discharging thermal
springs and mineralization are present in a structural zone that extends
over at least 60 km along strike, with two of the main centres of
hydrothermal activity being Wiesbaden and Bad Nauheim. This setting
provides the rare opportunity to link the chemistry and isotopic
signatures of modern thermal waters directly with fossil mineralization
dating back to at least 500800 ka. The fossil thermal spring
mineralization can be classified into two major types: barite-(pyrite)
fracture filling associated with laterally-extensive silicification; and
barite, goethite and silica impregnation mineralization in Tertiary
sediments. Additionally, carbonatic sinters occur around active springs.
Strontium isotope and trace element data suggest that mixing of a hot
(>100

C), deep-sourced thermal water with cooler groundwater from

shallow aquifers is responsible for present-day thermal spring
discharge and fossil mineralization. The correlation between both Sr
and S isotope ratios and the elevation of the barite mineralization
relative to the present-day water table in Wiesbaden is explained by
mixing of deep-sourced thermal water having high
87
Sr/
86
Sr and low
c
34
S with shallow groundwater of lower
87
Sr/
86
Sr and higher c
34
S. The
Sr isotope data demonstrate that the hot thermal waters originate from
an aquifer in the Variscan crystalline basement at depths of 35 km.
The S isotope data show that impregnation-type mineralization is
strongly influenced by mixing with SO
4
that has high c
34
S values. The
fracture style mineralization formed by cooling of the thermal waters,
whereas impregnation-type mineralization precipitated by mixing with
SO
4
-rich groundwater percolating through the sediments.
13/00092 Transport properties of unconventional gas
systems
Amann-Hildenbrand, A. et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 2012, 31,
(1), 9099.
An overview is given of the mechanisms and processes (viscous flow,
diffusion, sorption, desorption) affecting transport in unconventional
reservoir rocks. Processes are described, terms and definitions are
given, and selected literature data are presented to document the state
of knowledge and the data situation on gas, water and two-phase flow
in low-permeable lithotypes. Gas transport in the matrix of shales and
coals is controlled by and may be restricted to diffusion. Depending on
the gas type (e.g. methane or carbon dioxide), transport may be
strongly affected by sorption. In many instances, high capillary
threshold pressures prevent gas from moving as a continuous phase
through the conducting pore network. In contrast, tight sandstone
reservoir rocks allow for capillary-controlled viscous flow of a gas
phase. Because in these rocks the determination of the water saturation
at the prevailing flow conditions is difficult or impossible, the authors
propose to directly use the relationship between effective gas
permeability and capillary pressure for the description of two-phase
(gas/water) flow in these rocks. In ongoing studies this relationship is
being studied systematically for both, steady state and non-steady state
saturation conditions.
13/00093 Uncertainties in practical simulation of CO
2
storage
Nordbotten, J. M. et al. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas
Control, 2012, 9, 234242.
Practical simulation of CO
2
storage in geological formations inherently
involves decisions concerning relevant physics, upscaling, and numeri-
cal modelling. These decisions are unavoidable, since the full problem
cannot be resolved by existing numerical approaches. This paper
reports on the impact of three distinct approaches to make the problem
computationally tractable: reduced physics, upscaling, and non-
converged discretizations. Compounding these different strategies,
the authors have used a benchmark study to try to assess the impact of
an expert group on the results of the numerical simulations. In order to
restrict the scope of the investigation, the geometric and geological
description of the storage aquifer was simplified to the greatest extent
possible. The different strategies applied to simplify the problem, lead
to significantly deviating answers when addressing relevant storage
questions. Furthermore, there is room for interpretation when complex
simulation results are simplified to the type of higher-level information
sought in decision-making processes. This experience leads to the
conclusion that, important questions relating to CO
2
storage cannot be
predicted convincingly to satisfactory accuracy with numerical simu-
lation tools, even for highly idealized problems. This emphasizes the
need for real-time monitoring and history matching during injection
operations.
13/00094 Water vapour monitoring in natural gas in the
presence of methanol
Lkken, T. V. Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering, 2012, 7,
715.
Hygrometers for monitoring of water vapour (moisture) in natural
gases have been investigated with respect to influence from methanol
co-exposure, during a total of 34 days of experiments. The tested
hygrometers are based on capacitor sensor, quartz crystal microbalance
(QCM), electrolytic cell, fibre-optic sensor and conversion of water to
ethyne with calcium carbide (CaC
2
-GC), respectively. In the latter
technique ethyne was quantified by a gas chromatograph (GC). While
monitoring moisture at the level of 45 mmol/mol, the hygrometers were
exposed to approximately (10, 170 and 750) mmol/mol gaseous methan-
ol. The experiments were performed in the laboratory, using nitrogen
as the matrix gas. Exposure to approximately 10 mmol/mol methanol
demonstrated no clear effect on the tested hygrometers. At the higher
levels of 170 and 750 mmol/mol methanol, the readings from several
hygrometers were affected. Taken into account the specified uncer-
16 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
03 Gaseous fuels (transport, storage)
tainty of the hygrometers, only the electrolytic cell and one of the two
tested capacitor sensors (Capacitor B) were significantly affected
during the test period. They demonstrated severe misreading as a result
of methanol exposure. The readings from the fibre-optic sensor drifted
slowly upwards during exposure to the higher methanol levels. The
drift speed increased with increasing methanol concentration. How-
ever, despite the drift, the readings from the fibre-optic sensor stayed
within its specified uncertainty (2

C) during the test period. The

QCM made a minor shift to higher readings when exposed to 750 mmol/
mol methanol. Similar shifts were noticed for the two different brands
of capacitor sensors tested. Both capacitor sensors also demonstrated a
permanent downward drift during the experiments, one of them
increasing the drift speed upon increased methanol concentration. The
CaC
2
-GC did not show any clear influence from methanol. The results
imply that methanol exposure should be taken into consideration when
choosing equipment for moisture monitoring and when determining a
quality control strategy for the monitoring.
Economics, business, marketing, policy
13/00095 Allocation and leakage in regional cap-and-trade
markets for CO
2
Bushnell, J. and Chen, Y. Resource and Energy Economics, 2012, 34,
(4), 647668.
The allocation or assignment of the emissions permits is one of the
most contentious elements of the design of cap-and-trade systems. This
study develops a detailed representation of the US western electricity
market to assess the potential impacts of various permit allocation
proposals. Several proposals involve the updating of allocations,
where the allocation is tied to the ongoing output, or input use, of
plants. These allocation proposals are designed with the goals of
limiting the pass-through of carbon costs to product prices, mitigating
leakage, and of mitigating the costs to high-emissions firms. However,
allocation updating can also inflate permit prices, thereby limiting the
benefits of such schemes to high emissions firms.
13/00096 Evaluation of the Risk OMT model for
maintenance work on major offshore process equipment
Gran, B. A. et al. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries,
2012, 25, (3), 582593.
Operational safety is receiving more and more attention in the
Norwegian offshore industry. Almost two-thirds of all leaks on offshore
installations in the period 20012005, according to the risk level project
by the Petroleum Safety Authority in Norway, resulted from manual
operations and interventions, as well as shut-down and start-up. The
intention with the Risk OMT (risk modelling integration of organi-
zational, human and technical factors) program has been to develop
more representative models for calculation of leak frequencies as a
function of the volume of manual operations and interventions. In the
Risk OMT project, a generic risk model has been developed and is
adapted to use for specific failure scenarios. The model considers the
operational barriers in event trees and fault trees, as well as risk
influencing factors that determine the basic event probabilities in the
fault trees. The full model, which applies Bayesian belief networks, is
presented more thoroughly in a separate paper. This paper presents
the evaluation of the model. The model has been evaluated through
some case studies, and one important aspect is the evaluation of the
importance of each risk influencing factor. In addition, some risk-
reducing measures have been proposed, and the paper presents how
the effect of these measures has been evaluated by using the model.
Finally, possible applications and recommendations for further work
are discussed.
13/00097 Evaluation of utilization alternatives for stranded
natural gas
Khalilpour, R. and Karimi, I. A. Energy, 2012, 40, (1), 317328.
Options for exporting natural gas from stranded oil and gas fields to
markets include pipelines, LNG (liquefied natural gas), CNG
(compressed natural gas), GTL (gas to liquids), GTS (gas to solids),
and GTW (gas to wire). Thus, the key question is which option is the
most robust in ensuring the security of investment over a project life
cycle against market fluctuations, trade embargos, political changes,
technical advances, etc. Excluding pipelines, LNG, CNG, and GTL
have attracted increasing investor attention during the past two
decades. Although studies abound on economic comparisons of these
processes, a systematic method to address this important problem in
the presence of uncertainty seems missing in the literature. This work
presents such a method based on decision analysis cycle and considers
oil and gas prices as uncertain. Using NPV (net present value) as the
decision criterion, it presents the computation of expected NPV of
each gas utilization alternative to identify the best option. It includes
the entire well-to-market supply chain, from extraction, conversion,
and transportation, to re-conversion at the target market. Finally, it
identifies the sweet spots for LNG, CNG, and GTL alternatives for
different reservoir capacities and market distances.
13/00098 Hydrogen as an energy carrier: prospects and
challenges
Mazloomi, K. and Gomes, C. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 2012, 16, (5), 30243033.
This paper provides an insight to the feasibility of adopting hydrogen as
a key energy carrier and fuel source in the near future. It is shown that
hydrogen has several advantages, as well as few drawbacks in using for
the above purposes. The research shows that hydrogen will be a key
player in storing energy that is wasted at generation stage in large-scale
power grids by off-peak diversion to dummy loads. The estimations
show that by the year of 2050 there will be a hydrogen demand of over
42 million metric tons or 45 billion gallon gasoline equivalent (GGE) in
the USA alone which can fuel up 342 million light-duty vehicles for
51 10
11
miles (82 10
11
km) of travel per year. The production at
distributed level has also been discussed. The paper also presents the
levels of risk in production, storage and distribution stages and
proposes possible techniques to address safety issues. It is shown that
the storage in small to medium scale containers is much economical
compared to doing the same at large-scale containers. The study
concludes that hydrogen has a promising future to be a highly feasible
energy carrier and energy source itself at consumer level.
13/00099 Modeling and optimizing a CHP system for
natural gas pressure reduction plant
Sanaye, S. and Nasab, A. M. Energy, 2012, 40, (1), 358369.
The pressure in the main natural gas transport pipelines should be
reduced for proper consumption in vicinity of cities. A common
procedure of reducing pressure in a natural gas station (city gate
station, CGS) is using expansion valves, which causes the waste of a
large amount of exergy (availability). In this paper, a combined heat
and power (CHP) system was used instead which included an expander,
gas engines, boilers, a pump and a preheater. A new and relatively
quick method for selecting the required number of gas engines/boilers,
and determining their nominal power/heating capacity, as well as the
expander efficiency are also presented. An objective function named
actual annual benefit was defined as the sum of income (from selling
electricity) and expenses (such as investment cost, operation and
maintenance costs). Subsequently, different parts of the objective fun-
ction were expressed in terms of nine decision variables. The optimum
values of decision variables were obtained by maximizing the objective
function using genetic algorithm optimization technique. By applying
the above procedure for this case study, it was obtained that two
5.48 MW gas engines and one 5.94 MW boiler was needed while the
payback period was found to be 1.23 years.
13/00100 Natural gas demand at the utility level:
an application of dynamic elasticities
Dagher, L. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 961969.
Previous studies provide strong evidence that energy demand elasti-
cities vary across regions and states, arguing in favour of conducting
energy demand studies at the smallest unit of observation for which
good quality data are readily available, that is the utility level. The
study used monthly data from the residential sector of Xcel Energys
service territory in Colorado for the period January 1994 to September
2006. Based on a very general autoregressive distributed lag model, this
paper uses a new approach to simulate the dynamic behaviour of
natural gas demand and obtain dynamic elasticities. Knowing con-
sumers response on a unit time basis enables one to answer a number
of questions, such as, the length of time needed to reach demand
stability. Responses to price and income were found to be much lower
even in the long run than has been commonly suggested in the
literature. Interestingly, it was found that the long run equilibrium is
reached relatively quickly, around 18 months after a change in price or
income has occurred, while the literature implies a much longer period
for complete adjustments to take place.
13/00101 Optimal sizing of a solar thermal building
installation using particle swarm optimization
Bornatico, R. et al. Energy, 2012, 41, (1), 3137.
In recent years the domestic energy management has become a non-
trivial task as the number of energy sources and system components
involved have increased, and all components have to operate
coordinately in order to maximize global efficiency measures. In this
paper a methodology is presented for finding the optimal size of the
main components for a solar thermal system where particular attention
is given to the optimization framework. The use of the PSO (particle
swarm optimization) algorithm is proposed and the results obtained
are compared with a GA (genetic algorithm) solution. Further, the
relative influence of certain system parameters on the optimal
configuration is investigated by means of a sensitivity analysis where
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 17
03 Gaseous fuels (economics, business, marketing, policy)
the size of the collector is shown to have the greatest influence on all
main output quantities while the size of the auxiliary power unit
presents a relatively small influence on the solution. Finally, it is
demonstrated that the accurate sizing of the energy components is
necessary to minimize the energy consumption and cost of installation,
while maximizing the solar fraction. The proposed methodology is
shown to successfully solve the problem.
13/00102 Safety studies on high-pressure hydrogen vehicle
refuelling stations: releases into a simulated high-pressure
dispensing area
Shirvill, L. C. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37,
(8), 69496964.
If the general public is to use hydrogen as a vehicle fuel, customers
must be able to handle hydrogen with the same degree of confidence,
and with comparable risk, as conventional liquid and gaseous fuels. The
hazards associated with jet releases from leaks in a vehicle-refuelling
environment must be considered if hydrogen is stored and used as a
high-pressure gas since a jet release in a confined or congested area can
create an explosion hazard. As there was insufficient knowledge of the
explosion hazards, a study was initiated to gain a better understanding
of the potential explosion hazard consequences associated with high-
pressure leaks from hydrogen vehicle refuelling systems. This paper
describes the experiments with a dummy vehicle and dispenser units to
represent refuelling station congestion. Experiments with ignition of
premixed 5.4 m6.0 m2.5 m hydrogenair clouds and hydrogen jet
releases up to 40 MPa (400 bar) pressure are described. The results are
discussed in terms of the conditions leading to the greatest over-
pressures and overall conclusions are made from these.
13/00103 The relationship among natural gas energy
consumption, capital and economic growth: bootstrap-
corrected causality tests from G-7 countries
Kum, H. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16, (5),
23612365.
This paper examines the relationship between natural gas consump-
tion, economic growth and capital by using data from the G7 countries
and a bootstrap-corrected causality test for the period 19702008.
Previous studies of the relationship between natural gas consumption,
economic growth and capital in G7 countries have found ambiguous
results. This study examines natural gas consumption, economic growth
and capital nexus by using an alternative methodology based on the
leveraged bootstrapped simulation techniques using data from G7
countries. From the tests results, while there exists unidirectional
causality running from energy to GDP in Italy and adverse in UK,
bidirectional causality is found for France, Germany and USA.
Moreover, the findings in case of the UK support the conservation
hypothesis, the pattern of Italy is in favour of the growth hypothesis
and France, Germany and USA support the feedback hypothesis.
Canada and Japans findings are in favour of the neutrality hypothesis.
13/00104 Trigeneration scheme for energy efficiency
enhancement in a natural gas processing plant through
turbine exhaust gas waste heat utilization
Popli, S. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 624636.
The performance of natural gas processing plants (NGPPs) can be
enhanced with the integration of combined cooling, heating and power
(CCHP) generation schemes. This paper analyses the integration of a
trigeneration scheme within a NGPP that utilizes waste heat from gas
turbine exhaust gases to generate process steam in a waste heat
recovery steam generator (WHRSG). Part of the steam generated is
used to power double-effect waterlithium bromide (H
2
OLiBr)
absorption chillers that provide gas turbine compressor inlet air-
cooling. Another portion of the steam is utilized to meet part furnace
heating load, and supplement plant electrical power in a combined
regenerative Rankine cycle. A detailed techno-economic analysis of
scheme performance is presented based on thermodynamic predictions
obtained using Engineering Equation Solver (EES). The results
indicate that the trigeneration system could recover 79.7 MW of gas
turbine waste heat, 37.1 MW of which could be utilized by three steam-
fired H
2
OLiBr absorption chillers to provide 45 MW of cooling at
5

C. This could save approximately 9 MW of electric energy required

by a typical compression chiller, while providing the same amount of
cooling. In addition, the combined cycle generates 22.6 MW of
additional electrical energy for the plant, while process heating reduces
furnace oil consumption by 0.23 MSCM per annum. Overall, the
trigeneration scheme would result in annual natural gas fuel savings of
approximately 1879 MSCM, and annual operating cost savings of
approximately US$20.9 million, with a payback period of 1 year. This
study highlights the significant economic and environmental benefits
that could be achieved through implementation of the proposed
integrated cogeneration scheme in NGPPs, particularly in elevated
ambient temperature and humidity conditions such as encountered in
Middle East facilities.
13/00105 UK shale gas: the story so far
Selley, R. C. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 2012, 31, (1), 100109.
The UKs first well to encounter shale gas was drilled into the Upper
Jurassic Kimmeridge Clay in 1875, but its significance was not realized
at the time. Twenty-five years ago, research from Imperial College
applied the US shale gas paradigm to evaluate the UKs shale gas
potential. Shale sequences with potential for gas production were
identified in Carboniferous strata in the Midlands, and in Jurassic
strata, particularly in the Weald. Without encouragement from the
government, no exploration resulted from this initial research.
Publication of the results of the project was rejected by many UK
journals. It was finally published in the USA in 1987. Subsequent
evaluations of UK petroleum resources by the Department of Energy
and its descendants published in 2001 and 2003 omitted any mention of
shale gas resources. Recent, timely re-evaluations of the UKs shale gas
potential have been carried out by the British Geological Survey and
the Department for Energy and Climate Change. In 2008, the 13th
round of onshore licensing resulted in the award of several blocks for
shale gas exploration, though bids were often based on a quest for both
shale gas and conventional prospects. Cuadrilla Resources Preese Hall
No. 1 well drilled in 2010 was the first well drilled to specifically test for
UK shale gas. The same drilling and fracturing techniques that led to
the shale gas renaissance in the USA are now being applied to
extracting oil from organic-rich shales that are currently in the oil
window. It is interesting to speculate that oil may be produced by such
techniques from the thermally mature Jurassic shales in the Wessex
and Weald basins in the southern UK.
Derived gaseous fuels
13/00106 2D thermal modeling of a solid oxide
electrolyzer cell (SOEC) for syngas production by
H
2
O/CO
2
co-electrolysis
Ni, M. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37, (8), 6389
6399.
Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) can be operated in a reversed mode as
electrolyser cells for electrolysis of H
2
O and CO
2
. In this paper, a two-
dimensional thermal model is developed to study the heat/mass
transfer and chemical/electrochemical reactions in a solid oxide
electrolyser cell (SOEC) for H
2
O/CO
2
co-electrolysis. The model is
based on three sub-models: a computational fluid dynamics model
describing the fluid flow and heat/mass transfer; an electrochemical
model relating the current density and operating potential; and a
chemical model describing the reversible water gas shift reaction
(WGSR) and reversible methanation reaction. It is found that
reversible methanation and reforming reactions are not favoured in
H
2
O/CO
2
co-electrolysis. For comparison, the reversible WGSR can
significantly influence the co-electrolysis behaviour. The effects of inlet
temperature and inlet gas composition on H
2
O/CO
2
co-electrolysis are
simulated and discussed.
13/00107 A comparative study of two different membranes
applied for auto-thermal methanol synthesis process
Rahmani, F. et al. Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering,
2012, 7, 6074.
The growing demand for energy and environmental concerns make
finding economical and environmentally sustainable solutions for the
effective and greater utilization of natural gas, as the cleanest fossil
fuel, imperative. Among different approaches to reach this goal,
chemical conversion is of great interest. Future energy carriers such as
hydrogen and methanol can be produced by the natural gas conversion.
Recently, the auto-thermal methanol synthesis (AMS) process has
become an important alternative for natural gas conversion and
monetization. Concerning the equilibrium limitation of methanol
synthesis reactions, there are two different configurations for mem-
brane reactor, which may be used in this process. In the first
configuration (in situ H
2
addition configuration), the Pd/Ag membrane
was applied while in the other one (in situ H
2
O removal configuration)
H-SOD membrane was used. Generally, the proposed reactor is
composed of three concentric tubes of which the inner tube is separated
by a membrane from second one (exothermic side). A steady-state
heterogeneous model was developed to investigate the possibility of
improving AMS performance by means of two different membranes.
The proposed model has been used to compare the performance of two
different auto-thermal configurations with respect to the non-mem-
brane one under identical process conditions. It was found that the
reactor in the in situ water removal configuration operates with higher
methanol yield, higher carbon dioxide removal which causes a lower
environmental impact and longer exothermic catalyst life as a result of
the more favourable temperature profile as well as reducing H
2
O
promoted catalyst deactivation. However, thermal efficiency of reac-
18 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
03 Gaseous fuels (derived gaseous fuels)
tions is declined and the dehydrogenation reaction yield in both
configurations is not significantly different. Finally, the influence of
inlet temperature of sweep gas as one of the key operating variables is
investigated on products yield. The results suggest that utilization of
this reactor could be feasible and beneficial.
13/00108 An experimental comparison of gas generation
from three oil fractions: implications for the chemical and
stable carbon isotopic signatures of oil cracking gas
Tian, H. et al. Organic Geochemistry, 2012, 46, 96112.
Although oil cracking has been documented as one of the important
sources of gas in many overmature marine sedimentary basins, the
chemical and carbon isotopic signatures of gases of this origin are still
open to question. In this study, a Cambrian crude oil from the central
Tarim basin, along with its main separated fractions (saturates,
aromatics and asphaltenes), were pyrolysed in sealed gold tubes to
investigate how generated gases vary in chemical and carbon isotopic
composition and how this variation would influence the genetic
interpretation of oil cracking gas. The results indicate that the gases
from cracking of aromatics and asphaltenes are much drier and more
enriched in
13
C than the gases from the cracking of saturates and crude
oil at the same level of thermal maturity. In the experimental run of
20

C/h, the dryness index of the gases (defined as the volume

percentage of C
1
in C
15
) from the cracking of saturates ranges from
26.290.6% with the methane carbon isotope change ranging from
54.8% to 35.5%, whereas the dryness index is never lower than
60.6% for the gases from the cracking of aromatics with methane
carbon isotope ranging from 39.9% to 32.2%. Correspondingly,
experimental data for the four samples plot in different areas in
diagrams designed to distinguish oil cracking gas from kerogen
cracking gas, such as ln(C
2
/C
3
) vs c
13
C
2
c
13
C
3
and c
13
C
1
vs c
13
C
2

c
13
C
3
, indicating compositional variability of crude oil could assert an
important influence in these diagrams. Therefore it is prudent to bring
other geological constraints into consideration to avoid misinterpreta-
tion. The kinetic parameters for the bulk generation of C
15
gas and the
methane carbon isotope fractionation extrapolated to geological
conditions of 2

C/Ma and an initial temperature of 50

C show that
the temperatures of C
15
gas generation from the aromatics and
asphaltenes are lower than those from the saturates and crude oil due
to their lower activation energies and frequency factors. Generation of
C
15
gases from the aromatics is modelled to be initiated about 122

C
whereas the initiation temperature for the saturates sample is 176

C.
Below 189

C (EasyRo =1.8%), the yields of C

15
gases follow the
order: aromatics >asphaltenes >crude oil >saturates. At similar
thermal maturity levels, the methane carbon isotopic compositions
are significantly different for the four samples, with an order of
13
C
enrichment: aromatics >asphaltenes >crude oil >saturates, however
the difference in methane carbon isotopes becomes smaller with
increasing temperature. This indicates that methane carbon isotopic
values can be significantly different for gases cracked from oils that are
compositionally diverse, especially in the early stage of methane
generation.
13/00109 Axial heat conduction and heat supply effects on
methanol-steam reforming performance in micro-scale
reformers
Chein, R. et al. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2012,
55, (1112), 30293042.
The methanol-steam reforming (MSR) performance in micro-scale
tubular reformers made by various materials is numerically studied.
The physical domain considered includes an inlet section for methanol-
steam mixture supply, a reformer section packed with CuO/ZnO/Al
2
O
3
catalyst particles and an outlet section for reformed gas collection. The
heat transfer effect with three different heat supply mechanisms on the
MSR performance is addressed. For heat supplies from the applied
heat fluxes at the reformer outer wall surface and from internal heat
generation in the reformer wall, it is found that the axial conduction
plays an important role in both heat transfer characteristics and MSR
performance. It is suggested that the reformer have a small axial
conduction parameter for high MSR performance which can be
achieved by designing the reformer with low wall thermal conductivity,
thin wall thickness and a small reactants feed rate. It is also found that
an excess heat supply can be obtained when the axial conduction
parameter is small. This excess heat supply enhances the MSR
performance compared with the infinitely-thin walled reformer. For
the reformer with a constant wall outer surface temperature, the wall
material effect on the MSR performance is insignificant due to
uniformly distributed reformer wall temperature.
13/00110 Biogas upgrade to syngas through
thermochemical recovery using exhaust gas reforming
Lau, C. S. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 40, 8695.
Exhaust gas fuel reforming has been examined as a process for
upgrading biogas into hydrogen-enriched gaseous fuel for use in
transportation. The effect of different O
2
/CH
4
mole ratios and space
velocities on the reformer product has been studied. In addition, 20%
volume fraction of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) has been
introduced into the engine system to investigate the effect of engine-
out exhaust composition on the reforming process. The results imply
that fuel reforming process efficiencies of up to 95% (based on the
energy content of the reformate produced compared to the energy
content of the biogas used) can be achieved at optimum biogas and
engine exhaust gas ratios for the different engine conditions.
Furthermore, the total carbon dioxide content is reduced by reforming
biogas to form better-quality fuel.
13/00111 Desulfurization of hot coal gas over
high-surface-area LaMeO
x
/MCM-41 sorbents
Liu, B. S. et al. Fuel, 2012, 98, 95102.
The authors prepared LaMeO
x
/MCM-41 (Me =Co, Zn, Fe) sorbents
of high specific surface area by means of solgel method. For com-
parison purposes, the unsupported composite metal oxides were also
synthesized. Breakthrough and total sulfur capacity over LaFeO
3
/M41
were 3.24 and 3.70 g, respectively, significantly higher than the former
(0.35 g) over unsupported LaFeO
3
. The materials were characterized
using Brunauer, Emmett and Teller, X-ray diffraction, X-ray photo-
electron spectroscopy, temperature-programmed reduction, tempera-
ture-programmed reduction and sulfidation, and high-resolution
transmission electron spectroscopy techniques. Their ability for H
2
S
removal was evaluated over a fixed-bed reactor, and the effects of rea-
ction temperature, feed composition, and support on desulfurization
were studied. The results of successive sulfidation/regeneration cycles
(10) revealed that the LaFeO
3
/M41 sorbent was stable enough for
desulfurization of hot coal gas in chemical industry.
13/00112 Evaluation, comparison and validation of
deposition criteria for numerical simulation of slagging
Wieland, C. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 184192.
The objective of this study is the comparison of various sticking
probabilities based on three different approaches: (1) empirical visco-
sity models, (2) experimental results based on ash fusion and thermo-
gravimetry and (3) thermodynamic equilibrium calculations. More
specifically various viscosity models are compared. Sticking probabil-
ities from ash fusion tests are based on the characteristic temperatures
and the sample height. The thermogravimetric results combine the
mineral phase change in dependence of temperature and the mass loss
due to evaporation of minerals. The thermodynamic equilibrium cal-
culations are carried out with the software FactSage and as a result the
liquid fraction in the ash is obtained. The derived criteria are compared
among each other and implemented in an applicable form in FLUENT
in order to determine the deposition rate for the experiments in the
entrained flow reactor of the Technische Universitat Munchen. The
results are then compared with experimental observations for two
different hard coals, El Cerrejon and Pittsburgh No. 8. An optical
deposition-rate measurement technique based on a deposition probe
and a CCD-camera is applied to the experiments, which makes use of a
shadow image of the deposition probe. This technique is able to
evaluate the time dependence of the deposit build-up.
13/00113 Experimental investigation into gas production
from methane hydrate in sediment by depressurization in a
novel pilot-scale hydrate simulator
Li, X.-S. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 722732.
The gas production behaviour from methane hydrate in the sediment
by depressurization was investigated in a novel pilot-scale hydrate
simulator (PHS), a three-dimensional pressure vessel of 117.8 L.
Experimental results are compared with those in a cubic hydrate
simulator (CHS) with the effective volume of 5.8 L to reveal the
dependence of the production behaviour on the size of the hydrate
reservoir. Results show that the gas production processes in the two
simulators consist of three periods: the free gas production, mixed gas
(free gas and gas dissociated from the hydrate) production and gas
production from hydrate dissociation. The first and second periods are
mainly controlled by the pressure reduction rate. The heat conduction
from the ambient is main driving force to dissociate the hydrate in the
third period. The cumulative gas production in the third period with
the PHS and CHS is much higher than those in the first and second
periods. However, the gas production rate in the period is low. The
duration for gas production with the PHS is approximately 20 times as
many as that with the CHS. Water production behaviour with the PHS
is different with that with the CHS during the gas production. The
system temperature change tendency with the PHS is the same with
that with the CHS during the gas production. The unique difference is
that there is also a temperature rise period with the CHS.
13/00114 Experimental investigation of high temperature
and high pressure coal gasification
Tremel, A. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 92, 279285.
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 19
03 Gaseous fuels (derived gaseous fuels)
Pyrolysis and gasification behaviour is analysed at operation conditions
relevant to industrial scale entrained flow gasifiers. A wire mesh
reactor and the pressurized high temperature entrained flow reactor
(PiTER) are used to measure volatile yield of Rhenish lignite, a
bituminous coal and German anthracite at high temperature and high
pressure. In the wire mesh reactor at 1000

C a significant influence of
pressure on volatile yield is observed. For lignite the volatile yield (daf)
decreases from 57 wt% at atmospheric pressure to 53 wt% at 5.0 MPa.
In the same pressure interval the volatile yield of the bituminous coal
strongly decreases, whereas no significant influence of pressure on the
volatile yield of anthracite is detected. In entrained flow experiments
(PiTER) at higher temperature and 0.5 MPa an enhanced devolatiliza-
tion of the lignite is observed. At 1200

C, the maximum volatile yield is

62 wt% and it increases to 67 wt% at 1400

C. In entrained flow
gasification experiments with Rhenish lignite a high level of conversion
is measured at atmospheric pressure and at 0.5 MPa. At both pressures,
coal conversion increases with temperature and residence time. The
highest conversion of 96 wt% is achieved at a particle residence time of
1.3 s, at a temperature of 1600

C, and a pressure of 0.5 MPa. The

experimental results show a large influence of operation parameters on
pyrolysis and gasification behaviour of Rhenish lignite. The volatile
release in the pyrolysis stage and the high level of conversion after a
short residence time indicate that Rhenish lignite is suitable for
gasification in an entrained flow reactor. The reactivities of char
samples that are collected from the hot reaction zone of the PiTER are
measured in a pressurized thermogravimetric analyser (PTGA) at
lower temperature (600850

C). The pyrolysis temperature in the

entrained flow experiments significantly influences the reaction rate in
the PTGA at lower temperature. With increasing pyrolysis temperature
(12001600

C) a continuous loss of reactivity is observed.

13/00115 Manganese and ceria sorbents for high
temperature sulfur removal from biomass-derived syngas
the impact of steam on capacity and sorption mode
Cheah, S. et al. Fuel, 2012, 97, 612620.
Syngas derived from biomass and coal gasification for fuel synthesis or
electricity generation contains sulfur species that are detrimental to
downstream catalysts or turbine operation. Sulfur removal in high
temperature, high steam conditions has been known to be challenging,
but experimental reports on methods to tackle the problem are not
often reported. The authors have developed sorbents that can remove
hydrogen sulfide from syngas at high temperature (700

C), both in dry

and high steam conditions. The syngas composition chosen for these
experiments is derived from statistical analysis of the gasification
products of wood under a large variety of conditions. The two sorbents,
Cu-ceria and manganese-based, were tested in a variety of conditions.
In syngas containing steam, the capacity of the sorbents is much lower,
and the impact of the sorbent in lowering H
2
S levels is only evident in
low space velocities. Spectroscopic characterization and thermodyn-
amic consideration of the experimental results suggest that in syngas
containing 45% steam, the removal of H
2
S is primarily via surface
chemisorptions. For the Cu-ceria sorbent, analysis of the amount of
H
2
S retained by the sorbent in dry syngas suggests both copper and
ceria play a role in H
2
S removal. For the manganese-based sorbent, in
dry conditions, there is a solid state transformation of the sorbent,
primarily into the sulfide form.
13/00116 Partial oxidation of methane into syngas (H
2
+ CO)
over effective high-dispersed Ni/SiO
2
catalysts synthesized
by a solgel method
Xia, W. S. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37,
(10), 83438353.
A Ni catalyst supported on monodispersed silica spheres, Ni/SiO
2
-Sph
(SG), has been successfully synthesized by a solgel method. By
comparing it with other Ni catalysts (supported on commercial silica
and silica spheres) prepared by an impregnation method, it was found
that the size of Ni particles and their dispersion are closely related to
performances of the catalysts in partial oxidation of methane (POM)
into synthesis gas (CO+H
2
). Several means such as H
2
-TPR, TEM,
and XRD are employed to characterize these catalysts. Although the
catalyst Ni/SiO
2
-Sph (SG) in specific surface area is not large, the Ni
particles are the smallest in size (35 nm) among the three catalysts,
and are uniformly distributed, high dispersed over the silica surfaces,
being not much changed as Ni loading. It is notable that the smaller
size of the NiO particles is corresponding to the stronger NiOSiO
2
interactions. The catalyst Ni/SiO
2
-Sph (SG) shows the best catalytic
performances and the longest lifetime among the three catalysts at the
POM conditions.
13/00117 Production and characterization of Lemna minor
bio-char and its catalytic application for biogas reforming
Muradov, N. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 42, 123131.
Pyrolysis of fast-growing aquatic biomass Lemna minor (commonly
known as duckweed) with the emphasis on production, characterization
and catalytic application of bio-char is reported in this paper. The yield
of bio-char was determined as a function of L. minor pyrolysis tem-
perature and sweep gas flow rate. It was found that the pore develop-
ment during L. minor pyrolysis was not significant and the changes in
the reaction conditions (temperature and sweep gas flow rate) did not
alter markedly the textural characteristics and BET surface area of the
bio-char produced. Thermogravimetric/differential thermogravimetric
(TG/DTG) analyses of L. minor and different bio-char samples in inert
(helium) and oxidative (air) media showed substantial differences in
their TG/DTG patterns. A comparison of scanning electron micro-
graphs of L. minor, bio-char and ash indicated that the basic structural
features of L. minor remained intact and were not affected by
thermolysis. The inorganic ash content of L. minor derived bio-char
is significantly higher than that of typical terrestrial (plant) biomass.
The energy dispersive spectroscopic analysis of L. minor ash showed
that it mostly consisted of silica, and small quantities of Na, K and Ca
compounds. The treatment of bio-char with CO
2
at 800

C increased its
BET surface area. It was found that CO
2
-treated bio-char exhibited
appreciable initial catalytic activity in biogas reforming.
13/00118 Synchronous fluorimetric characterization of
heavy intermediates of coal direct liquefaction
Wang, Z. et al. Fuel, 2012, 98, 6772.
In order to understand the molecular structure of coal and the
mechanism of coal direct liquefaction, the heavy intermediates of coal
liquefaction such as asphaltene (AS) and preasphaltene (PA) were
separated into different sub-fractions by column chromatography,
respectively. The distributions of fused aromatic nucleuses (FAN) of
sub-fractions were determined by synchronous fluorescence combined
with the fitting technique of multiple peaks of spectrum. The results
indicated that the PA and AS obtained from liquefactions of three
Chinese coals were separated into four and two to four sub-fractions,
respectively. The content of three rings FAN was the highest in the
major sub-fractions of AS. The major sub-fractions of PA contained
not only more single ring aromatic nucleus but also larger FAN than
those of AS. Meanwhile, there were more complex aggregations in PA
compared to AS.
13/00119 The current state of offshore wind energy
technology development
Sun, X. et al. Energy, 2012, 41, (1), 298312.
Wind power has been the fastest growing form of renewable energy for
the past few years. According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) report, 80% of the worlds energy supply could come
from renewable sources by 2050 and wind energy will play a major role
in electricity generation in 2050. In the growing market for wind energy
and the limited available space onshore, the development of offshore
wind farms become more and more important. With a rapid develop-
ment of technology, the offshore wind power projects have become a
trend in many countries in Europe now. Therefore, this paper aims to
provide a brief overview of the current development status of offshore
wind power in different countries and also explore the technical,
economic and environmental issues around its development. Without
doubt, offshore wind will lead technology advances in the wind sector
in a near future as it seeks to exploit resources further offshore.
LNG
13/00120 Experimental research on a new vaporization of
LNG using flue gas to impact underwater umbrella rotor to
enhance heat transfer
He, F. et al. Energy Procedia, 2012, 17, 750761.
A new liquefied natural gas (LNG) heat vaporization technology is
developed and experimental researched. The LNG vaporizer uses a
flue gas jet to impact underwater umbrella rotor at high speed, and
form rotating air flow including steam and water drop. When wet flue
gas flow through heat exchanger, heat transfer is enhanced because of
water phase change. The vaporizer also uses flue gas cycling system to
enhance heat transfer of LNG, efficiently reduce exit temperature of
flue gas and increase heat efficiency. The vaporizer is designed as
upper and lower coils to vaporize and reheat LNG. Thermal efficiency
and convection heat transfer coefficients of LNG inside upper and
lower coils, wet flue gas outside upper coils and water outside lower
coils are experimental obtained.
13/00121 Hydrodynamic interaction between FLNG vessel
and LNG carrier in side by side configuration
Zhao, W. et al. Journal of Hydrodynamics, 2012, 24, (5), 648657.
The floating liquefied natural gas (FLNG) is a new type of floating
platform for the exploitation of stranded offshore oil/gas fields. The
side-by-side configuration for the FLNG vessel and the LNG carrier
arranged in parallel is one of the possible choices for the LNG
20 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
03 Gaseous fuels (LNG)
offloading. During the offloading operations, the multiple floating
bodies would have very complex responses due to their hydrodynamic
interactions. In this study, numerical simulations of multiple floating
bodies in close proximity in the side-by-side offloading configuration
are carried out with the time domain coupled analysis code SIMO.
Hydrodynamic interactions between the floating bodies and the
mechanical coupling effects between the floating bodies and their
connection systems are included in the coupled analysis model. To
clarify the hydrodynamic effects of the two vessels, numerical
simulations under the same environmental condition are also con-
ducted without considering the hydrodynamic interactions, for com-
parison. It is shown that the hydrodynamic interactions play an
important role in the low frequency motion responses of the two
vessels, but have little effect on the wave frequency motion responses.
In addition, the comparison results also show that the hydrodynamic
interactions can affect the loads on the connection systems.
13/00122 Optimisation of LNG mixed-refrigerant processes
considering operation and design objectives
Hatcher, P. et al. Computers & Chemical Engineering, 2012, 41, 123
133.
This paper presents a systematic analysis of optimization formulations
for the liquefied natural gas (LNG) process. It focuses on the
construction and testing of eight objective functions with an aim to
identify the most appropriate formulation. Four objective functions
relate to the operational aspect of the LNG process, while four
concentrate on the design aspect. It was found that the most effective
operation optimization objective function is the minimization of the
major operating cost, being compressor power (W
s
). For the design
objective functions, the minimization of net present value is favoured
where no restriction exists on the area available for LNG plant
construction while minimizing the objective function (W
s
UA) is
favoured in case where a limit on the plant area is imposed. Finally,
a methodology is constructed for using both design and operation
objective functions over the life of the LNG plant, considering gas field
feed profile.
13/00123 Safety aspects of the use of LNG for marine
propulsion
Vandebroek, L. and Berghmans, J. Procedia Engineering, 2012, 45,
2126.
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) as a fuel shows a large energy to volume
ratio. In addition, its combustion is characterized by low levels of
production of CO
2
, SO
x
, NO
x
and particulate matter in comparison to
conventional fuels. To reduce the emission of SO
x
into the atmosphere
the sulfur content of heavy fuel oils used for marine propulsion will be
restricted in the near future. However, LNG is a combustible cryogenic
liquid and as such presents specific safety hazards. The large-scale use
of LNG in the marine sector requires appropriate transport, storage
and transfer facilities. The risks connected with the operation of these
facilities are analysed. Specific safety characteristics of the equipment
involved are incorporated in the analysis. Safety distances are
determined based on a study of the effects of accidents during which
LNG is released. It is found that the pressure at which LNG is released
during an accident greatly influences the effect distances. At pressures
near atmospheric, the hazards of LNG are comparable to those of
conventional liquid fuels such as gasoline. At higher pressures, it
behaves more like a combustible gas liquefied by compression.
Hydrogen generation and storage
13/00124 Development of direct resistive heating method
for SO
3
decomposition in the SI cycle for hydrogen
production
Li, H. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 5964.
The sulfuriodine (SI) cycle has been considered as one of the
efficient and promising thermochemical water-splitting cycles for
hydrogen production using nuclear energy. However, the catalytic
SO
3
decomposition process in the SI cycle demands high temperature
heat (>800

C). Existing nuclear reactors cannot provide such heat for

SO
3
decomposition. AECL proposed a direct resistive heating concept
to compensate for the requirement of high temperature heat. An
experimental program was established at AECL to demonstrate the
concept and to develop reliable catalyst structures for SO
3
decompo-
sition. Due to the high temperature and harsh chemical environment,
Hastelloy C-276 was selected as the material for the heating element
and reactor. The catalyst was directly applied on the surface of an
electrical heating element. SO
3
was produced online from H
2
SO
4
in a
pre-heated vessel. The SO
3
decomposition percentage was determined
using the measured O
2
concentration in the exit gas stream. The results
showed that SO
3
decomposition can be successfully achieved with the
direct resistive heating method. As much as 90% of the initial SO
3
was
decomposed under the experimental conditions explored. The Pt-based
catalyst performed better than the Fe-based catalyst in the low
temperature region (<700

C). The effect of carrier gas flow on SO

3
decomposition was also considered.
13/00125 Effects of pretreatment method of natural bacteria
source on microbial community and bio-hydrogen
production by dark fermentation
Song, Z. X. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37,
(7), 56315636.
The effects of pretreatment method of cow dung compost, which was
employed as natural hydrogen bacteria source, on the microbial
community, population distribution of microbes and hydrogen pro-
duction potential were investigated in batch tests. The maximum hyd-
rogen yield of 290.8 mL/L-culture appeared in the pretreated method A
(infrared drying) by dark fermentation. The pretreated method of
compost significantly affected microbial succession, population distri-
bution of microbes. Both Clostridium sp. and Enterobacter sp. were
found to be two species of preponderant hydrogen-producing bacteria,
the next best was Bacteroides sp. and Veillonella sp., the last was
Lactobacillus sp. and Streptococcus sp., which were also essential. The
results showed that the mutualism and symbiosis relations of the mixed
bacteria played a critical role in hydrogen fermentation process.
13/00126 Effects of pretreatment methods on cassava
wastewater for biohydrogen production optimization
Leano, E. P. and Babel, S. Renewable Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 339346.
Batch production of biohydrogen from cassava wastewater pretreated
with (i) sonication, (ii) OPTIMASH BG
1
(enzyme), and (iii) c-
amylase (enzyme) were investigated using anaerobic seed sludge
subjected to heat pretreatment at 105

C for 90 min. Hydrogen yield

at pH 7.0 for cassava wastewater pretreated with sonication for 45 min
using anaerobic seed sludge was 0.913 mol H
2
/g COD. Results from
pretreatment with OPTIMASH BG
1
at 0.20% and pH 7 showed a
hydrogen yield of 4.24 mol H
2
/g COD. Superior results were obtained
when the wastewater was pretreated with c-amylase at 0.20% at pH 7
with a hydrogen yield of 5.02 mol H
2
/g COD. In all cases, no methane
production was observed when using heat-treated sludge as seed
inoculum. Percentage COD removal was found to be highest (60%)
using c-amylase as pretreatment followed by OPTIMASH BG
1
at 54%
and sonication (40% reduction rate). Results further suggested that
cassava wastewater is one of the potential sources of renewable
biomass to produce hydrogen.
13/00127 Effects of structure on hydrogen adsorption in
zeolitic imidazolate frameworks
Chen, E.-Y. et al. Chemical Engineering Science, 2012, 71, 178184.
Grand canonical Monte Carlo (GCMC) simulations were employed to
compute the adsorption of hydrogen gas in zeolitic imidazolate
frameworks (ZIF-1, ZIF-2, ZIF-3, ZIF-4, ZIF-6, ZIF-10 and ZIF-
64). In this set of ZIFs, all of them have the same metal atoms and
ligands, but they have different structures. A reasonable relationship
between the saturated adsorption of ZIFs and their effective porosities
is established. Further, this linear relationship was used to predict the
saturated adsorption amounts of ZIFs with the same metal atoms and
ligands. In addition, by comparing the different structural forms it is
found that the hydrogen uptake of ZIFs is mainly controlled by their
structure; the order is tetragonal > orthorhombic > monoclinic, and
with the same crystal system, the body-centred lattice is better than the
simple lattice. These results would be helpful for designing and
synthesizing new ZIFs with improved hydrogen uptake capability.
13/00128 Effects of various operating conditions on the
hydrogen absorption processes in a metal hydride tank
Jiao, K. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 257269.
The effects of the operating conditions on the performance of metal
hydride hydrogen storage tanks are complicated and need detailed
investigations for further optimization. In this study, a mathematical
model is developed to understand the effects of the various operating
conditions on the hydrogen absorption processes in a LaNi
5
metal
hydride tank. The numerical results indicate that the quickest charging
process occurs within the first 20 s, and the quickest charging rate and
duration are mainly affected by the charging pressure and initial
temperature, respectively. The effect of cooling level on this process is
insignificant. For both the short-time charging (2 min) and long-time
charging, the hydrogen fuelling performance is significantly affected by
the cooling level (the heat transfer coefficient and surrounding
temperature) and charging pressure. In order to ensure sufficiently
quick hydrogen charging, the charging pressure needs to be kept
enough higher than the equilibrium pressure, and due to the fast
heating of the metal hydride, the influence of the initial temperature is
less significant than the cooling condition. The general distributions of
the absorbed hydrogen fraction and temperature are similar under the
different operating conditions.
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 21
03 Gaseous fuels (hydrogen generation and storage)
13/00129 Fermentative hydrogen production
an alternative clean energy source
Kothari, R. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16,
(4), 23372346.
Hydrogen generation from wastewater through a biological route is a
promising technique. So, exploitation of wastewater as substrate for
hydrogen production with concurrent wastewater treatment is an
attractive and effective way of tapping clean energy from renewable
resources in a sustainable approach. In this direction, considerable
interest is observed on various biological routes of hydrogen produc-
tion using biophotolysis, photofermentation and the heterotrophic dark
fermentation process or by a combination of these processes. There-
fore, in this communication, utilizing industrial wastewater as the pri-
mary substrate for dark fermentation process is reviewed and different
parametric aspects associated with this sustainable approach for better
energy production is discussed. The industrial wastewaters that could
be the source for biohydrogen generation, such as rice slurry waste-
water, food and domestic wastewaters, citric acid wastewater and paper
mill wastewater, are also discussed in this article.
13/00130 First-principles studies of lithium hydride series
for hydrogen storage
Napan, R. and Peltzer y Blanca, E. L. International Journal of
Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37, (7), 57845789.
The application of hydrogen as a clean energy source is based on
storage of hydrogen. In metal hydrides this is possible, since many
metals react readily with hydrogen forming a stable metal hydride.
Thus, saline hydrides such as lithium hydride have appeared as new
alternatives to this, because of their high reactivity and reversibility.
The first principles calculations based on density functional theory
have been used to study the physical properties of several LiH
compounds. The crystal structure, electronic properties and internal
optimization parameters are treated by the LAPW method im-
plemented in the WIEN2k code. This study considers three different
phases of lithium hydride compounds, in six different crystal structures,
with the purpose of comparing the formation energies in all cases, and
determine which is the structure, with the best structural properties for
applications as hydrogen reservoir. The comparisons between the
results obtained in the structures of lithiumhydride are discussed in
this work.
13/00131 Hydrogen permeation model of parabolic trough
receiver tube
Li, J. et al. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (5), 11871196.
Hydrogen gas formed by the thermal decomposition of organic heat
transfer fluids can permeate through parabolic trough receiver tubes
into the vacuum annulus, leading to significant heat losses in the
receiver which reduces the parabolic trough power plant efficiency.
This problem is quite important as these systems are being developed
to drive down the cost of electricity. Thus, hydrogen permeation in
parabolic trough power plants must be understood to develop strate-
gies to reduce or prevent hydrogen gas accumulation in the receiver
annulus. A hydrogen permeation model for parabolic trough receivers
was developed based on measurements of hydrogen permeability of
solar-selective coatings. The model was then used to study the effects
of the hydrogen generation rate, the hydrogen pressure in the receiver
tubes and the hydrogen barrier coating on the hydrogen permeation
into the annulus. The hydrogen generation rate plays a significant role
in the hydrogen permeation process, with the hydrogen pressure,
permeability and adsorb area all related to balancing the hydrogen
permeation rate with the hydrogen generation rate.
13/00132 Hydrogen production from NaBH
4
hydrolysis via
Co-ZIF-9 catalyst
Li, Q. and Kim, H. Fuel Processing Technology, 2012, 100, 4348.
ZIF-9, one of the zeolitic imidazolate frameworks, was synthesized via
a solvothermal method and the feasibility of ZIF-9 as a catalyst in
NaBH
4
hydrolysis for hydrogen production was firstly reported in
detail. The experimental result showed that the initial hydrogen
generation rate of ZIF-9 catalyst is relatively slow due to the gradual
formation of CoB active centres. And then the hydrogen generation
rate increases rapidly after the formation of CoB. The hydrogen
generation rate of ZIF-9 at 40

C can reach up to 3641.69 ml min

1
g
1
(Co). It was found that the addition of NaOH can remarkably
accelerate the hydrolysis rate of NaBH
4
. In the cycles of ZIF-9, no
obvious decrease of hydrogen production rate was found which meant
that ZIF-9 catalyst maintains relatively high stability. The XRD com-
parison before and after the cycling reaction showed that ZIF-9
maintains its basic crystal structure and crystallinity, but long range
order of ZIF-9 catalyst is altered in a certain extent.
13/00133 Molecular hydrogen and spiltover hydrogen
storage on high surface area carbon sorbents
Wang, L. and Yang, R. T. Carbon, 2012, 50, (9), 31343140.
A series of templated carbons with various high surface areas (2033
3798 m
2
/g) have been prepared using various microporous zeolites as
hard templates. Molecular hydrogen storage and spiltover hydrogen
storage on these templated carbons were investigated and compared
with superactivated carbon AX-21 and other reported porous carbon
sorbents at 298 K and 100 atm. Two relationships between the surface
areas of these carbons and their hydrogen capacities were obtained.
The relationship between molecular hydrogen capacity and surface
area showed a 0.23 wt% H
2
/1000 m
2
/g of carbon sorbent at 298 K and
100 atm, indicating that merely increasing surface areas of the carbon
sorbents cannot achieve a significant molecular hydrogen capacity at
ambient temperature. Spiltover hydrogen storage was achieved by
doping Pt nanoparticles (as dissociative hydrogen source) on these
carbons (spiltover hydrogen receptor). The first result on the
relationship between the spiltover hydrogen capacity and surface area
showed 0.4 wt% H
2
/1000 m
2
/g of carbon sorbent at 298 K and 100 atm,
which indicated that storage via spillover can lead to an average of 70%
enhancement compared to molecular hydrogen storage.
13/00134 Numerical simulation and optimal design for
composite high-pressure hydrogen storage vessel: a review
Liu, P. F. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16,
(4), 18171827.
The composite high-pressure hydrogen storage vessel has been
increasingly applied to the hydrogen fuel-cell car. The design of a
composite vessel involves various integrated parameters such as the
progressive failure properties, the burst pressure and fatigue lifetime.
The favourable combination of high reliability and practicability of the
composite vessel is a challenging task from the beginning of design.
This paper gives a comprehensive review on recent development of
numerical simulation and optimization for the designed composite
vessel. First, methods on damage modelling for predicting the failure
properties and degradation mechanisms of the composite vessel are
reviewed. Second, research on predicting the burst pressure and
lifetime of the composite vessel is reviewed. The academic work on the
damage modelling, progressive failure analysis and finite element
implementation which explains the failure properties and stiffness
degradation mechanisms of the composite vessel is summarized.
Computational methods on the burst pressure, the strength reliability
and lifetime of the composite vessel are also evaluated. Finally, ideal
design which aims to lessen the weight of a composite vessel to the
maximum extent under strength and stiffness constraints is commen-
ted. The optimization efficiency using different algorithms is also
comparatively studied. The numerical simulation and optimization as
important fundamental research constitute a design platform for the
composite vessel. It deserves pointing out the lightweight design
conception as a remarkable tendency that combines advanced
numerical methods and manufacturing technique develops rapidly,
commits to improving the reliability and practicability of the composite
vessel. It is expected the lightweight design technique plays an
increasingly important role in developing the composite vessel as their
value is further highlighted.
13/00135 On the poisoning effect of O
2
and N
2
for the
Zr
0.9
Ti
0.1
V
2
hydrogen storage alloy
Zhang, T. B. et al. Journal of Power Sources, 2012, 202, 217224.
Homogeneously annealed Zr
0.9
Ti
0.1
V
2
samples are firstly exposed to
contamination gases of O
2
and N
2
for 30, 60 and 180 s at the ambient
temperature, respectively. Hydrogen absorption properties are exam-
ined after poisoning and regeneration. The compositions and valence
in the surface and sub-surface are investigated by X-ray photoelectron
spectroscopy. The hydrogen absorption capacity of the alloy has been
almost entirely degraded by the oxygen poisoning. After the regener-
ation, the oxygen-poisoned sample can hardly absorb hydrogen while
the nitrogen-poisoned sample reobtains the hydrogen absorption capa-
city with the value as 2.85 HA
1
(molar ratio of hydrogen to alloy). The
activation temperature of the oxygen-poisoned sample is ~100 K higher
than the value of the unpoisoned one. With the help of ion etching, it is
found the thickness of the passivated surface layer of the oxygen-
poisoned sample was ~58 nm. However, the thickness of the passivated
surface layer of the unpoisoned sample is only ~36 nm. That is the
reason why the oxygen-poisoned sample cannot renew the hydrogen
absorption capacity under the same regeneration conditions as in the
unpoisoned one.
13/00136 Recent advances in reuse of waste material as
substrate to produce biohydrogen by purple non-sulfur
(PNS) bacteria
Wu, T. Y. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16,
(5), 31173122.
Hydrogen is the fuel of the future mainly due to its high conversion
efficiency, recyclability and non-polluting nature. Biological hydrogen
production processes, mostly mediated photosynthetic bacteria, are
more favourable candidates for biological hydrogen production due to
their high conversion efficiency and versatility in the substrates
22 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
03 Gaseous fuels (hydrogen generation and storage)
(including wastewater) they can utilize. The potential utilization of
waste material is being investigated extensively with suitable bioprocess
technologies for providing cheaper raw materials with simultaneous
waste treatment and bioremediation. Thus, this review article summar-
izes the biohydrogen production metabolism of purple non-sulfur
(PNS) bacteria and research works involving biohydrogen production
using various wastes such as tofu wastewater, palm oil mill effluent,
olive mill wastewater, brewery wastewater, etc. by photosynthetic PNS
bacteria. Waste materials used, yields and rates are reviewed, together
with a discussion of the economics and perspectives of biohydrogen
production from waste materials.
13/00137 Semi-continuous photo-fermentative H
2
production by Rhodobacter sphaeroides: effect of
decanting volume ratio
Kim, D.-H. and Kim, M.-S. Bioresource Technology, 2012, 103, (1),
481483.
In this study, a semi-continuous operation of photo-fermentative
hydrogen-producing reactor was attempted at various decanting vol-
ume ratios (DVR, decanting volume per day/total working volume, %),
ranging 3070%, using Rhodobacter sphaeroides KD131. Hydrogen
production was not efficient with showing low hydrogen yields of 0.2
and 0.5 mol hydrogen/mol succinate
added
at 30% and 40% DVR,
respectively. The low performance ascribed to the fact that over 70%
of substrate electrons were diverted towards cell growth under these
conditions. Meanwhile, cell growth was limited at DVR_50%;
therefore, higher hydrogen yields (>2.0 mol hydrogen/mol succina-
te
added
) were observed. Both the highest hydrogen yield of 3.7 mol hy-
drogen/mol succinate
added
and production rate of 1494 mL hydrogen/L-
reactor/d were achieved at 60% DVR. The content of soluble microbial
products (SMPs) was measured, which accounted for 315% of
substrate electrons. It was found that the largest (6575%) portion of
SMPs comprised low molecular-weight (<3 kDa).
13/00138 Separation of hydrogen from syngas using a
chemical-looping cycle
Kai, S. et al. Fuel, 2012, 98, 8087.
A novel, modified CaO for use as a CO
2
sorbent was prepared by
dipping 2.0 wt% V
2
O
5
in CaO. A vanadate, Ca
2
V
2
O
7
, was generated in
the modified CaO and analysed via X-ray diffraction. The experiments
show that Ca
2
V
2
O
7
neither adsorbed CO
2
nor improved the micro-
structure of the sorbent; however, it accelerated the CO
2
capture rate
of CaO, as well as the decomposition rate of CaCO
3
, during the
carbonation/calcinations cycles, thereby improving the CO
2
capture
capacity of the CaO-based sorbent and reducing the energy consump-
tion of calcination. A process that separates hydrogen from syngas has
been investigated by combing the chemical looping of a Fe-based
catalyst (as the oxygen-transfer material) and that of the modified CaO
(as the CO
2
sorbent) in a fixed-bed reactor. Two operational stages,
one for hydrogen enrichment and the other for solid regeneration,
were alternately implemented under atmospheric pressure. The effects
of the gas flow velocity, temperature, solid composition, and steam
concentration on the hydrogen yield during the enrichment stage were
investigated. The obtained information was used to optimize the
operational conditions of the enrichment stage, and a hydrogen purity
above 99.5% and a hydrogen yield reaching 27.91 mmol/g Fe catalyst
were achieved. A total of 13 cycles were completed using the same
solids. The regeneration of iron oxide during each regeneration stage
reached 98% and that of the modified CaO was above 94%; however, a
gradual decline in the performance of the solids after the third cycle
occurred because of sorbent sintering.
13/00139 Thermally stable iron based redox catalysts for
the thermo-chemical hydrogen generation from water
Song, L-w. et al. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 313320.
Redox materials with high thermal stabilities, comprising iron oxide
with alumina were synthesized from ultrasonic spray pyrolysis method.
Their catalytic activities towards the redox evolution of hydrogen from
water were evaluated and compared with that of pure iron oxide, which
decreased rapidly after one cycle due to its low thermal stability. The
samples containing alumina sustained their total and relative hydrogen
evolutions over three redox cycles, while maintaining their original
surface morphologies, thus demonstrating their thermal stability.
13/00140 Water handling challenge on hydrolysis of
sodium borohydride in batch reactors
Ferreira, M. J. F. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012,
37, (8), 69856994.
A study was undertaken in order to investigate the potential of
hydrogen (H
2
) generation by hydrolysis of solid sodium borohydride
(NaBH
4
) with stoichiometric amount of distilled water (from molar
ratios H
2
O/NaBH
4
(mol/mol) of 218), in the presence of a powder
nickel-ruthenium based catalyst, reused more than 300 times. The
experiments, performed in batch reactors with different free volumes
and bottom shapes (flat and conical) reveal for the conical bottom
shape with any excess of water 8.1 H
2
wt% and 92 kg H
2
/m
3
(materials-only basis), and a H
2
rate of 87.4 L(H
2
) min
1
g
1
catalyst,
at the moderate pressure of -1.2 MPa. The results presented in this
work give emphasis to the importance of considering the role of reactor
bottom geometry on the solid NaBH
4
hydrolysis studies performed
with stoichiometric amounts of liquid water.
04 BY-PRODUCTS RELATED
TO FUELS
13/00141 A first step towards identification of tannin-
derived black carbon: conventional pyrolysis (PyGCMS)
and thermally assisted hydrolysis and methylation (THM
GCMS) of charred condensed tannins
Kaal, J. et al. Organic Geochemistry, 2012, 47, 99108.
Tannins account for a significant proportion of plant biomass and are
likely to contribute to the residues formed by incomplete biomass
combustion (black carbon, BC). Nonetheless, the molecular properties
of thermally modified tannins have not been investigated in laboratory
charring experiments. The authors applied conventional analytical
pyrolysisgas chromatographymass spectrometry (PyGCMS) and
thermally assisted hydrolysis and methylation (THMGCMS) to
investigate the effects of heat treatment with a muffle furnace on the
properties of condensed tannins (CT) from Corsican pine (Pinus nigra)
needles. PyGCMS showed a decrease in the relative abundance of
the 1,2,3-trihydroxybenzenes (pyrogallols) at _300

C and of the
dihydroxybenzenes (mainly catechols) at _350

C due to dehydroxyla-
tion of the CT B ring. Further dehydroxylation led to formation of
monohydroxybenzenes (phenols), which showed a strong enrichment
between 350 and 400

C and, at higher temperatures, to a series of

monocyclic and polycyclic aromatics [benzene, alkyl benzenes and
polycondensed aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)]. Degradation of the A-
ring could not be recognized via PyGCMS, probably because of the
poor chromatographic behaviour of 1,3,5-trihydroxybenzenes (phlor-
oglucinols). The progressive dehydroxylation and eventual polycon-
densation of the CT B ring was corroborated using THMGCMS. In
addition, with THMGCMS the thermal rearrangement of CT A-rings
at 300

C and higher was inferred from the relative abundance of 1,3,5-

trimethoxybenzenes (methylated phloroglucinol derivatives). These
compounds were observed at moderate/high temperature (up to
450

C) and cannot be produced from THM of lignin, suggesting that

they may be markers of CT in natural BC samples.
13/00142 A novel silica alumina-based backfill material
composed of coal refuse and fly ash
Yao, Y. and Sun, H. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2012, 213214,
7182.
In this paper, a systematic study was conducted to investigate a novel
silica alumina-based backfill material composed of coal refuse and fly
ash. The coal refuse and fly ash had different properties under various
thermal activation temperatures (20, 150, 350, 550, 750 and 950

C). It
is known that a thermal activation temperature ranging from 20 to
950

C significantly increases the flowability and pozzolanic properties

of the coal refuse; however, the flowability of fly ash decreases when
the activation temperature is higher than 550

C because of a severe
agglomeration phenomenon on its surface. An optimal design for this
backfill material was determined to include an activated portion
composed of 5% coal refuse at 750

C and 15% fly ash at 20

C. This
combination yields the best performance with excellent flowability, a
high compressive strength and a low bleeding rate. The microanalysis
results corresponded well with the performance tests at different
activation conditions. In the coal refuse, kaolinite peaks began to
decrease because of their transformation into metakaolin at 550

C.
Chlorite peaks disappeared at 750

C. Muscovite peaks decreased at

750

C and disappeared at 950

C. During this process, muscovite 2M

1
gradually dehydroxylated to muscovite HT. Furthermore, this paper
examined the environmental acceptance and economic feasibility of
this technology and found that this silica alumina-based backfill
material composed of coal refuse and fly ash not only meets EPA
requirements but also has several advantages in industry feasibility
when compared with hydraulic backfill, rock backfill and paste backfill.
13/00143 A review of the multi-component utilisation of
coal fly ash
Blissett, R. S. and Rowson, N. A. Fuel, 2012, 97, 123.
Coal fly ash is generated during the combustion of coal for energy
production. Its utilization as an industrial by-product has received a
great deal of attention over the past two decades as more sustainable
solutions to waste problems have been sought. The present paper
reviews the potential applications for coal fly ash as a raw material: as a
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 23
04 By-products related to fuels
soil amelioration agent in agriculture, in the manufacture of glass and
ceramics, in the production of zeolites, in the formation of mesoporous
materials, in the synthesis of geopolymers, for use as catalysts and
catalyst supports, as an adsorbent for gases and waste water processes,
and for the extraction of metals. The review then analyses the impact
that a multi-stage process could have by examining the technology
capable of a series of separations to produce hollow microspheres,
enriched carbon, magnetic spheres, fine ash product, and coarse ash
product. The applications for these coal fly ash derived products were
also reviewed. It was found that there is significant potential for the
increased utilization of coal fly ash both in its raw and refined state. It
is suggested that, by processing the coal fly ash, the scope for creating
new industrial synergies is enhanced.
13/00144 Carbon black texture evolution during catalytic
methane decomposition
Kameya, Y. and Hanamura, K. Carbon, 2012, 50, (10), 35033512.
Catalytic characteristics of carbon black (CB) during methane
decomposition have been known to vary according to the amount of
produced carbon. Evolution of the surface properties of CB during the
reaction was investigated to elucidate the mechanism of the variation in
the catalytic activity and evaluate the carbon deposited on CB as a
potential carbonaceous product. Kinetic analysis successfully quanti-
fied the variation in the catalytic activity by using the relative
modification coefficient to consider the degree of carbon deposition.
Elemental analysis revealed that the variation in the catalytic
characteristics was not influenced by oxygen-containing functional
groups except during the initial stage of the reaction. Textural
evolution during the reaction was measured by nitrogen adsorption
isotherms, and surface microstructural development was observed by
transmission electron microscopy. The change in the surface area
exposed in the reaction field correlated well with the varying catalytic
behaviour after the initial deactivation stage. A hypothesis concerning
the correlation between the variation in the catalytic activity and the
textural properties was proposed. Furthermore, development of a
remarkable mesoporous surface structure on CB during the reaction
was demonstrated.
13/00145 H
2
S absorption on activated carbons NoritRB1:
CFD model development
Barelli, L. et al. Fuel Processing Technology, 2012, 100, 3542.
Micro-CHP (combined heat and power) technologies based on fuel
cells appear to be a good answer to growing worldwide demand for less
polluting forms of energy. Some components that constitute the
balance of plant of these systems are resulted to be field of
improvements in order to increase the overall efficiency. In particular
this paper deals issues relative to the clean-up system. Considering as
powering system the methane gas distribution, in fact, a high degree of
desulfurization is requested to avoid poisoning of the reformer and
stack catalyst. Therefore, a parametric CFD model of a typical
desulfurization reactor has been developed using experimental data
obtained by the FClab of the University of Perugia. Particular attention
has been devoted to the kinetic of the adsorption process of the
hydrogen sulfide on activated carbons Norit RB1, used in the test
session. The H
2
S adsorption process has been modelled as a mass
transfer process between the gas phase mix and the solid phase. The
model has been developed and validated by means of further
experimental data not used for the model development. This tool will
allow, in future studies, to optimize the geometry of an innovative
desulfurization system for residential application.
13/00146 Influences of acidic/oxidizing gases on
elemental mercury adsorption equilibrium and
kinetics of sulfur-impregnated activated carbon
Hsi, H. C. and Chen, C. T. Fuel, 2012, 98, 229235.
The impacts of O
2
, HCl, SO
2
, and NO existing in simulated coal-
combustion flue gases on Hg
0
adsorption equilibrium and kinetics of
sulfur-impregnated activated carbon were evaluated. The adsorption
capacities increased when one acidic/oxidizing gas component coex-
isted with the baseline components, including CO
2
, H
2
O, and N
2
. The
effectiveness of enhancing Hg
0
adsorption capacity for these com-
ponents, in a declining order, was NO, HCl, O
2
, and SO
2
. When two
acidic/oxidizing gas components were present in the baseline gases,
especially when NO coexisted, sulfur-impregnated activated carbon
had increasing Hg
0
adsorption capacities compared to that obtained at
the baseline condition. In contrast, the presence of SO
2
with O
2
had
deteriorating effects on Hg
0
adsorption. The reduction in Hg
0
adsorption capacity may be attributed to the formation of SO
3
known
to compete for adsorption sites. When the flue gas contained at least
three acidic/oxidizing components, the baseline/O
2
/HCl/NO gas re-
sulted in the largest Hg
0
adsorption capacity. Full factorial analysis
further suggested that NO possessed the greatest effects on enhancing
the Hg
0
adsorption capacity in the simulated coal-combustion flue
gases. Kinetic results also showed that sulfur-impregnated activated
carbon with a larger equilibrium adsorption capacity under a given gas
condition in general possessed poor adsorption kinetics.
13/00147 Modeling and simulation of an activated
carbon-based botanical air filtration system for
improving indoor air quality
Wang, Z. et al. Building and Environment, 2012, 54, 109115.
A numerical model for simulating the performance of a dynamic
botanical filtration system has been developed for the first time. The
model accounts for the various transport and storage processes
including air and contaminant convection, adsorption of non-water
soluble compound by activated carbon, absorption of water soluble
compound by water, bio-degradation of chemicals by microbes in the
root bed as well as the automatically controlled irrigation system for
the root bed. The model was built on an existing coupled heat, air,
moisture and pollutant simulation for building envelope system model
with the addition of bio-degradation process and the irrigation system.
Model parameters were estimated from the experiments. The
simulation results showed that the model could describe the pressure
drop and airflow relationship well by using the air permeability as a
model parameter. The water source added in the model also led to the
similar bed moisture content and outlet air RH as that in real test case.
The simulation results also showed that the developed model worked
well in analysing the effect of different parameters. It was also found
that the critical bio-degradation rate constant was 1 10
5
s
1
in this
study, below which the dynamic botanical filtration system would not
be able to sustain the formaldehyde removal performance. The bio-
degradation rate constant of the reduced scale filter system tested was
estimated to be in the range of 0.81.5 10
4
s
1
.
13/00148 Synthesis of geopolymer composites from blends
of CFBC fly and bottom ashes
Li, Q. et al. Fuel, 2012, 97, 366372.
Blends of circulating fluidized bed combustion (CFBC) fly and bottom
ashes of the same coal origin were investigated as raw materials for
geopolymer synthesis. Reactivity of the low-reactive CFBC fly ash
(CFA) was enhanced by an alkali-fusion pretreatment, which was
optimized by an L
16
(4
4
) orthogonal array. It was found that, at a
relatively low sodium hydroxide to CFA mass ratio of 0.5, effective
alkali fusion could be achieved at 350

C for 0.5 h. The fused CFA was

blended with ground CFBC bottom ash (CBA) at mass ratios of 2.00,
1.00, 0.55, 0.29 and 0.12, and activated by two sodium silicate solutions
(21.6 and 34.5 wt%). Geopolymer pastes were cured at 40

C for 7 days,
reaching a highest compressive strength of 34.0 MPa. Characterization
of the raw materials and geopolymer products was also conducted by
an alkaline dissolution test, thermogravimetricdifferential thermal
analysis (TGDTA), X-ray diffractography, scanning electron micro-
scopy, as well as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The results
of this study suggest that, by a moderate alkali-fusion pretreatment at
temperatures slightly higher than the melting point for sodium
hydroxide (318

C), low-reactive CFA can be recycled together with

CBA for production of value-added geopolymer composites.
05 NUCLEAR FUELS
Scientific, technical
13/00149 Crack initiation resistance characterization of
weld by small-punch test in boiling water reactor
environment
Isselin, J. and Shoji, T. International Journal of Pressure Vessels and
Piping, 2012, 9394, 2228.
Crack initiation resistance tests of a type 316L stainless steel weld were
performed in high temperature and high pressure water. Small-punch
test specimens were used under trapezoidal loading. This survey
showed that there are two crack initiation modes in such conditions.
The crack initiation at the slip line was promoted by a gradient in term
of oxide film composition and in term of local environment (water
chemistry). The crack initiation at inclusions was promoted by a local
dissolution creating geometric default. The heat affected zone speci-
men presented the highest probability of initiation with the highest
probability to have the longest crack according to the Poisson
distribution. These phenomena were attributed to the residual stress
that enhanced: (1) a deformation at the micro scale very irregular
promoting an instability of the oxide film; (2) the diffusion of Fe
producing the formation Fe
3
O
4
associated with c-Fe
2
O
3
.
24 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
05 Nuclear fuels (scientific, technical)
13/00150 Design of an additional safety rod for Ghana
Research Reactor-1 using MCNP5 code
Boffie, J. et al. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2012, 245, 1318.
In many licensed reactors, there are both control rods and shutdown or
safety rods with the latter specifically designed for rapid shutdown of
the chain reaction. But Ghanas Research Reactor 1 (GHARR-1),
which is a miniature neutron source reactor (MNSR) has one control
rod which serves the purpose of both reactivity control and shutdown of
the reactor. This work presents an investigative study into the design of
an additional safety rod, which will be an important safety component
in the MNSR and will provide another alternative way to emergently
shut down the reactor. The Monte Carlo Neutron Particle code;
version 5 (MCNP5) was used to design the additional safety rod at one
of the inner irradiation sites with cadmium as absorber material and
stainless steel as clad. The irradiation site housing the safety rod was
then enlarged, which affected the criticality of the core and a larger
cadmium safety rod was inserted. In another instance, boron carbide
was used as the absorber material also with stainless steel clad but
without the further increment. After simulation, the cadmium safety
rod, worth 2.94 mk could not shut down the reactor on insertion.
However, the larger cadmium safety rod and the boron carbide safety
rod of worth 4.54 and 5.90 mk, respectively, attained subcriticality on
insertion. The results indicate that an additional safety rod with boron
carbide as absorber material can be used to enhance the safety of
MNSRs.
13/00151 Development and assessment of system analysis
code, TASS/SMR for integral reactor, SMART
Chung, Y. J. et al. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2012, 244, 5260.
A new requirement has motivated the development of smaller reactors
since the 1980s. Integral type reactors have been highlighted as a
promising option. SMART, which is an integral type reactor has been
developed at KAERI, and TASS/SMR code was developed to analyse
the thermal hydraulic phenomena of the SMART plant. The main
purpose of the code is to simulate all relevant phenomena, processes,
and conditions inside the reactor coolant system that may occur during
such accidents. Development and assessment of the code is represented
in detail. By means of the assessment results using experimental data,
TASS/SMR code can be used for both the experiment simulation as
well as the SMART analysis. The code reasonably predicts thermal
hydraulic phenomena in representative accidents for SMART.
13/00152 Effect of groundwater pH and ionic strength on
strontium sorption in aquifer sediments: implications for
90
Sr mobility at contaminated nuclear sites
Wallace, S. H. et al. Applied Geochemistry, 2012, 27, (8), 14821491.
Strontium-90 is a beta-emitting radionuclide produced during nuclear
fission, and is a problem contaminant at many nuclear facilities.
Transport of
90
Sr in groundwaters is primarily controlled by sorption
reactions with aquifer sediments. The extent of sorption is controlled
by the geochemistry of the groundwater and sediment mineralogy.
Here, batch sorption experiments were used to examine the sorption
behaviour of
90
Sr in sedimentwater systems representative of the UK
Sellafield nuclear site based on groundwater and contaminant fluid
compositions. In experiments with low ionic strength groundwaters
(<0.01 mol L
1
), pH variation is the main control on sorption. The
sorption edge for
90
Sr was observed between pH 4 and 6 with maximum
sorption occurring (K
d
-10
3
Lkg
1
) at pH 68. At ionic strengths
above 10 mmol L
1
, and at pH values between 6 and 8, cation exchange
processes reduced
90
Sr uptake to the sediment. This exchange process
explains the lower
90
Sr sorption (K
d
-40 Lkg
1
) in the presence of
artificial Magnox tank liquor (IS =29 mmol L
1
). Strontium K-edge
EXAFS spectra collected from sediments incubated with Sr
2+
in either
HCO
3
-buffered groundwater or artificial Magnox tank liquor, revealed
a coordination environment of -9 O atoms at 2.582.61 A

after 10 days.
This is equivalent to the Sr
2+
hydration sphere for the aqueous ion and
indicates that Sr occurs primarily in outer sphere sorption complexes.
No change was observed in the Sr sorption environment with EXAFS
analysis after 365 days incubation. Sequential extractions performed on
sediments after 365 days also found that -80% of solid associated
90
Sr
was exchangeable with 1 M MgCl
2
in all experiments. These results
suggest that over long periods,
90
Sr in contaminated sediments will
remain primarily in weakly bound surface complexes. Therefore, if
groundwater ionic strength increases (e.g. by saline intrusion related to
sea level rise or by design during site remediation) then substantial
remobilization of
90
Sr is to be expected.
13/00153 Fabrication of SiCSiC composites for fuel
cladding in advanced reactor designs
Deck, C. P. et al. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 2012, 57, 3845.
Both advanced fission reactor concepts and fusion energy systems
demand materials that can survive extremely harsh operating environ-
ments having persistent high temperature and high neutron flux
conditions. Silicon carbide fibre/silicon carbide matrix (SiCSiC)
composites have shown promise for these applications, which include
fuel cladding and reactor structural components. However, the
composite fabrication process is time consuming and the fabrication
of complicated geometries can be difficult. In this work, SiCSiC and
carbon fibreSiC composite samples were fabricated using chemical
vapour infiltration (CVI), and the mechanical and thermal properties
of samples with a range of densities and total infiltration times were
characterized and compared. Both sample density and the reinforcing
fibre material were found to have a very significant influence on the
composite mechanical and thermal material properties. In particular,
internal porosity is found to have a significant effect on the mechanical
response, as can be observed in the crack propagation in low-density
samples. In order to better understand the densification of the
composites, a computer model is being developed to simulate the
diffusion of reactants through the fibre preform, and SiC deposition on
the fibre surfaces. Preliminary modelling has been correlated with
experimental results and shows promising results.
13/00154 Fundamental solution of nuclear solitary wave
Chen, X.-N. et al. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012, 59, 4049.
This paper deals with the problem of asymptotic breeding/burning
waves during long-term nuclear fission processes. The uranium
plutonium (UPu) conversion cycle is considered under fast spectrum
conditions. A one-group diffusion equation coupled with burn-up
equations is set up. The nuclide atom number densities can be
determined as functions of the neutron fluence only, as the natural
radioactive processes are neglected. It is found then that the diffusion
equation with the neutron fluence dependent macroscopic cross-
sections is analytically integrable (solvable) in the one-dimensional
(1-D) case without feedback effects. A permanent solitary wave
solution exists under certain conditions, where the infinite medium
multiplication factor first increases from a subcritical level up to a
supercritical point and then falls to another subcritical level again,
along with the increasing neutron fluence. Relationships between wave
amplitude, wave number, parameters of fuel are studied. A represen-
tative example is shown for a breeding/burning solitary wave
propagating in a
238
U medium with a suitable content of burnable
poison, where the conversion chain is considered up to
242
Pu. Finally it
is demonstrated as well that in a two-dimensional cylindrical case, a
multi-dimensional permanent solitary wave pattern with a constant
drift speed can be also achieved based on the 1-D fundamental solution
by adjusting the initial radial distribution of the fuel composition,
where more fuel and higher enrichment are needed in the outer
peripheral region than in the inner one.
13/00155 In-core high temperature measurement using
fiber-Bragg gratings for nuclear reactors
de Villiers, G. J. et al. Applied Thermal Engineering, 2012, 38, 143150.
The Pebble Bed Modular Reactor company called for research into the
possibility of distributed in-core temperature measurement. In this
paper, several methods for distributed temperature measurement in
high-pressure, high-radiation and high-temperature environments have
been investigated by means of a literature study. The literature study
revealed fibre-Bragg grating (FBG) temperature sensors to be the most
feasible solution to the temperature measurement challenge. Various
parameters affecting the propagation of light in optical fibres and
consequently the FBG reflection profile was investigated. The
differential equations describing FBG structures were solved and
implemented in Matlab in order to simulate wavelength division multi-
plexing (WDM) of a distributed FBG sensing system. Distributed
sensing with apodized FBGs written into the sapphire optical fibres is
considered. Temperature measurement using wavelength division
multiplexing of apodized FBGs written into silica optical fibres were
also demonstrated in a test platform. The measured results corre-
sponded with the theory. It was found that when there is a strong
temperature gradient across the FBG, spectral widening of the
reflection profile occurs. This fact should be taken into account when
allocating bandwidth to a certain FBG and choosing a demodulation
algorithm. Sapphire FBGs were also acquired and the optical proper-
ties investigated. Furthermore, high temperature stable FBGs written
with femtosecond laser radiation in silica Sumitomo Z-Fibre have been
evaluated and shown to be a good option for temperature measure-
ment below 1000

C. Finally, the implementation of FBGs in a high

temperature nuclear reactor is discussed and recommendations are
made for future work.
13/00156 Investigations of mass attenuation coefficients
and exposure buildup factors of some low-Z building
materials
Singh Mann, K. et al. Annals of Nuclear Energy, 2012, 43, 157166.
To check the gamma-ray shielding properties of selected low-Z
building materials such as soil-I, soil-II, dolomite, gypsum, igneous
rock and limestone, some parameters of dosimetric interest have been
investigated in the energy range 0.01515 MeV. The photon inter-
actions with the samples have been discussed mainly in terms of mass
attenuation coefficient, equivalent atomic number and exposure build-
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 25
05 Nuclear fuels (scientific, technical)
up factor. From the present investigations, it has been concluded that
the values of exposure build-up factors are very large in the medium
energy region and soil-I acts as best gamma ray shielding material
among the selected samples.
13/00157 Long-life fast breeder reactor with highly
protected Pu breeding by introducing axial inner blanket and
minor actinides
Hamase, E. et al. Annals of Nuclear Energy, 2012, 44, 87102.
A feasibility study on simultaneous approaches to the extension of core
life-time and the high protected plutonium (Pu) breeding by introdu-
cing the axial inner blanket and doping minor actinides (MAs) in a
large-scale sodium-cooling fast breeder reactor (FBR) has been
performed for mix-oxide (MOX) and metallic fuel. The maximum
available effective full power days (EFPDs) in MOX-fuelled FBR with
introducing the axial inner blanket and MA was extended from 1700 to
2900 compared with the conventional MOX-fuelled FBR. The
maximum available EFPDs in the case of metallic-fuelled FBR with
introducing the axial inner blanket and MA was extended to 5900.
Conventional attractiveness (ATTR) to evaluate the proliferation
resistance of Pu based on isotopic material barriers such as decay heat
(DH) and spontaneous fission neutron rate (SN) was modified by
taking into account bare critical mass (BCM) as Attractiveness
mod
(ATTR
mod
), which was applied to evaluate the proliferation resistance
of Pu generated in the axial inner blanket and axial/radial outer
blankets. It was found that if only a small amount (45 wt%) of MA
are doped into the axial inner blanket and axial/radial outer blanket in
both MOX and metallic fuel, the proliferation resistance of Pu was
increased to satisfy the criteria of practically unusable for an explosive
device proposed by Pellaud and technically unfeasible for a high-
technology hypothetical nuclear explosive devices (HNEDs) proposed
by Kessler and Kimura. The fissionable Pu inventory ratio (FPIR),
defined as the ratio of inventory of
238
Pu,
239
Pu and
241
Pu at the
beginning of cycle (BOC) to that at the given irradiation time, was
introduced to survey the breeding characteristics of FBR. FPIR at the
end of cycle (EOC) in MOX-fuelled FBR with doping MA into the
axial inner blanket and axial/radial outer blankets was increased from
1.008 to 1.168 compare with the conventional MOX-fuelled FBR. In
addition, FPIR at EOC in metallic-fuelled FBR with doping MA into
the axial inner blanket and axial/radial outer blankets was increased to
1.263. In the present study, the feasibility of simultaneous approaches
to the extension of core life-time and the high protected Pu breeding
has been confirmed by the introduction of the axial inner blanket and
MA doping.
13/00158 MACROS benchmark calculations and analysis of
fission gas release in MOX with high content of plutonium
Lemehov, S. E. et al. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 2012, 57, 117124.
This paper focuses on the modelling of fission gas release in mixed
oxide fuel. In a first part, the irradiation experiment, conducted by the
Japanese nuclear energy safety organization on high enriched mixed
oxide fuel, is outlined. In a second part, the approach for fission gas
release modelling, as implemented in the fuel performance code
MACROS, is explained and a comparison between calculated and
experimental results is made. The code MACROS is conceived to
provide not only integral (rod average) results on fission product and
fission gas retention and release, but also to calculate local concen-
trations (radial profiles). In this way, it is possible to compare results
from post-irradiation examinations with calculated profiles.
13/00159 MAX phase carbides and nitrides: properties for
future nuclear power plant in-core applications and neutron
transmutation analysis
Hoffman, E. N. et al. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2012, 244, 1724.
A family of ternary carbides and nitrides, known as MAX phases,
combine attractive properties of both ceramics and metals, and has
been suggested for potential nuclear reactor applications. The
unirradiated materials properties of importance for in-core structural
materials and as fuel pellet coatings for several leading MAX phase
materials have been summarized from literature. The materials show
high mechanical damage tolerance in terms of creep, thermal/
mechanical fatigue and fracture resistance, and very good chemical
compatibility with select coolants such as molten lead and sodium.
Neutron activation has been calculated for commercial purity materials
exposed to both idealized fast and thermal reactor neutron spectra for
10, 30, and 60 years of exposure. The specific activities of Ti
3
SiC
2
,
Ti
3
AlC
2
, and Ti
2
AlC were compared to those of SiC and Alloy 617, two
leading candidate materials for next generation reactor components.
The specific activities of MAX phases were similar to SiC and three
orders of magnitude less than Alloy 617 after 1060 years decay for all
three activation times in both the fast and thermal spectra. As with SiC,
the main radioisotopes after a decay period of 10 years for all three
activation times in the MAX phases are tritium and
14
C. Neutron
irradiation results of Ti
3
SiC
2
, Ti
3
AlC
2
, and Ti
2
AlC experimentally
confirmed the neutron transmutation analysis.
13/00160 Multidimensional multiphysics simulation of
nuclear fuel behavior
Williamson, R. L. et al. Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2012, 423, (13),
149163.
Nuclear fuel operates in an environment that induces complex multi-
physics phenomena, occurring over distances ranging from inter-atomic
spacing to metres, and times scales ranging from microseconds to years.
This multiphysics behaviour is often tightly coupled and many impor-
tant aspects are inherently multidimensional. Most current fuel
modelling codes employ loose multiphysics coupling and are restricted
to 2D axisymmetric or 1.5D approximations. This paper describes a
new modelling tool able to simulate coupled multiphysics and multi-
scale fuel behaviour, for either 2D axisymmetric or 3D geometries.
Specific fuel analysis capabilities currently implemented in this tool are
described, followed by a set of demonstration problems which include a
10-pellet light water reactor fuel rodlet, three-dimensional analysis of
pellet clad mechanical interaction in the vicinity of a defective fuel
pellet, coupled heat transfer and fission product diffusion in a TRISO-
coated fuel particle, a demonstration of the ability to couple to lower-
length scale models to account for material property variation with
microstructural evolution, and a demonstration of the tools ability to
efficiently solve very large and complex problems using massively-
parallel computing. A final section describes an early validation
exercise, comparing simulation results to a light water reactor fuel
rod experiment.
13/00161 New considerations on the kinetics of mass
transfer in sodium fast reactors: an attempt to consider
irradiation effects and low temperature corrosion
Brissonneau, L. Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2012, 423, (13), 6778.
Mass transfer in sodium fast reactors (SFRs) has been extensively
studied in the past, but no consideration on the effect of irradiation on
this phenomenon was included in the corrosion equations. Moreover,
some discrepancies exist on the mass loss rates obtained at low
temperatures and low oxygen content. In this paper, new equations for
mass loss are proposed from literature examination, separating the loss
by preferential leaching (alloy element dissolution) from general
corrosion, and integrating the effect of the diffusion enhancement by
irradiation. The effect of irradiation is considered by estimating the
diffusion coefficient enhancement due to point defect creation. It is
found that the mass losses could be one order of magnitude higher than
the values given by several mass transfer models. Depending on the
choice of kinetic parameters, the irradiation can account at the most
for 70% of the increase. This approach shows that mass transfer codes
should take into account elements that were formerly neglected: low
temperature corrosion (with correct contributions of preferential
leaching and general corrosion), irradiation and saturation.
13/00162 Reactivity cost for different top reflector materials
in miniature neutron source reactors
Albarhoum, M. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 2012, 58, 3944.
The cost of reactivity of the top reflector in miniature neutron source
reactors (MNSRs) was investigated based on the market prices. A
three-dimensional model for the reactor components was used. Three
reflectors were compared, namely: graphite, beryllium and heavy water.
The average cost of reactivity revealed to be minimum for graphite
(maximum value of US$3.92/mk), while the second cheapest reflector
resulted to be beryllium up to the price of $650/kg. Heavy water can
compete with beryllium only for higher prices of beryllium. The best
reflector for MNSRs results to be graphite from the economy and
safety points of view.
13/00163 Remaining life prediction of I&C cables for
reliability assessment of NPP systems
Santhosh, T. V. et al. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2012, 245, 197
201.
Instrumentation and control (I&C) cables are one of the most
important components in nuclear power plants (NPPs) because they
provide power to safety-related equipment and also to transmit signals
to and from various controllers to perform safety operations. I&C
cables in NPP are subjected to a variety of aging and degradation
stressors that can produce immediate degradation or aging-related
mechanisms causing the degradation of cable components over time.
Although, there exits several life estimation techniques, currently there
is no any standard methodology or an approach toward estimating the
time dependent reliability of I&C cables that can be directly used in
probabilistic safety assessment applications. Hence, the objective of
this study is to develop an approach to estimate and confirm the
continued acceptable margin in cable insulation life over time sub-
jected to aging. This paper presents a framework based on the struc-
tural reliability theory to quantify the life time of I&C cable subjecting
to thermal aging. Since cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables are
extensively being used in Indian NPPs, the remaining life time evalu-
ations have been carried out for a typical XLPE cable. However, the
methodology can be extended to other cables such as polyvinyl
26 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
05 Nuclear fuels (scientific, technical)
chloride, ethylene propylene rubber, etc. It is clear from the results that
with a few sets of accelerated life testing data on a typical XLPE cable
the remaining life can be estimated from the developed methodology.
The behaviour of insulation resistance when the degradation process is
linear or exponential has been modelled. Also, the time dependent
probability of failure model has been developed in order to account for
time-dependent degradation. The degradation rate considered in this
study is only for illustration. However, the actual degradation rate
should be considered when performing reliability analysis of specific
cable systems. The reliability index or probability of failure obtained
from this framework can be directly used in system reliability analysis
to account for cable aging. The proposed methodology can be extended
to other degradation mechanisms such as humidity, voltage, etc.
13/00164 Synergistic effects of local strain-hardening and
dissolved oxygen on stress corrosion cracking of 316NG
weld heat-affected zones in simulated BWR environments
Lu, Z. et al. Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2012, 423, (13), 2839.
Stress corrosion cracking growth during long-term test in high
temperature water was monitored in two 316NG weld heat-affected
zones representing highly hardened and medially hardened regions.
Cracking near the weld fusion line exhibited both macroscopic
bifurcation and extensive microscopic branching, which was faster
than that in the medially hardened region where crack kinking was
observed. There is an interaction between material hardening and
dissolved oxygen on crack growth. The effect of a single overloading on
crack growth in 316NG heat-affected zones is less significant than that
in a cold-worked 316NG stainless steel.
13/00165 Time-dependent corrosion product activity
in a typical PWR due to changes in coolant chemistry
for long-term fuel cycles
Malik, J. I. et al. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 2012, 58, 100107.
Extended fuel cycles with 1824-month duration have complicated
effects on primary coolant chemistry and finding optimum pH
concentration range is difficult. For extended burnup cycles, study of
changes in coolant activity due to corrosion products have been carried
out for a typical pressurized water reactor (PWR) under pH and boric
acid variations for linearly as well as non-linearly accelerating
corrosion rates. The computer program CPAIR-P has been modified
to accommodate for time-dependent corrosion coupled with the effects
of coolant chemistry. Results for
24
Na,
56
Mn,
59
Fe,
60
Co and
99
Mo show
that the specific activity in primary loop approaches equilibrium value
under normal operating conditions fairly rapidly. During reactor
operation, predominant corrosion product activity is due to
56
Mn and
after shutdown cobalt activity dominates. These simulations suggest
that the effect of increase in pH value for an extended 24-month cycle
on specific activity in the form of a decrease in the activity smeared by a
linearly rising corrosion. The new saturation values for activity at the
end of cycle are lower (-50%) than a reactor operated at constant low
pH/natural boric acid in coolant. For linearly accelerated corrosion and
an increase in pH value, the coolant activity shows an initial rise and
then it falls to a lower saturation level at the end of cycle when pH
becomes large and the activity follows the slope of corrosion rate. For
non-linear rise in corrosion rate coupled with the pH rise from 6.9 to
7.4 and use of enriched boric acid (20%40%) results in coolant
activity peak during the cycle and it also approaches much smaller
saturation values at the end of cycle when compared with the activity
for the system having constant low pH value (6.9) in the coolant. This
study shows that the use of enriched boric acid as chemical shim
actually lowers the primary coolant activity when higher pH values are
employed in coolant rather than natural boric acid. For multiple long-
term fuel cycles the corrosion product activity shows an initial rise to a
maximum value and then it fall back to low saturation values due to
high pH concentration for enriched boric acid (40%) as chemical shim.
If the removal rates of ion-exchanger are low (
I
Q
I
-100300), then the
activity builds up. However, when ion-exchanger performs well (
I
Q
I
-600900) then the overall cobalt activity remains low and saturation
value does not grow much with cycles.
13/00166 Uncertainty analysis of large break LOCA for
pressurized heavy water reactor
Trivedi, A. K. et al. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2012, 245, 180
188.
Present study involves uncertainty analysis for a large break loss of
coolant accident (LOCA) of pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR).
It is carried out for the primary safety criteria, peak clad temperature
(PCT). Aim of this analysis is to determine the 95th percentile value for
PCT during LOCA. Uncertainty quantification for PCT is done based
on three different methods: Wilks method, response surface method
followed by Monte Carlo simulation and direct Monte Carlo simulation
using Latin hypercube sampling. Results obtained by these three
methods are compared with acceptance criteria. A best estimate code,
RELAP5 MOD3.2, is selected for simulating large break LOCA in
220 MWe PHWR. Statistical analysis is carried out in MATLAB
environment.
13/00167 Zirconium alloys matrix as innovative material for
composite fuel
Savchenko, A. M. et al. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 2012, 57, 138144.
A novel class of zirconium alloys is suggested as a fuel matrix. They are
deep ternary or quaternary eutectics having relatively low melting
point, i.e. from 963 to 1133 K in comparison with pure zirconium and
intended for use as a matrix of dispersion high uranium content fuel
(CERMET and METMET) particularly for thermal reactors. For fast
reactors and MA burning, ZrTi-based alloys are proposed that have
resistant metallurgical bonds between fuel and steel cladding.
Investigations have been carried out on the structure and properties
of the alloys as well as the specific technologies of their fabrication, in
particular via induction furnace melting. The alloys may be also
produced in the amorphous state as granules and strips. It is shown
that due to their capillary properties, they might be applied in brazing
dissimilar materials. Fuel compositions were produced based on the
novel zirconium matrix alloys high uranium content. They have high
thermal conductivity and compatibility as well as 2550% higher
uranium content than for VVER and PWR fuels. Fuel pins are
fabricated by capillary impregnation method. The use of dispersion fuel
with novel zirconium matrix alloys improves neutronics characteristics
of reactor cores and might lead to extension of burn-up, low operating
temperatures and serviceability under transient conditions.
Economics, policy, supplies, forecasts
13/00168 A framework of the requirements for the
management of a nuclear fuel cycle facility
Park, H. S. et al. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 2012, 56, 9199.
This study introduces a system that can confirm whether all
requirements are satisfied, by systematically managing from the highest
design requirements to the requirements for the lowest unit devices of
the PRIDE facility through mutual relationships, and effectively traces
the influences of the requirement changes. To carry out the technology
traceability based on pyroprocess facility design data and research data,
a database system is needed that can manage an extensive amount of
data. This paper explains the procedure of developing a pyroprocess
system engineering framework and data schema established for this. To
confirm whether the technology traceability is carried out within a
reliable boundary based on the top requirements, system requirements,
sub-system requirements, and component requirements of the derived
PRIDE system, an experiment was done with an argon cooling system
as a target. As a result of verifying the validity of the technology
traceability with the sample data input, it was confirmed that, when
pyroprocess separation is designed in an inert (Ar) gas atmosphere,
from the top requirements of the pyroprocess, to the capacity and
electricity of the chiller unit, which is the unit process device composed
of an Ar cooling system, and down to the requirements for the type, can
be effectively traced.
13/00169 A novel hybrid ensemble learning paradigm for
nuclear energy consumption forecasting
Tang, L. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 432443.
In this paper, a novel hybrid ensemble learning paradigm integrating
ensemble empirical mode decomposition (EEMD) and least squares
support vector regression (LSSVR) is proposed for nuclear energy
consumption forecasting, based on the principle of decomposition and
ensemble. This hybrid ensemble learning paradigm is formulated
specifically to address difficulties in modelling nuclear energy
consumption, which has inherently high volatility, complexity and
irregularity. In the proposed hybrid ensemble learning paradigm,
EEMD, as a competitive decomposition method, is first applied to
decompose original data of nuclear energy consumption (i.e. a difficult
task) into a number of independent intrinsic mode functions (IMFs) of
original data (i.e. some relatively easy subtasks). Then LSSVR, as a
powerful forecasting tool, is implemented to predict all extracted IMFs
independently. Finally, these predicted IMFs are aggregated into an
ensemble result as final prediction, using another LSSVR. For
illustration and verification purposes, the proposed learning paradigm
is used to predict nuclear energy consumption in China. Empirical
results demonstrate that the novel hybrid ensemble learning paradigm
can outperform some other popular forecasting models in both level
prediction and directional forecasting, indicating that it is a promising
tool to predict complex time series with high volatility and irregularity.
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 27
05 Nuclear fuels (economics, policy, supplies, forecasts)
13/00170 A tsunami PSA methodology and application for
NPP site in Korea
Kim, M. K. and Choi, I. K. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2012, 244,
9299.
A methodology of tsunami probabilistic safety assessment (PSA) was
developed in this study. A tsunami PSA consists of tsunami hazard
analysis, tsunami fragility analysis and system analysis. In the case of
tsunami hazard analysis, evaluation of tsunami return period is a major
task. For the evaluation of tsunami return period, numerical analysis
and empirical method can be applied. In this study, tsunami return
period was evaluated by empirical method using historical tsunami
record and tidal gauge record. For performing a tsunami fragility
analysis, tsunami fragility analysis was established and target equip-
ment and structures for investigation of tsunami fragility assessment
were selected. A sample fragility calculation was performed for the
equipment in a nuclear power plant (NPP). In the case of system
analysis, the accident sequence of the tsunami event is developed
according to the tsunami run-up and draw down, and the tsunami-
induced core damage frequency is determined. For the application to
the real NPP, the Ulchin 56 NPP which is located on the east coast of
the Korean peninsula was selected. Through this study, a whole
tsunami PSA working procedure was established and an example
calculation was performed for one of real NPP in Korea. But for a
more accurate tsunami PSA result, further research is needed to
evaluate the hydrodynamic force, effect of debris, structural failure
probability of breakwater structure and intake structure, functional
failure criteria for offsite power.
13/00171 Ageing probabilistic safety assessment network
recent developments
Nitoi, M. and Rodionov, A. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 2012, 56,
7178.
This paper presents the recent results obtained from the Joint
Research CentreInstitute for Energy institutional project Use of
Probabilistic Safety Assessment for Evaluation of Ageing Effects. The
project started in 2004, having as participants, organizations (utilities,
regulatory authorities, research and technical support organizations)
from the European Union, Switzerland, Russia, Armenia and Korea.
The network intends to contribute to the understanding and assess-
ment of ageing effects on the performances of the plants, and to
promote the use of probabilistic safety assessments for ageing
management and for risk-informed decisions.
13/00172 Application of probabilistic modelling to the
lifetime management of nuclear boilers in the creep regime:
Part 1
Holt, R. J. and Bradford, R. A. W. International Journal of Pressure
Vessels and Piping, 2012, 95, 4855.
Monte Carlo probabilistic simulation has been applied to a large
population of nominally identical components in an AGR boiler
operating in the creep regime. The components have a history of
defectiveness. The R5 procedure is used to calculate creep-fatigue
crack growth rates within a probabilistic programme. The inspection
process is also modelled probabilistically. The overall result is a
prediction of past inspection results which can be used to tune the
parameters of the model. The model then makes genuine predictions of
the required level of remediations in future overhauls by predicting the
inspection results. The probabilistic treatment of both the structural
calculations and the inspection process jointly has been shown to assist
in clarifying the interpretation of the inspections and ascertaining the
true state of the plant.
13/00173 Comparison of carbon dioxide and nuclear waste
storage costs in Lithuania
Streimikiene, D. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16,
(5), 24342445.
Nuclear power and carbon capture and storage (CCS) are key
greenhouse gas mitigation options under consideration across the
world. Both technologies imply long-term waste management chal-
lenge. Geological storage of carbon dioxide (CO
2
) and nuclear waste
has much in common, and valuable lessons can be learnt from a
comparison. Seeking to compare these technologies economic, social
and environmental criteria need to be selected and expressed in terms
of indicators. Very important issue is costs and economics of geological
storage of carbon dioxide and nuclear waste. The costs of storage are
one of the main indicators for assessment of technologies in terms of
economic criteria. The paper defines the costs of the geological storage
of CO
2
and nuclear waste in Lithuania, drawing also on insights from
other parts of the world. The costs of carbon dioxide and nuclear waste
storage are evaluated in US/kWh and compared. The paper critically
compares the characteristics and location of the both sources of and
storage options for CO
2
and nuclear waste in Lithuania. It discusses the
main costs categories for carbon dioxide and nuclear waste storage.
The full range of potential geological storage options is considered and
the most reliable options for carbon dioxide and nuclear waste are
selected for the comparative costs assessment.
13/00174 Framing the national nuclear legacy at the local
level: implications for the future of federal facilities
Morrone, M. et al. Energy Policy, 2012, 43, 145152.
There are several major federal nuclear facilities located in small towns
and rural areas of the USA. While many of these facilities were
developed in the 1950s to support national defence, in the 1960s and
1970s, some of these shifted their mission to focus on national energy
infrastructure. Now, many of these facilities are in a clean-up phase,
and local communities are becoming increasingly engaged in influen-
cing decisions about the future of the sites. Communicating with the
public in rural communities is challenging when it involves a
complicated environmental issue that could have widespread economic
impacts. The local media reflect public understanding, so getting a
sense of how these media frame issues can be a crucial first step to
developing an effective community engagement strategy. A media
content analysis of one local newspaper was completed in relation to a
major federal nuclear facility. The content analysis is compared to the
results of a telephone survey in the region served by the paper and the
results suggest that there is a relationship between how the facility is
portrayed in local media and public concern. This study has important
implications for other nuclear facilities because of the role of local
citizens in decision-making.
13/00175 Monte Carlo simulation of additional safety
control rod for commercial MNSR to enhance safety
Ibrahim, Y. V. et al. Annals of Nuclear Energy, 2012, 44, 7175.
A Monte Carlo simulation of additional safety rods for NIRR-1 HEU
and LEU cores was carried out using the MCNP5 version 1.6 code.
Two additional safety control rods having the same material compo-
sition as the main central control rod except for the surface area were
studied. The following reactor core physics parameters were deter-
mined; neutron flux distribution within the core with safety rods
withdrawn, control rod (CR) worth for each rod, core excess reactivity,
shutdown margin and some kinetic parameters. Results obtained
indicate that it would be feasible to include two additional safety
control rods to improve safety level of the MNSR with little or no
modification to the existing core configuration.
13/00176 Potential improvement of CANDU NPP safety
margins by shortening the response time of shutdown
systems using FPGA based implementation
She, J. and Jiang, J. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2012, 244, 4351.
The relationship between the peak values of critical reactor variables,
such as neutronic power, inside a CANDU reactor and the speed of the
response of its shutdown system has been analysed in the event of a
large loss of coolant accident. The advantage of shortening the
response time of the shutdown action has been demonstrated in term
of the improved safety margin. A field programmable gate array
(FPGA) platform has been chosen to implement such a shutdown
system. Hardware-in-the-loop simulations have been performed to
demonstrate the feasibility of this concept. Furthermore, connections
between the speed of response of the shutdown system and the nominal
operating power level of the reactor have been drawn to support for
potential power upgrade for existing power plants.
13/00177 Regulatory failures for nuclear safety the bad
example of Japan implication for the rest of world
Wang, Q. and Chen, X. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
2012, 16, (5), 26102617.
Investigation before and after the Fukushima nuclear accident has
revealed that the failures of Japans nuclear regulatory system was also
blame to the worst nuclear accident since Chernobyl. The Fukushima
nuclear accident has served to remind us that nuclear safety regulatory
failure is vulnerable to the potentially deadly combination of natural
risk. It should be noted that nuclear regulatory failures are not unique
to Japan, given the low efficiency of the International Atomic Energy
Agency. New actions to strengthen the nuclear safety should be derived
upon a thorough assessment of the causes for Japans nuclear regula-
tory failures, as well as a comparative analysis of the nuclear regulatory
systems in Japan, the USA (the owner of most nuclear reactors in
operation), and China (the owner of most nuclear reactors under con-
struction). This article is addressed to conduct an analysis of the causes
for Japans nuclear regulatory failure, discuss the key deficits in the
nuclear regulatory systems of the USA and China, and finally outline
two main policy recommendations. Nuclear accident knows no boun-
daries. Strengthening nuclear safety regulation is not an option but an
imperative, thus ensuring that the 433 operational units of reactor run
safely, as well as 65 proposed ones.
28 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
05 Nuclear fuels (economics, policy, supplies, forecasts)
13/00178 Romanian nuclear new build: progress amidst
turbulence 19902010
Heffron, R. J. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 2012, 56, 4360.
This paper examines the progress of Romanian nuclear new build in
the turbulence that the country experienced during the twentieth cen-
tury. Despite the political, economic, and social upheaval in Romania,
it has successfully established a nuclear power program. Albeit the pace
of construction has been very slow, nevertheless it has two reactors with
good safety records and ambitious plans to further develop its nuclear
power program. This research involved using the methodology of con-
trast explanation, a methodology used to explore the factors that shape
the outcome of events in this research the outcome being the suc-
cessful development of the Romanian nuclear power program. The
research is based around interview data from leading actors in the
Romanian nuclear energy sector. The research on Romania highlights
many lessons for emerging civil nuclear energy nations of the problems,
issues and considerations that they will have to surmount to develop a
safe and operational nuclear energy plant.
13/00179 Study of a nuclear energy supplied steelmaking
system for near-term application
Yan, X. L. et al. Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 154165.
Conventional steelmaking processes involve intensive fossil fuel con-
sumption and CO
2
emission. The system resulting from this study ties a
steelmaking plant to a nuclear plant. The latter supplies the former all
energy and feedstock with the exception of iron ore. The actual design
takes on a multi-disciplinary approach: the nuclear plant employs a
proven next-generation technology of fission reactor with 950

C outlet
temperature to produce electricity and heat. The plant construction
saving and high efficiency keep the cogeneration cost down. The
steelmaking plant employs conventional furnaces but substitutes
hydrogen and oxygen for hydrocarbons as reactant and fuel. Water
decomposition through an experimentally demonstrated thermochemi-
cal process manufactures the feedstock gases required. Through
essential safety features, particular a fully-passive nuclear safety, the
design achieves physical proximity and yet operational independence of
the two plants to facilitate inter-plant energy transmission. Calculated
energy and material balance of the integrated system yields slightly
over 1000 t steel per 1 MWt yr nuclear thermal energy. The steel cost is
estimated competitive. The CO
2
emission amounts to 1% of conven-
tional processes. The sustainable performance, economical potential,
robust safety, and use of verified technological bases attract near-term
deployment of this nuclear steelmaking system.
13/00180 The requirement for proper storage of nuclear
and related decommissioning samples to safeguard
accuracy of tritium data
Kim, D. et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2012, 213214, 292298.
Large volumes of potentially tritium-contaminated waste materials are
generated during nuclear decommissioning that require accurate
characterization prior to final waste sentencing. The practice of
initially determining a radionuclide waste fingerprint for materials
from an operational area is often used to save time and money but
tritium cannot be included because of its tendency to be chemically
mobile. This mobility demands a specific measurement for tritium and
also poses a challenge in terms of sampling, storage and reliable
analysis. This study shows that the extent of any tritium redistribution
during storage will depend on its form or speciation and the physical
conditions of storage. Any weakly or moderately bound tritium (e.g.
adsorbed water, waters of hydration or crystallization) may be variably
lost at temperatures over the range 100300

C whereas for more

strongly bound tritium (e.g. chemically bound or held in mineral
lattices) the liberation temperature can be delayed up to 800

C. For
tritium that is weakly held the emanation behaviour at different
temperatures becomes particularly important. The degree of
3
H loss
and cross-contamination that can arise after sampling and before
analysis can be reduced by appropriate storage. Storing samples in
vapour tight containers at the point of sampling, the use of triple
enclosures, segregating high activity samples and using a freezer all
lead to good analytical practice.
13/00181 The role of pyro-processing in decreasing
disposal cost in Korea
Kim, S. K. et al. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 2012, 56, 714.
A comparative analysis regarding the disposal cost of HLW (high-level
waste) from 20,000-ton PWR nuclear fuel, focusing on pyro-processing
and direct disposal, was conducted in this study. A cost estimation of
the major cost drivers in disposing of pyro-processed waste revealed
that canisters would cost 67.32 MEUR and that the disposal holes and
disposal tunnels would require about 11.2 MEUR for excavation.
These estimates amount to 1/16 and 1/55 of the costs for direct disposal
of PWR spent fuels, respectively. These significant disposal cost savings
in pyro-processed radioactive waste result from a significant reduction
in the amount of radioactive waste to be disposed of thanks to the
recycling in a fast reactor.
13/00182 Uncertainty analysis in the nuclear industry:
analytical unavailability modelling incorporating ageing of
safety components
Kanc ev, D. et al. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries,
2012, 25, (3), 643649.
There is a growing interest in analysing the possibility for current
nuclear power plants operational extension. In that sense, life
management programs, considering safety components ageing, are
being developed and employed. On the other side, the large
uncertainties of the ageing parameters as well as the uncertainties
associated with most of the reliability data collections are widely
acknowledged. This paper deals with uncertainty analysis associated
with specific ageing rates database. The analysis is conducted using an
analytical unavailability model applied for a selected safety system in a
nuclear power plant. The most important problem is the immense
uncertainty associated to the component ageing data sets as well as the
lack of the very data in general, which would correspond to the more
detailed modelling of ageing. New probability distributions, encom-
passing the ageing rates available in the considered data set, are
suggested. The obtained results indicate the extent to which the
uncertainty of the considered ageing data set, given the inherently
assigned probability distribution, influences the performed unavail-
ability calculations. Additionally, comparative analysis regarding the
insights gained out of the application of the suggested probability
distributions is conducted.
06 ELECTRICAL POWER
SUPPLY AND
UTILIZATION
Scientific, technical
13/00183 Decision tree ensembles for online operation of
large smart grids
Steer, K. C. B. et al. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012, 59,
918.
Smart grids utilize omnidirectional data transfer to operate a network
of energy resources. Associated technologies present operators with
greater control over system elements and more detailed information on
the system state. While these features may improve the theoretical
optimal operating performance, determining the optimal operating
strategy becomes more difficult. This paper shows how a decision tree
ensemble or forest can produce a near-optimal control strategy in real
time. The approach substitutes the decision forest for the simulation
optimization sub-routine commonly employed in receding horizon
controllers. The method is demonstrated on a small and a large net-
work, and compared to controllers employing particle swarm optim-
ization and evolutionary strategies. For the smaller network the
proposed method performs comparably in terms of total energy usage,
but delivers a greater demand deficit. On the larger network the
proposed method is superior with respect to all measures. The paper
concludes that the method is useful when the time required to evaluate
possible strategies via simulation is high.
13/00184 Distributed microtrigeneration systems
Angrisani, G. et al. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 2012,
38, (4), 502521.
All over the world, researchers are strongly involved in the so-called
hydrogen economy scenario that expects a geographically widespread
system of production, storage, transportation and use of hydrogen.
Furthermore, the actual industrial trend towards the miniaturization of
energy conversion equipment, mainly due to reducing manufacturing
costs, results in the availability of a wide variety of small-scale power,
refrigeration and heat pump systems in the market. Very soon, small,
micro and nano mechanical and thermal devices will be used in actual
applications. In many sectors, small-scale energy conversion plants
(polygeneration, trigeneration, combined cooling heating and power)
allow for the satisfaction of different energy requirements (electricity,
cooling and heating) with a great potential for primary energy saving
and greenhouse gas emission reduction. The core of these technologies
is a prime mover based on different technologies (Stirling, reciprocat-
ing internal combustion, fuel cell, gas turbine and so on), specially
designed to operate in stationary conditions for a long time. This
operation is accompanied by high efficiency output and very low
pollutant emissions with regards to the reference separate production
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 29
06 Electrical power supply and utilization (scientific, technical)
by large thermal power stations. At the moment, the most common
technology, the gas-fired reciprocating internal combustion engine, has
very good features, e.g. in terms of installation space, thermal
efficiency, low noise and vibration and maintenance. These engines
can drive electric generators and/or electric heat pumps, absorption
heat pumps and so on in different ways (mechanically, electrically and
thermally), thereby allowing a wide range of operating conditions to
match thermal (heating and cooling) and electric end-user require-
ments. The aim of this paper is to study the energy, economic and
environmental implications of using these complex small-scale trigen-
eration energy conversion systems, starting with the results of an
intensive theoretical and experimental research activity. In particular
these systems, in comparison with conventional system, based on
separate energy production, can guarantee a primary energy saving up
to 28% and a reduction of equivalent CO
2
emissions up to 36% when
the trigeneration system is based on a small-scale cogeneration system
(micro combined heat and power) coupled to a heat pump. Satisfactory
results can be achieved considering a cogeneration system that
interacts with an electric heat pump. On the contrary, small-scale
trigeneration systems based on thermally activated heat pump show low
efficiency, with respect to conventional systems. This is due to the low
coefficient of performance of small-scale cooling devices which is the
reason why these systems require further improvements to be able to
compete with traditional one.
13/00185 Environmental regulations, induced R&D, and
productivity: evidence from Taiwans manufacturing
industries
Yang, C.-H. et al. Resource and Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 514
532.
This paper examines whether stringent environmental regulations
induce more R&D and promote further productivity in Taiwan. Using
an industry-level panel dataset for the 19972003 period, empirical
results show that pollution abatement fees, a proxy for environmental
regulations, is positively related to R&D expenditure, implying that
stronger environment protection induces more R&D. On the other
hand, pollution abatement capital expenditures do not have a statist-
ically significant influence on R&D. Further evaluation of the influence
of induced R&D by environment regulations on industrial productivity
shows a significant positive association between them. This finding
supports the Porter hypothesis that more stringent environmental
regulations may enhance rather than lower industrial competitiveness.
13/00186 Experimental results of a micro-trigeneration
installation
Angrisani, G. et al. Applied Thermal Engineering, 2012, 38, 7890.
Micro-cogeneration is a well-established technology and its deploy-
ment has been considered by the European Community as one of the
most effective measure to save primary energy and to reduce green-
house gas emissions. Micro-trigeneration systems are also gaining an
increasing interest thanks to the availability of small thermally driven
cooling systems and the increasing demand for space cooling during the
warm season. At the Built Environment Control Laboratory of Seconda
Universita` degli Studi di Napoli, a micro-cogenerator based on natural
gas fuelled reciprocating internal combustion engine that can be
coupled with a thermal-chemical absorption system has been set-up in
order to experimentally investigate the on-site performances of both
micro-cogeneration system and micro-trigeneration system under real
operating conditions. Test results recorded during winter mode
operation confirmed that MCHP system can really increase efficiency
and reduce overall greenhouse gas emissions if compared to traditional
energy conversion systems. However performed tests showed that
MCHP system efficiency is strongly affected by the user load profile;
therefore MCHP performances should be investigated in a wider range
of operating conditions and its application in conjunction with the
domestic households thermal and electrical demand profiles should be
also assessed. The experimental results achieved during winter time
operation can be summarized as follows. (1) The MCHP system is less
efficient than the conventional system and the best available
technology when the electric power supplied to the end-user is around
0.9 kW; an energy saving (PES > 0) can be reached by using MCHP
system instead of conventional system and the best available
technology while MCHP system is supplying around 5.4 kW as electric
power: maximum PES is around 19% as regards to the conventional
system, while its value is reduced to around 9% if compared to the best
available technology. (2) The MCHP system allows for a reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions while it is providing around 5.4 kW as electric
power: the maximum reduction in carbon dioxide release is around
26% if compared to the conventional system and around 22% if
compared to the best available technology. (3) The MCHP system
allows for a reduction of operating cost in the whole range of operating
conditions: if compared to the conventional system, the reduction
ranges between 6% and 30%; in comparison to the best available
technology, the MCHP allows for an operating cost reduction up to
26% while the supplied electric power is around 5.4 kW; no significant
differences between MCHP system and BAT can be highlighted while
MCHP system is providing around 0.9 kW as electric power. Data
gathered during summer time operation showed that, in comparison to
the conventional system and the best available technology, the usage of
MCCHP system implies a higher energy consumption, does not allow
for a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and is disadvantageous
from an economic point of view. Additional tests should be carried out
in order to better understand the thermal-chemical accumulator
operation, evaluate the MCCHP system performance in a wider range
of operating conditions and identify the best strategy for an efficient
MCCHP system activation.
13/00187 Flash cycle optimization of Sabalan geothermal
power plant employing exergy concept
Jalilinasrabady, S. et al. Geothermics, 2012, 43, 7582.
The Sabalan geothermal field in northwest Iran is currently under
development. A single flash cycle has been selected for power
generation. The analysis of the proposed design shows the maximum
net power output of the plant can reach 31 MW if the pressures of the
separator and condenser are 5.5 and 0.3 bar, respectively. To achieve
optimum energy utilization, a double flash cycle was also evaluated for
power generation. The results indicate the maximum net power output
of the plant reaches 49.7 MW if the pressures for the high- and low-
pressure steps and condenser are 7.5, 1.1, and 0.1 bar, respectively.
Mathematical models for energy and exergy flows were developed and
implemented in Engineering Equation Solver software. In the single
flash cycle, the energy and exergy of the waste water were calculated as
54.8% and 41.4% of the total available energy and exergy, respectively.
The energy and exergy of waste water were respectively calculated as
19.88% and 15.3% of the total available energy and exergy, in the
double flash cycle. The parts of the system with largest exergy
destruction in both cycles were compared and the overall exergy and
energy efficiencies for the power plant were calculated. The total
exergy available from production wells at Sabalan was calculated to be
111 MW for the single flash system, and 114 MW for the double flash
system. The results of the analysis suggest a double flash cycle system
for the Sabalan power plant.
13/00188 Hydrogen and power co-generation based on coal
and biomass/solid wastes co-gasification with carbon
capture and storage
Cormos, C.-C. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37, (7),
56375648.
This paper investigates the potential use of renewable energy sources
(various sorts of biomass) and solid wastes (municipal wastes, sewage
sludge, meat and bone meal, etc.) in a co-gasification process with coal
to co-generate hydrogen and electricity with carbon capture and
storage. The paper underlines one of the main advantages of
gasification technology, namely the possibility to process lower grade
fuels (lower grade coals, renewable energy sources, solid wastes etc.),
which are more widely available than the high grade coals normally
used in normal power plants, this fact contributing to the improvement
of energy security supply. Based on a proposed plant concept that
generates 400500 MW net electricity with a flexible output of 0
200 MW
th
hydrogen and a carbon capture rate of at least 90%, the
paper develops fuel selection criteria for coal blending with various
alternative fuels for optimizing plant performance, e.g. oxygen
consumption, cold gas efficiency, hydrogen production and overall
energy efficiency. The key plant performance indicators were calcu-
lated for a number of case studies through process flow simulations
(ChemCAD).
13/00189 Intelligent DE algorithm for measurement location
and PSO for bus voltage estimation in power distribution
system
Ramesh, L. et al. International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy
Systems, 2012, 39, (1), 18.
Accurate monitoring and estimating the state of the distribution system
poses an immense challenge to power engineering researchers because
of bidirectional distribution system. This paper is executed in two-stage
methodology. The initial stage is to identify the optimal location for the
installation of monitoring instrument with minimal investment cost
through DE and PSO. The second stage is to estimate the bus voltage
magnitude where real time measurement is measured through
identified meter location which is more essential for decision making
in DSCADA. The hybrid intelligent technique is applied to execute the
above two algorithms. The algorithms are tested with IEEE and TNEB
benchmark systems.
13/00190 Metrics for evaluating the impacts of intermittent
renewable generation on utility load-balancing
Tarroja, B. et al. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 546562.
This study has developed metrics to evaluate the impact of intermittent
renewable generation on the electric load demand that must be
balanced by dispatchable generation resources, allowing examination
30 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
06 Electrical power supply and utilization (scientific, technical)
of the general impacts of accommodating high renewable penetration
levels. The metrics focus on the sizing, utilization and coordination of
load balancing resources to meet the load demand in time. Insights
gained from increasing the renewable penetration level in California as
an example indicated the following. The balancing generator fleet
displayed low capacity factors at high penetration levels. At pen-
etration levels above 45% with no uninterruptable base load, surplus
generation occurred and increased exponentially. The occurrence of
daily maximum and minimum load points became increasingly
unpredictable, rendering fixed time-of-use electricity pricing inap-
propriate. Capacities of peak and base load generator type increased
and decreased, respectively. Net load variability decreased on the 24-h
timescale and increased on all shorter timescales, implying changes in
the temporal dispatch of balancing generators. The use of energy
management strategies such as energy storage was found to be
necessary in order to accommodate high renewable penetration levels
with minimal impact. The simple metrics allowed identification of key
areas to be addressed in order to accommodate high renewable
penetrations.
13/00191 Modeling and optimization of solar thermoelectric
generators for terrestrial applications
Kraemer, D. et al. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (5), 13381350.
In this paper the authors introduce a model and an optimization
methodology for terrestrial solar thermoelectric generators (STEGs).
They describe, discuss, and justify the necessary constraints on the
STEG geometry that make the STEG optimization independent of
individual dimensions. A simplified model shows that the thermoelec-
tric elements in STEGs can be scaled in size without affecting the
overall performance of the device, even when the properties of the
thermoelectric material and the solar absorber are temperature-
dependent. Consequently, the amount of thermoelectric material can
be minimized to be only a negligible fraction of the total system cost.
As an example, a Bi
2
Te
3
-based STEG is optimized for rooftop power
generation. Peak efficiency is predicted to be 5% at the standard
spectrum AM1.5G, with the thermoelectric material cost below 0.05 $/
W
p
. Integrating STEGs into solar hot water systems for cogeneration
adds electricity at minimal extra cost. In such cogeneration systems the
electric current can be adjusted throughout the day to favour either
electricity or hot water production.
13/00192 Optimal control of a residential microgrid
Kriett, P. O. and Salani, M. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 321330.
This study considers a generic mixed integer linear programming
model to find the minimum cost operating schedule of both electrical
and thermal supply and demand in a residential microgrid. The authors
quantify cost reductions that result from minimum cost control by
comparison with benchmark models on the basis of a case study. They
discuss the utilization levels of selected units to provide further insight
into the effects of minimum cost control on residential microgrid
operation. They also confirm the optimality of the presented results as
well as its robustness to changes in estimated parameters. Scheduling
home appliances and electric vehicle charging jobs subject to technical
constraints and subject to user preferences reduces annual electricity
costs of these loads by up to 30.4%. Savings increase when the electric
rate shows higher volatility and when load scheduling is restricted by
fewer constraints. The main driver of savings is the efficient generation
and sale of electricity. This explains the effect of the electric rate
scenario. Annual total operating cost of the residential microgrid is
reduced by 4.7% up to 7.6% by the minimum cost operating schedule
compared to operation in heat-led mode with no storages or demand
side management. Optimal storage control and optimal demand side
management alone reduces the annual total operating cost by 3.1% up
to 6.2%. The case study confirms that the minimum cost operation of
electrical and thermal supply and demand in a residential microgrid
can produce remarkable relative savings. Nominal savings, however,
seem to be rather small compared to the expected investments that are
necessary to allow for the automated control proposed in this study.
13/00193 Optimal reactive power dispatch for improving
voltage stability margin using a local voltage stability index
Rabiee, A. et al. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012, 59, 6673.
Management of reactive power resources is vital for stable and secure
operation of power systems in the view point of voltage stability. This
paper deals with the management of on-load tap changers (OLTCs)
and dynamic VAR sources (including synchronous generators, syn-
chronous condensers, and shunt reactive power compensators) to
improve voltage stability margin (VSM) of power systems. This
problem is usually called optimal reactive power dispatch (ORD) in
the literature. The main contribution of the paper is to introduce a new
objective function for the ORD problem. The proposed objective
function is derived based on a local voltage stability index, called DSY,
and has a strong correlation with VSM. This strong correlation makes
the objective function effective for improving VSM, which is the main
purpose of ORD. The proposed objective function is tested on the New
England 39-bus test system and its performance is compared with some
of the most common objective functions used in ORD. The obtained
results show that solving ORD problem using the proposed objective
function yields considerable increase in VSM.
13/00194 Optimization of a PV/wind micro-grid for rural
housing electrification using a hybrid iterative/genetic
algorithm: case study of Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia
Khatib, T. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 47, 321331.
This paper presents an optimization for hybrid PV/wind system based
on loss of load probability (LLP) and system cost. This paper is divided
into three main parts: optimization of PV array, wind turbine and
battery, optimum PV array tilt angle and optimization of the inverter
size. First, the optimization performed is aimed to select the optimal
capacities of the PV array and wind turbine that give minimum system
cost. However, the optimization was done using a hybrid iterative/
genetic algorithm. The iterative part of the proposed algorithm is
applied to generate a set of possible configurations for the proposed
system, while the genetic algorithm is applied to find the optimum
configuration. Second, a model for optimizing the tilt angle of the PV
array is presented based on the Liu and Jordan model. Finally, an
iterative method for optimizing the inverter size in the proposed system
is presented. The results showed that the optimum sizes of the PV
array (C
A
), wind turbine (C
s
) and storage battery (C
B
) are 1.1411,
0.7159, and 0.550, respectively, while the optimum inverters size (Rs) is
1.37. Lastly, by applying the calculated monthly optimum tilt angle, the
collected yield of the PV array is increased by 7.96%.
13/00195 Probabilistic energy and operation management
of a microgrid containing wind/photovoltaic/fuel cell
generation and energy storage devices based on point
estimate method and self-adaptive gravitational search
algorithm
Niknam, T. et al. Energy, 2012, 43, (1), 427437.
Recently, due to technology improvements, governmental incentives
for the use of green energies and rising concerns about high cost of
energy from fossil fuels, renewable energy sources (RESs) appears to
be a promising approach for producing local, clean, and inexhaustible
energy. This motivates the implementation of microgrids (MGs)
introduced as a cluster of electrical and/or thermal loads and different
RESs. Due to different uncertainties linked to electricity supply in
renewable microgrids, probabilistic energy management techniques are
going to be necessary to analyse the system. This paper proposes a
probabilistic approach for the energy and operation management
(EOM) of renewable MGs under uncertain environment. The
proposed framework consists of 2m point estimate method for covering
the existing uncertainties in the MGs and a self-adaptive optimization
algorithm based on the gravitational search algorithm (GSA) to
determine the optimal energy management of MGs. This paper
considers uncertainties in load demand, market prices and the
available electrical power of wind farms and photovoltaic systems. In
this study, a self-adaptive mutation technique is offered to enhance the
convergence characteristics of the original GSA and avoid being
entrapped into local optima. The Weibull and normal distributions are
employed to model the input random variables. Moreover, the Gram
Charlier expansion is used to find an accurate distribution of the total
energy and operational cost of MGs for the next day-ahead. The
effectiveness of the proposed method is validated on a typical grid-
connected MG including energy storage and different power generat-
ing units.
13/00196 Real-time prediction models for output power and
efficiency of grid-connected solar photovoltaic systems
Su, Y. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 319326.
This paper develops new real time prediction models for output power
and energy efficiency of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems. These models
were validated using measured data of a grid-connected solar PV
system in Macau. Both time frames based on yearly average and
monthly average are considered. It is shown that the prediction model
for the yearly/monthly average of the minutely output power fits the
measured data very well with high value of R
2
. The online prediction
model for system efficiency is based on the ratio of the predicted
output power to the predicted solar irradiance. This ratio model is
shown to be able to fit the intermediate phase (9 a.m. to 4 p.m.) very
well but not accurate for the growth and decay phases where the system
efficiency is near zero. However, it can still serve as a useful purpose
for practitioners as most PV systems work in the most efficient manner
over this period. It is shown that the maximum monthly average
minutely efficiency varies over a small range of 10.81% to 12.63% in
different months with slightly higher efficiency in winter months.
13/00197 Stochastic modeling of the energy supply system
with uncertain fuel price a case of emerging technologies
for distributed power generation
Mirkhani, S. and Saboohi, Y. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 668674.
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 31
06 Electrical power supply and utilization (scientific, technical)
A deterministic energy supply model with bottom-up structure has
limited capability in handling the uncertainties. To enhance the
applicability of such a model in an uncertain environment two main
issues have been investigated in the present paper. First, a binomial
lattice is generated based on the stochastic nature of the source of
uncertainty. Second, an energy system model has been reformulated as
a multistage stochastic problem. The result of the application of the
modified energy model encompasses all uncertain outcomes together
and enables optimal timing of capacity expansion. The performance of
the model has been demonstrated with the help of a case study. The
case study has been formulated on the assumption that a gas fired
engine competes with renewable energy technologies in an uncertain
environment where the price of natural gas is volatile. The result of
stochastic model has then been compared with those of a deterministic
model by studying the expected value of perfect information and the
value of stochastic solution. Finally the results of the sensitivity analysis
have been discussed where the characteristics of uncertainty of the
price of fuel are varied.
13/00198 Technical, mitigation, and financial comparisons
of 6 kW
e
grid-connected and stand-alone wood gasifiers,
versus mineral diesel and biodiesel generation for rural
distributed generation
McHenry, M. P. Energy, 2012, 40, (1), 428437.
This research presents a technical simulation and economic model of
three small-scale technical alternatives supplying a typical rural
homestead electricity load: a 15 kVA wood gasification unit coupled
to a 6 kW
e
modified grid-connected petrol generator; the same system
operating as a stand-alone system, and; a 6 kW
e
diesel generator, all
modelled against the electricity network in the southwest of Western
Australia. The three technical alternatives are supplemented by a
further four comparative scenarios, including zero woodgas fuel and
labour costs, generous capital and feed-in-tariff subsidies, and also the
displacement of mineral diesel with biodiesel. The results quantify
technical outputs of the systems and also the associated financial and
greenhouse gas emissions of each system and scenario. The results
indicate that significant mitigation is possible from each regional
household using woodgas technologies or biodiesel fuels, yet the
associated costs of this mitigation is extremely high when compared to
the electricity network. In light of the extremely high cost of electricity
and mitigation using small-scale bioenergy systems, governments may
consider re-allocation of small-scale grid-connected distributed energy
support mechanisms towards larger regional bioenergy projects, or risk
increasing the electricity prices for private entities and governments.
Economics, policy, supplies, forecasts
13/00199 Alternatives of seawater desalination using
nuclear power
Alonso, G. et al. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2012, 245, 3948.
Nuclear power is a clean energy alternative that is already used to
provide water and electricity and it helps to reduce concern of climate
change. The new deployments of nuclear power are based on the
generation III reactors which come in sizes from 1100 to 1700 MWe, in
addition there is a process in the very close future to provide a new
generation of small- and medium-sized reactors, less than 600 MWe.
Thus, cogeneration of electricity and potable water from desalination
can be based on big or small/medium reactors. This paper performs an
economical comparison of nuclear desalination using two pressurized
water reactor reactor type, a big one, AP1000, against a medium
reactor, IRIS. It assesses the electricity and potable water needs for the
northwest region of Mexico and presents alternatives of supply based
on cogeneration, using the three different single potable water
processes, reverse osmosis, multi-stage flash distillation and multi-
effect distillation, and two hybrid methods for different potable water
quality based on the amount of dissolved solids in the potable water.
Investment results for the specific need are presented for all the
alternatives assessed along with advantages and disadvantages.
13/00200 An annual load forecasting model based on
support vector regression with differential evolution
algorithm
Wang, J. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 6570.
Annual load forecasting is very important for the electric power
industry. As influenced by various factors, an annual load curve shows a
non-linear characteristic, which demonstrates that the annual load
forecasting is a non-linear problem. Support vector regression (SVR) is
proven to be useful in dealing with non-linear forecasting problems in
recent years. The key point in using SVR for forecasting is how to
determine the appropriate parameters. This paper proposes a hybrid
load forecasting model combining differential evolution algorithm and
support vector regression to deal with this problem, where the DE
algorithm is used to choose the appropriate parameters for the SVR
load forecasting model. The effectiveness of this model has been
proved by the final simulation which shows that the proposed model
outperforms the SVR model with default parameters, back propa-
gation artificial neural network and regression forecasting models in
the annual load forecasting.
13/00201 Application of echo state networks in short-term
electric load forecasting
Deihimi, A. and Showkati, H. Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 327340.
The paper presents the application of echo state network (ESN) to
short-term load forecasting (STLF) problem in power systems for both
1- and 24-h ahead predictions while using the least number of inputs:
current-hour load, predicted target-hour temperature and only for 24-h
ahead forecasting, day-type index. The study is much attractive due to
inclusion of weekends/holidays what makes STLF problem much more
difficult. The main aim is to show the great capabilities of ESN as a
stand-alone forecaster to learn complex dynamics of hourly electric
load time series and forecast the near future loads with high accuracies.
ESN as the state-of-the-art recurrent neural network (RNN) gains a
reservoir of dynamics tapped by trained output units with a simple and
fast single-stage training process. Furthermore, the application of ESN
to predict the target-hour temperature needed by ESN-based load
forecasters is examined. Since temperature prediction errors affect
load forecasting accuracy, effects of such errors on ESN-based load
forecasting are studied by both sensitivity analysis and applying noisy
temperature series. Real hourly load and temperature data of a North
American electric utility is used as the data set. The results reflect that
the ESN-based STLF method provides load forecasts with acceptable
high accuracy.
13/00202 Assessing the sustainability challenges for
electricity industries in ASEAN newly industrialising
countries
Vithayasrichareon, P. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
2012, 16, (4), 22172233.
Rapid social and economic progress in fast developing countries such
that among the countries in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) have driven substantial growth in electricity consumption in
this region. While this represents significant societal and economic
development, it has potentially growing adverse environmental
impacts. This raises a concern on sustainable development in the
electricity sector in this region. This study evaluates key sustainability
challenges in the electricity industries in the five largest energy
consumers in ASEAN: Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, the Philippines
and Vietnam. The 3As energy sustainability objectives: accessibility,
availability and acceptability are used as the sustainability analytical
framework. This study also draws together a set of associated indicators
and criteria within the analytical framework to analyse the status of the
electricity industries in these countries. The analysis shows that key
sustainability challenges in the ASEAN-5 are attributable to satisfying
rapid demand growth; enhancing security of electricity supply; and
mitigating the increase in CO
2
emissions from electricity generation.
Given the promising resource and technical potential in this region,
renewable energy emerges as a favourable option to address these
challenges; however, increasing the share of renewable energy in
electricity generation requires considerable policy support. This study
suggests that there is an opportunity for the ASEAN countries to
strengthen regional collaborations through experience and resource
sharing to enhance sustainability in the electricity industries. This study
also highlights some of the key issues facing the electricity industry, and
the need for new generation investment decision support tools which
can address these issues.
13/00203 Characterising domestic electricity consumption
patterns by dwelling and occupant socio-economic
variables: an Irish case study
McLoughlin, F. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 48, 240248.
This paper examines the influence of dwelling and occupant charac-
teristics on domestic electricity consumption patterns by analysing data
obtained from a smart metering survey of a representative cross-section
of approximately 4200 domestic Irish dwellings. A multiple linear
regression model was applied to four parameters: total electricity con-
sumption, maximum demand, load factor and time of use of maximum
electricity demand for a number of different dwelling and occupant
socio-economic variables. In particular, dwelling type, number of
bedrooms, head of household age, household composition, social class,
water heating and cooking type all had a significant influence over total
domestic electricity consumption. Maximum electricity demand was
significantly influenced by household composition as well as water
heating and cooking type. A strong relationship also existed between
maximum demand and most household appliances but, in particular,
tumble dryers, dishwashers and electric cookers had the greatest
influence over this parameter. Time of use for maximum electricity
32 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
06 Electrical power supply and utilization (economics, policy, supplies, forecasts)
demand was found to be strongly influenced by occupant character-
istics, head of household age and household composition. Younger
head of households were more inclined to use electricity later in the
evening than older occupants. The appliance that showed the greatest
potential for shifting demand away from peak time use was the
dishwasher.
13/00204 Comparison of extended mean-reversion and
time series models for electricity spot price simulation
considering negative prices
Keles, D. et al. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 10121032.
This paper evaluates different financial price and time series models,
such as mean reversion, autoregressive moving average (ARMA),
integrated ARMA (ARIMA) and general autoregressive conditional
heteroscedasticity (GARCH) process, usually applied for electricity
price simulations. However, as these models are developed to describe
the stochastic behaviour of electricity prices, they are extended by a
separate data treatment for the deterministic components (trend, daily,
weekly and annual cycles) of electricity spot prices. Furthermore price
jumps are considered and implemented within a regime-switching
model. Since 2008 market design allows for negative prices at the
European Energy Exchange, which also occurred for several hours in
the last years. Up to now, only a few financial and time series
approaches exist, which are able to capture negative prices. This paper
presents a new approach incorporating negative prices. The evaluation
of the different approaches presented points out that the mean
reversion and the ARMA models deliver the lowest mean root square
error between simulated and historical electricity spot prices gained
from the European Energy Exchange. These models possess also lower
mean average errors than GARCH models. Hence, they are more
suitable to simulate well-fitting price paths. Furthermore it is shown
that the daily structure of historical price curves is better captured
applying ARMA or ARIMA processes instead of mean-reversion or
GARCH models. Another important outcome of the paper is that the
regime-switching approach and the consideration of negative prices via
the new proposed approach lead to a significant improvement of the
electricity price simulation.
13/00205 Demand side management of electric car
charging: benefits for consumer and grid
Finn, P. et al. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 358363.
Ireland is currently striving to source 10% of the energy required for its
transport fleet from renewable energy sources by 2020. As part of the
measures being implemented in order to help realize this ambitious
target a number of government schemes have been introduced to
financially subsidize the purchase of alternative energy vehicles in an
effort to achieve 10% electric vehicle (EV) penetration in the countrys
road fleet by 2020. The replacement of internal combustion engine
vehicles with EV equivalents poses challenges for grid operators while
simultaneously offering opportunities in terms of distributed energy
storage and flexible load. This paper examines how optimizing the
charging cycles of an electric car using demand-side management
(DSM) based on a number of criteria could be used to achieve financial
savings, increased demand on renewable energy, reduce demand on
thermal generation plant, and reduce peak load demand. The results
demonstrate that significant gains can be achieved using currently
available market data which highlights the point that DSM can be
implemented without any further technological advents.
13/00206 Electricity futures prices: indirect storability,
expectations, and risk premiums
Huisman, R. and Kilic, M. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 892898.
The goal of this paper is to examine to what extent electricity futures
prices contain expected risk premiums or have power to forecast spot
prices and whether this might be dependent on the type of electricity
supply. The authors analyse futures prices from the Dutch market, a
market in which power is produced with storable fossil fuels, and
futures prices from the NordPool market, where electricity is mostly
produced by hydropower. They show that futures prices from markets
in which electricity is predominantly produced by imperfectly storable
fuels such as hydro, wind and solar contain information about expected
changes in the spot price of electricity, whereas futures prices from
markets in which electricity is predominantly produced with perfectly
storable fuels contain information about both expected price changes
and time-varying risk premiums. These findings provide insight in the
applicability of forward price models; one cannot apply the same model
to all electricity markets. Forward models for markets with imperfect
indirect storability should depend heavily on price expectations and
models should include time-varying risk premiums for markets with
perfect indirect storability.
13/00207 Electricity provision with intermittent sources of
energy
Ambec, S. and Crampes, C. Resource and Energy Economics, 2012, 34,
(3), 319336.
The authors analyse the interaction between a reliable source of
electricity production and intermittent sources such as wind or solar
power. They first characterize the optimal energy mix, emphasizing the
availability of the intermittent source as a major parameter for the
optimal investment in capacity. They then analyse decentralization
through competitive market mechanisms. Decentralizing the efficient
energy mix requires electricity to be priced contingently on the
availability of the intermittent source. By contrast, traditional meters
impose uniform pricing, which distorts the optimal mix of energy
sources. Decentralizing the efficient energy mix with uniform prices
requires either cross-subsidies from the intermittent source to the
reliable source of energy or structural integration of the two types of
technology.
13/00208 Electricity saving potential of the power
generation industry in China
Lin, B. et al. Energy, 2012, 40, (1), 307316.
This paper analyses the electricity saving potential of Chinas power
generation industry using the macroeconomic approach. In order to
forecast future electricity saving potential, the authors apply coin-
tegration techniques combined with risk analysis model to estimate
future (APRauxiliary power ratio) of the national power plant. It is
found that power structure, technology and AUH (annual utilization
hours) of power equipment are all important macro-factors that affect
APR. The high proportion of thermal power is the main reason for the
high APR. However, the improvements in technology and AUH help to
reduce the APR. Therefore, implementation of the replacing small
units with large ones policy and promotion of large-capacity high-
parameter units have contributed to electricity conservation in Chinas
power generation industry. With constraints of relevant energy policies,
the scenario analysis concludes that electricity saving potential at the
power generation side appears more significant and could reach over
40 TWh (terawatt-hour) in 2020. Finally, using the results of the
scenario analysis, future policy priorities for energy conservation in
Chinas power industry are assessed in this paper.
13/00209 Environmental determinants of unscheduled
residential outages in the electrical power distribution of
Phoenix, Arizona
Maliszewski, P. J. et al. Reliability Engineering & System Safety, 2012,
99, 161171.
The sustainability of power infrastructures depends on their reliability.
One test of the reliability of an infrastructure is its ability to function
reliably in extreme environmental conditions. Effective planning for
reliable electrical systems requires knowledge of unscheduled outage
sources, including environmental and social factors. Despite many
studies on the vulnerability of infrastructure systems, the effect of
interacting environmental and infrastructural conditions on the
reliability of urban residential power distribution remains an under-
studied problem. The authors model electric interruptions using outage
data between the years of 2002 and 2005 across Phoenix, Arizona,
USA. Consistent with perceptions of increased exposure, overhead
power lines positively correlate with unscheduled outages indicating
underground cables are more resistant to failure. In the presence of
overhead lines, the interaction between birds and vegetation as well as
proximity to nearest desert areas and lakes are positive driving factors
explaining much of the variation in unscheduled outages. Closeness to
the nearest arterial road and the interaction between housing square
footage and temperature are also significantly positive. A spatial error
model was found to provide the best fit to the data. Resultant findings
are useful for understanding and improving electrical infrastructure
reliability.
13/00210 Environmental pricing of externalities from
different sources of electricity generation in Chile
Aravena, C. et al. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 12141225.
The rapid increase in electricity demand in Chile means a choice must
be made between major investments in renewable or non-renewable
sources for additional production. Current projects to develop large
dams for hydropower in Chilean Patagonia impose an environmental
price by damaging the natural environment. On the other hand, the
increased use of fossil fuels entails an environmental price in terms of
air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions contributing to climate
change. This paper studies the debate on future electricity supply in
Chile by investigating the preferences of households for a variety of
different sources of electricity generation such as fossil fuels, large
hydropower in Chilean Patagonia and other renewable energy sources.
Using double bounded dichotomous choice contingent valuation, a
novel advanced disclosure method and internal consistency test are
used to elicit the willingness to pay for less environmentally damaging
sources. Policy results suggest a strong preference for renewable energy
sources with higher environmental prices imposed by consumers on
electricity generated from fossil fuels than from large dams in Chilean
Patagonia. Policy results further suggest the possibility of introducing
incentives for renewable energy developments that would be supported
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 33
06 Electrical power supply and utilization (economics, policy, supplies, forecasts)
by consumers through green tariffs or environmental premiums.
Methodological findings suggest that advanced disclosure learning
overcomes the problem of internal inconsistency in SB-DB estimates.
13/00211 Forecasting next-day electricity demand and
price using nonparametric functional methods
Vilar, J. M. et al. International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy
Systems, 2012, 39, (1), 4855.
One-day-ahead forecasting of electricity demand and price is an
important issue in competitive electric power markets. Prediction task
has been studied in previous works using, for instance, ARIMA
models, dynamic regression and neural networks. This paper provides
two new methods to address these two prediction setups. They are
based on using non-parametric regression techniques with functional
explanatory data and a semi-functional partial linear model. Functional
data non-parametric techniques have been successfully used for
electricity demand and price forecast in the Spanish market. The
semi-functional partial linear model proposed in this paper gives good
error results when compared to other complex already existing
approaches, like ARIMA models with dummy covariates and con-
sidering a variable segmentation. It is worth mentioning that for 0 _ p,
q _ 7 these ARIMA models allow for dependence up to the previous
7 days. However, the functional and semi-functional models used in
this paper only include dependence on the previous day. The
performance of the semi-functional partial linear (SFPL) model is very
competitive both for demand and price forecasting. Despite its
complexity, the SFPL model has been used in a rather simple form.
For instance, the outlier pruning has been carried out using a
straightforward technique. This study focused on point forecasts but
prediction bands can also be constructed using this functional data
approach. The model is very flexible to incorporate the effect of new
informative covariates that can enter it either in parametric (e.g. linear)
or non-parametric form. It can be easily applied to high frequency data
(e.g. 10-min data) whenever they become available. All these features
make this approach appealing and with plenty of potential for
improving.
13/00212 Intelligent control of vehicle to grid power
Khayyam, H, et al. Journal of Power Sources, 2012, 201, 19.
Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) describes a system in which plug-in electric
vehicles (PEV), which includes all electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles, utilize power by plugging into an electric power source
and stored in rechargeable battery packs. PEVs significantly increase
the load on the grid, much more than you would see in a typical
household. The objective of this paper is to demonstrate the use of
intelligent solutions for monitoring and controlling the electrical grid
when connected to and recharging PEV batteries. In order to achieve
this aim, the study examines the distribution of electricity in the power
grid of a large-scale city so that PEVs can tap into the system using
smart grid electricity. The electricity grid for the large-scale city is
modelled, and it can be shown that the vehicle electrification can play a
major role in helping to stabilize voltage and load. This developed grid
model includes 33 buses, 10 generators, three reactors, six capacitors,
and 33 consumer centres. In addition, the grid model proposes 10
parking servicing 150,000 vehicles per day. The smart grid model uses
intelligent controllers. Two intelligent controllers including (i) fuzzy
load controllers and (ii) fuzzy voltage controllers have been used in this
study to optimize the grid stability of load and voltage. The results
show that the smart grid model can respond to any load disturbance in
less time, with increased efficiency and improved reliability compared
to the traditional grid. In conclusion it is emphasized that smart grid
electricity should contribute to PEVs accessing renewable energy.
Although the V2G will play a major role in the future portfolio of
vehicle technologies, but does not make much sense if the carbon
content of the electricity generated by the grid will not be reduced.
Thus, the recourse to renewable energy and other alternatives is
crucial. The energy is stored in electrochemical power sources (such as
battery, fuel cells, supercapacitors, photoelectrochemical) when gen-
erated and then delivered to the grid during peak demand times.
13/00213 Investment appraisal of a small, grid-connected
photovoltaic plant under the Serbian feed-in tariff framework
Stevanovic , S. and Pucar, M. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 2012, 16, (3), 16731682.
The Serbian government has recently introduced the system of feed-in
tariffs (FITs) for electricity generated from renewable sources. The
proposed feed-in tariff for photovoltaic electricity is set to e0.23/kWh
paid for 12 years, with the photovoltaic (PV) electricity produced after
the first 12 years being sold at the grid electricity market price for the
rest of the plant lifetime. Although such FIT could have been justified
by the small, average retail grid electricity price of just e0.054/kWh for
Serbian households, the investment appraisal of a real case of 2.82 kWp
PV power plant in two Serbian cities of Zlatibor and Negotin, clearly
illustrates that the proposed FIT framework is not sufficient to attract
investments into PV in Serbia. The second part of the paper analyses
alternative, more reasonable FIT frameworks, with the goal of selecting
those able to sustain the PV adoption and diffusion in Serbia.
13/00214 Lurching towards markets for power: Chinas
electricity policy 19852007
Zhao, X. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 148155.
Chinas electricity industry has experienced two major stages of
development: from 1949 to 1984, the industry was treated as a
subordinate sector whose goal was to support the development of
other industrial sectors; since 1985, a series of reforms in its
governance mechanisms have been carried out. This paper applies
transaction-cost analysis to provide a new perspective on the efficiency
of these reforms, emphasizing changes in the areas of electricity prices
and investment incentives. The authors argue that the governance
reforms successfully ended the significant social welfare losses resulting
from the severe power shortages of the previous 30 years, introduced
real or potential competition, and encouraged technological progress.
However, they also led to low operational efficiency and excessive
investment in power generation plants. The empirical analysis, uses
panel regression models, shows that by 2003 the reforms led electric
capacity to increase tremendously. Meanwhile, the electricity price
reform in 1996 promoted power generation corporations more
responsive to electricity demand and price signals to some extent.
However, it cannot be proved that the electricity price reform in 2003
(and the dismantle reform at the end of 2002) affect electricity
generation corporations in the same way.
13/00215 Optimization and efficiency analysis of
polygeneration system with coke-oven gas and coal gasified
gas by Aspen Plus
Yi, Q. et al. Fuel, 2012, 96, 131140.
A new optimization method for polygeneration system integration has
been proposed in this paper. Element utilization and energy utilization
were presented as objective functions simultaneously, parameter
variations and technology conditions were performed to investigate
the influence of each unit specific operation conditions on the
performance of the system by Aspen Plus 2006. The treatment of
multi-objective values selection is discussed as well. The new
optimization method proves to be effective to solve multi-objective
optimization problems. It not only shows technologies and operating
conditions needed to be improved obviously but also provides detailed
changes of each unit performance during optimization process. With
62.3% energy efficiency, 64.8% element conversion efficiency and
56.6% CO
2
+CH
4
conversion efficiency, the optimized system shows a
better performance in considering of the thermodynamic character-
istics, element conversion and environment. And CH
4
/CO
2
reforming
process is found to be the key to element conversion and greenhouse
gas emissions reduction.
13/00216 Overview and performance assessment of the
clustering methods for electrical load pattern grouping
Chicco, G. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 6880.
In the current structure of the electricity business, distribution and
supply services have been unbundled in many jurisdictions. As a
consequence of unbundling, electricity supply to customers is now
provided on a competitive basis. In this context, the electricity suppliers
need to get accurate information on the actual behaviour of their
customers for setting up dedicated commercial offers. Customer
grouping on the basis of consumption pattern similarity is likely to
provide effective results. This paper provides an overview of the
clustering techniques used to establish suitable customer grouping,
included in a general scheme for analysing electrical load pattern data.
The characteristics of the various stages of the customer grouping
procedure are illustrated and discussed, providing links to relevant
literature references. The specific aspect of assessing the performance
of the clustering algorithms for load pattern grouping is then
addressed, showing how the parameters used to formulate different
clustering methods impact on the clustering validity indicators. It
emerges that the clustering methods able to isolate the outliers exhibit
the best performance. The implications of this result on the use of the
clustering methods for electrical load pattern grouping from the
operators point of view are discussed.
13/00217 Prioritizing sustainable electricity production
technologies: MCDM approach
Streimikiene, D. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
2012, 16, (5), 33023311.
Economic, technological, social, and political developments stressed
the need for shifts in energy-mix. Therefore it is important to provide a
rationale for sustainable decision making in energy policy. The aim of
this paper is to develop the multi-criteria decision support framework
for choosing the most sustainable electricity production technologies.
Given selection of sustainable energy sources involves many conflicting
criteria, multi-criteria decision methods MULTIMOORA and TOPSIS
34 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
06 Electrical power supply and utilization (economics, policy, supplies, forecasts)
were employed for the analysis. The indicator system covering different
approaches of sustainability was established. The analysis proved that
the future energy policy should be oriented towards the sustainable
energy technologies, namely water and solar thermal ones. It is the
proposed multi-criteria assessment framework that can constitute a
basis for further sub-regional optimization of sustainable energy policy.
13/00218 Short-term electricity prices forecasting in a
competitive market by a hybrid PSOANFIS approach
Pousinho, H. M. I. et al. International Journal of Electrical Power &
Energy Systems, 2012, 39, (1), 2935.
A hybrid intelligent approach is proposed for electricity prices
forecasting on the Spanish market. The application of the proposed
approach to price forecasting is both novel and effective. The mean
absolute percentage error (MAPE) criterion has an average value of
6.53%, while the average computation time is less than 5 s. Hence, the
proposed approach presents the best trade-off between forecasting
accuracy and computation time, taking into account the results of
previous publications.
13/00219 The dynamics of electricity consumption and
economic growth: a revisit study of their causality in
Pakistan
Shahbaz, M. and Lean, H. H. Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 146153.
This study revisits the relationship between electricity consumption and
economic growth in Pakistan by controlling and investigating the
effects of two major production factors: capital and labour. The
empirical evidence confirms the cointegration among the variables and
indicates that electricity consumption has a positive effect on economic
growth. Moreover, bidirectional Granger causality between electricity
consumption and economic growth has been found. The finding
suggests that adoption of electricity conservation policies to conserve
energy resources may unwittingly decline economic growth and the
lower growth rate will in turn further decrease the demand for
electricity. Therefore, government contemplating such conservationist
policies should instead explore and develop alternate sources of energy
as a strategy rather than just increasing electricity production per se in
order to meet the rising demand for electricity in their quest towards
sustaining development in the country.
13/00220 The impact of consumers feedback preferences
on domestic electricity consumption
Vassileva, I. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 575582.
Despite all initiatives introduced for maximizing energy savings
domestic energy consumption is in constant increase. However, very
little investigation has been carried out on the integration of house-
hold consumption trends, the parameters influencing them and the
characteristics of the provided feedback. Two thousand Swedish
households were included in this study. Electricity consumption data
for apartments and houses has been analysed for a 4-year period as well
as possible household socio-economic factors affecting it. The data
have been further compared to other households located in different
cities in Sweden. The effects of the different ways of presenting
feedback used for the different households groups have also been
evaluated. From the results obtained from the questionnaire used,
several households characteristics were proposed together with
consumers preferences to be considered during the development of
feedback. Web-based feedback resulted in being the most effective
(when compared to display and bills), achieving electricity savings of
approximately 15% within households that visited the website. The
monthly income is amongst the most influential factors determining
electricity consumption although only in high and low income groups.
07 STEAM RAISING
Boiler operation/design
13/00221 Adaptive estimator-based dynamic sliding mode
control for the water level of nuclear steam generators
Ansarifar, G. R. et al. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 2012, 56, 6170.
Steam generators (SG) are crucial components of nuclear power plant.
The proper water level control of a nuclear steam generator is of great
importance in order to secure the sufficient cooling source of the
nuclear reactor and to prevent damage of turbine blades. The water
level control problem of steam generators has been a main cause of
unexpected shutdowns of nuclear power plants which must be
considered for plant safety and availability. The control problem is
challenging, especially at low power levels due to shrink and swell
phenomena and flow measurement errors. Moreover, the dynamics of
steam generator vary as the power level changes. Therefore, it is
necessary to improve the water level control system of SG. In this
paper, an adaptive estimator-based dynamic sliding mode control
method is developed for the level control problem. The proposed
method exhibits the desired dynamic properties during the entire
output tracking process independent of perturbations. Simulation
results are presented to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed
controller in terms of performance, robustness and stability. Simulation
results confirm the improvement in transient response obtained by
using the proposed controller.
13/00222 Commercial-scale demonstration of pollutant
emission reduction and energy saving for industrial boilers
by employing water/oil emulsified fuel
Chelemuge et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 517522.
The water/oil emulsified fuel consists of base fuel oil and water doped
with or without a trace content of surface active agents. In this study,
the water/oil emulsified fuel was successfully produced without usage
of any surface active agents. An experimental study has been
implemented in an industrial steam boiler to investigate the combus-
tion characteristics of this emulsified fuel by analysing the exhaust gas
emissions and the thermal efficiency of the boiler. The experiment
demonstrated that the water/oil emulsified fuel is effective for NO
x
and
soot emission suppression as well as thermal efficiency improvement.
These effects were also demonstrated for the commercially operated
water heating boiler.
13/00223 Condensing boilers in buildings and plants
refurbishment
Lazzarin, R. M. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 47, 6167.
Condensing boilers allow better performances when return tempera-
tures from the plant are lower and above all when these temperatures
are below the dew temperature of the smoke. That is the reason why
many believe that condensing boiler is not suitable for the traditional
heating plant terminals: the radiators. Instead the classic control
system with weather compensation curve produces relatively low
temperatures and an appreciable condensing operation during March,
April, October and November. Moreover, condensing boilers allow a
better performance than traditional boiler even when they do not
perform condensing operation. However for the optimum exploitation
of condensing boilers in a radiator plant, variable-flow-rate plants
should be selected that permit every outside condition to maintain a
high difference between delivery and return temperature. This control
selection, which is fully consistent with the use of thermostatic valves,
needs variable-flow-rate pumps and, if possible, with proportional
head.
13/00224 Correlation of the corrosion rates of steels in a
straw fired boiler with the thermodynamically predicted
trend of KOH(g) in the flue gases
Blomberg, T. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 39, 489493.
The thermodynamic stability of KOH(g) in flue gases without sulfur
and chlorine compounds was studied. Relatively good correlation of
the thermodynamically predicted trend of KOH(g) in the flue gases
and the literature data of the corrosion rates of different steels in a
straw fired boiler was found. A discussion on a possible, physically
reasonable mechanism is also presented. However, the causality of the
found correlation requires further studies.
13/00225 Direct injection of superheated steam for
continuous hydrolysis reaction
Wang, W.-C. et al. Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process
Intensification, 2012, 59, 5259.
The primary intent for previous continuous hydrolysis studies was to
minimize the reaction temperature and reaction time. In this work,
hydrolysis is the first step of a proprietary chemical process to convert
lipids to sustainable, drop-in replacements for petroleum based fuels.
To improve the economics of the process, attention is now focused on
optimizing the energy efficiency of the process, maximizing the
reaction rate, and improving the recovery of the glycerol by-product.
A laboratory-scale reactor system has been designed and built with this
goal in mind. Sweet water (water with glycerol from the hydrolysis
reaction) is routed to a distillation column and heated above the
boiling point of water at the reaction pressure. The steam pressure
allows the steam to return to the reactor without pumping. Direct
injection of steam into the hydrolysis reactor is shown to provide
favourable equilibrium conditions resulting in a high-quality FFA
product and rapid reaction rate, even without preheating the inlet
water and oil and with lower reactor temperatures and lower fresh
water demand. The high enthalpy of the steam provides energy for the
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 35
07 Steam raising (boiler operation/design)
hydrolysis reaction. Steam injection offers enhanced conditions for
continuous hydrolysis of triglycerides to high-purity streams of FFA
and glycerol.
13/00226 Experimental gas/particle flow characteristics of
a down-fired 600 MW
e
supercritical utility boiler at different
staged-air ratios
Kuang, M. et al. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 411423.
To acquire the gas/particle flow characteristics of an in-assembly down-
fired 600-MW
e
supercritical utility boiler, experiments were conducted
by using particle dynamics anemometer (PDA) measurement within a
two-phase small-scale model at various staged-air ratio settings (i.e.
0%, 6%, and 12%). The mean velocity, particle volume flux and
particle number concentration along several cross sections, were
discussed well in the present work, in addition to the decay and
trajectories of the downward gas/particle flow. For all three settings,
asymmetric gas/particle flow characteristics appeared in the lower
furnace, with the gas/particle flow in the front-half furnace penetrating
greatly further and occupying much more furnace volume than that in
the rear-half furnace. The longitudinal-velocity components are clearly
higher near the front wall than near the rear wall. Decreasing the
staged-air ratio can only weaken the gas/particle flow asymmetries to
some extent. An estimation on the furnace performance, i.e. severe
asymmetric combustion, low burnout, and high NO
x
emissions, is given
out for the boilers commercial operation in the near future.
13/00227 Modeling of heat transfer coefficient in the
furnace of CFB boilers by artificial neural network approach
Krzywanski, J. and Nowak, W. International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer, 2012, 55, (1516), 42464253.
The present work introduces a way of predicting the local heat transfer
coefficient in the combustion chamber of the circulating fluidized bed
boiler (CFB) by the artificial neural network (ANN) approach. Neural
networks have been successfully applied to calculate the local overall
heat transfer coefficient for membrane walls, Superheater I (SH I,
Omega Superheater) and Superheater II (SH II, Wing-Walls) in the
combustion chamber of the 260 MWe CFB boiler. The previously
verified numerical model has been used to obtain the overall heat
transfer coefficients, necessary for training and testing the ANN. It has
been shown, that the neural networks give quick and accurate results as
an answer to the input pattern. The local heat transfer coefficients
evaluated using the developed ANN model have been in a good
agreement with numerical and experimental results.
13/00228 Numerical investigation of the heat transfer and
fluid flow in a carbon monoxide boiler
Yeh, C. L. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2012, 55,
(1314), 36013617.
A numerical investigation of the heat transfer and fluid flow in a
carbon monoxide (CO) boiler is presented. The influences of some
important parameters related to the geometry of a CO boiler are also
discussed, including the refractory thickness and the insertion of an
ellipsoidal cone. The purpose is to improve the performance of a CO
boiler, especially to alleviate hot spots, which may lead to deterioration
of the refractory. It is found that the skin friction coefficient arises
earlier in the DeNOx section when the refractory is thinner. Refractory
thickening leads to a lower temperature in the DeNOx section. After
leaving the DeNOx section, the temperature reduces due to the cooling
pipes and the skin friction coefficient arises abruptly near the cooling
pipes. It is also found that insertion of an ellipsoidal cone can lower the
temperature in the DeNOx section and there is a larger skin friction
coefficient with a larger ellipsoidal cone angle. After leaving the
DeNOx section, the skin friction coefficient and the temperature both
decrease. Finally, based on the result of this research and from a
practical point of view, refractory thickening is a preferable choice for
reducing friction, pressure drop and temperature in a CO boiler.
13/00229 Signal processing schemes for eddy current
testing of steam generator tubes of nuclear power plants
Tian, S. et al. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2012, 245, 7888.
In this paper, signal processing schemes developed for upgrading the
eddy current testing system utilized for in-service inspection of steam
generator (SG) tubes of a fast breeder reactor nuclear power plant are
presented. Schemes for the wobbling noise recognition, signal
indication extraction, defect signal classification, and the separation
of mixed signals are proposed, and are applied to both signals
measured in a SG mock-up and signals measured with short tube
test-pieces in a laboratory environment. The signal indications are
extracted based on a wavelet decomposition and threshold value
approach in addition with the signal similarity and signal distance
information in case of support plate signals. As it is possible for the
position of a signal point to be adjusted based on the signature of the
support plates, signals of a welding joint or a bending zone can be
recognized based on the design or/and manufactory information. The
mixed signals of defects and support plate are processed with the
similarity analysis strategy and the identification of defect signals is
performed by means of both a neural network approach and a statistic
method. Satisfactory extraction and classification results are obtained
for all the measured signals, which validated the efficiency of the
proposed schemes.
08 COMBUSTION
Burners, combustion systems
13/00230 A comprehensive study of methyl decanoate
pyrolysis
Pyl, S. P. et al. Energy, 2012, 43, (1), 146160.
The thermal decomposition of methyl decanoate (MD) was studied in a
bench-scale pyrolysis set-up equipped with a dedicated on-line analysis
section including a GCGC-FID/(TOF-MS). This analysis section
enables quantitative and qualitative on-line analyses of the entire
reactor effluent with high level of detail including measurement of
formaldehyde and water. The reactor temperature was varied from 873
to 1123 K at a fixed pressure of 1.7 bar and a fixed residence time of
0.5 s, for both high (10 mol
N2
/mil
MD
) and low (0.6 mol
N2
/mil
MD
)
nitrogen dilution. Thus covering a wide conversion range in both
dilution regimes. In these experiments, significant amounts of large
linear olefins and unsaturated esters were observed at lower
temperatures, the amounts of which decreased at higher temperatures
in favour of permanent gasses (CO, CO
2
, CH
4
) and light olefins. At the
highest temperatures more than 5 wt% of mono-aromatic and poly-
aromatic components were observed. The acquired dataset was used to
validate three recently published microkinetic models which were
developed to model oxidation and/or pyrolysis of methyl decanoate.
The results showed that these models accurately predict the product
distribution, although important discrepancies were observed for some
major products such as certain unsaturated esters, CO
2
and H
2
O.
Reaction path analyses and CBS-QB3 quantum-chemical calculations
are presented and discussed in order to explain the observed
differences.
13/00231 Acoustic enhancement of heat transfer in furnace
tubes
Dhanalakshmi, N. P. et al. Chemical Engineering and Processing:
Process Intensification, 2012, 59, 3642.
Enhancement of heat transfer from a heat source to a flowing fluid
within a tube is a challenging problem with many practical applications.
In this paper, experimental investigation of a low-frequency (20
33 kHz), high-intensity (5001000 W) ultrasonic field as a potential
heat-transfer process intensifier is undertaken. Heat-transfer en-
hancement data collected in a miniaturized furnace tube over a range
of flow conditions and ultrasonic process parameters indicate that
sonication provides significant augmentation only under near-static
(e.g. stagnant) and low-Reynolds number flow conditions. With
increasing flow velocity, cavitational and acoustic-streaming fields
associated with ultrasound are rapidly diminished in importance, hence
playing no role in bulk fluid heat transfer (unless input power levels or
frequencies are suitably increased). However, the relevance to some
locations, such as those under porous deposits in water-wall tubes of
boilers near the goose-neck portion, can spur further study to exploit
the impact of ultrasonic heat-transfer enhancement. The critical
parameter that determines the efficacy of ultrasonic enhancement of
heat transfer appears to be the ratio of the characteristic ultrasonic
field velocity (sum of cavitational and acoustic streaming velocities) to
the prevailing flow velocity.
13/00232 Analysis of particle heating and devolatilization
during rapid coal pyrolysis in a thermal plasma reactor
Yan, B. et al. Fuel Processing Technology, 2012, 100, 110.
Using thermal plasma for coal pyrolysis to acetylene provides a direct
route to make chemicals from coal resources, where the temperature
field in the reactor plays a dominant role in the performance of coal
devolatilization. A comprehensive computational fluid dynamics with
discrete phase model (CFD-DPM) has been established to describe the
rapid coal pyrolysis process in a reactor under ultra-high temperatures.
The simulations based on this model helped to understand the complex
gasparticle reaction behaviour in the millisecond process of coal
pyrolysis. The particle-scale physics such as the heat conduction inside
solid materials, diffusion of released volatile gases, coal devolatiliza-
tion, and tar cracking reactions were incorporated. The improved
chemical percolation devolatilization model was applied to describe the
36 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
08 Combustion (burners, combustion systems)
devolatilization behaviour of rapidly heated coal based on the physical
and chemical transformations of the coal structure. This model was
proved to be qualified for describing the complex gasparticle reaction
behaviour with milliseconds residence time by the operation experience
of a 5-MW plasma reactor. Then the simulations revealed the fact that
the particle heating and devolatilization are strongly affected by the
grade of the temperature and the residence time of coal particles in the
high temperature zone(s). Highly concentrated energy input in the
reactor may not intensify the reactor performance. As a potential
solution, multi-stage heating design would provide more flexibilities to
effectively adjust the devolatilization performances under the same
energy input.
13/00233 Characterizing sooting propensity in biofuel
diesel flames
Tran, M. K. et al. Combustion and Flame, 2012, 159, (6), 21812191.
As the worlds oil reserves are limited, and as a partial mitigation of
greenhouse gas emission, renewable biofuels are being considered as
important contributors to the future fuel supply for the transportation
sector. The combustion of biofueldiesel mixtures in practical engines
has been shown to be not only feasible but also favourable due to low
particulate emission characteristics. This paper demonstrates quantifi-
able sooting propensity of biofueldiesel fuel blends using classical
smoke point observations and laser induced-incandescence and laser
extinction optical methods. In particular, mixtures of 025% by volume
of soybean biofuel in ultra-low sulfur diesel were studied. Following the
ASTM D1322 standard, it was found that the maximum flame height at
the smoke point condition increases linearly with increasing biofuel
fraction. An alternative sooting propensity measurement is needed,
however, because high biofuel/diesel blends do not produce a smoke
point in the standard wick-fed lamp procedure. Using a fixed flame
height, laser-based measurements are generally consistent with smoke
point trends, and laser extinction calibrations provide quantitative
soot volume fractions. The results show the greatest soot concentration
for pure diesel fuel, B0, and the least for a 20% blend by volume of
biofuel, B20.
13/00234 Chemical looping combustion of low-ash and
high-ash low rank coals using different metal oxides
a thermogravimetric analyser study
Saha, C. and Bhattacharya, S. Fuel, 2012, 97, 137150.
Multiple redox experiments have been performed in a thermogravi-
metric analyser with well-characterized iron and nickel oxide to assess
their reactivity with low-ash Victorian brown coal as fuel, and nitrogen,
air, CO
2
and steam as combustion and gasification atmosphere. In
addition, a high-ash lignite was used as fuel to compare its performance
with the Victorian brown coal. The results show good performance of
iron oxide as oxygen carrier over multiple cycles. However, NiO, a good
oxygen carrier for gaseous fuel, shows progressively less reactivity over
the multiple cycles. It has been observed that both the metal oxides can
initiate the reduction reaction as low as 400

C under different experi-

mental condition. Five reductions and oxidations (redox) cyclic
experiments reveal 87% combustion of Fe
2
O
3
and coal mixture under
CO
2
atmosphere at the end of the fifth cycle. However, the same for
NiO is 67%. Metal oxide and coal solid mixture mass during redox
experiments have been compared with thermodynamic predictions in
similar experimental conditions. A continuous mass loss trend for NiO
has been observed different from the thermodynamic predictions.
13/00235 Coal flame characterization by means of digital
image processing in a semi-industrial scale PF swirl burner
Gonzalez-Cencerrado, A. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 375384.
The potential of a new procedure of image processing for the
characterization of a given combustion state through flame visualiza-
tion is here presented and discussed. Experimental tests were carried
out in a swirl-stabilized, semi-industrial scale burner of 500 kW
th
. Using
an advanced vision based system, flame images have been recorded and
subsequently processed, obtaining both luminous and spectral par-
ameters from the grey values registered by each individual pixel. The
acquisition system is based on a CCD (charge-coupled device) camera
of high-speed frame rate. The innovative nature of the analysis lies in
the 2D distribution of statistical and oscillatory parameters which can
be interpreted as a fingerprint of the flame condition. By this method,
flame spatial characterization was achieved allowing the identification
of areas with different luminous and oscillating patterns. Their
evolution regarding primary air-to-fuel ratio was also studied. First
results suggest changes on flame symmetry and oscillation regimen.
Additionally, quantitative flame analysis through global values of
selected parameters and regression studies were conducted in order to
analyse their usefulness for the development of monitoring and control
algorithms in the combustion facility.
13/00236 Combustion study of partially gasified willow and
DDGS chars using TG analysis and COMSOL modeling
Meng, X. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 39, 356369.
The combustion behaviour of dried distillers grains with solubles
(DDGS) and willow chars, which were obtained from these fuels
gasification on a 100 kW
th
steam-O
2
blown circulating fluidized bed
(CFB) gasifier, and pure charcoal was studied using thermogravimetric
analysis (TGA) under both isothermal and non-isothermal conditions.
The effects of combustion temperature (400600, 750900

C), O
2
concentration (7.5, 10, 15, 21 vol.%), and heating rate (10, 30,
50

Cmin
1
) on the char-O
2
reaction rate were studied. A three-
dimensional (3D) TG furnace model was built using COMSOL
Multiphysics software to understand better temperature and velocity
profiles within the furnace. Char combustion rate increased with
increasing O
2
concentrations or temperatures. Within the temperature
range of 750900

C, it was impossible to determine combustion kinetic

parameters of DDGS and willow chars, but it was well possible for
charcoal under 15 vol.% O
2
(Ea ca.120 kJ mol
1
using the SCM).
Within the temperature range of 450600

C, the Ea value obtained

from DDGS char combustion was around 60 kJ mol
1
using the VRM,
while it appeared to be impossible to determine properly combustion
kinetic parameters of willow char probably due to its high reactivity.
With increasing heating rate, the combustion of three chars occurred in
a wider temperature range, and higher Ea values were obtained at lower
conversion rates. Results predicted from the 3D TG furnace model
agreed fairly well with the experimental ones. The velocity profile
within the furnace was affected by the furnace temperature and vice
versa, and they both were affected by the heat produced from char
combustion as well.
13/00237 Condensed rotational separation of CO
2
van Benthum, R. J. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 457465.
Condensed rotational separation is a technique in which flue gas is
cleaned by condensation of the CO
2
and mechanical centrifugal
separation. It requires partial purification of CO
2
to concentrations
above 50% in the flue gas, prior to separation. This purification can be
realized with existing techniques like oxygen-enriched coal combustion
or CO
2
separating membranes. Combined with a partial enrichment
technique, condensed rotational separation provides an answer that
can compete with promising conventional techniques for CO
2
capture,
like oxy-fuel combustion or amine absorption. These conventional
techniques produce a waste stream with a high CO
2
purity that can be
compressed to supercritical pressure for transport and storage. It is
shown that the energy consumption of condensed rotational separation
is only slightly more than gas compression of a sequestration stream
resulting from conventional separation techniques. The net result is
that the total energy consumption becomes less because of the savings
due to partial oxygen/CO
2
enrichment.
13/00238 Differentiation of charcoal, soot and diagenetic
carbon in soil: method comparison and perspectives
Roth, P. J. et al. Organic Geochemistry, 2012, 46, 6675.
The various sources of pyrogenic and coalified carbon (black carbon,
BC) in soil have considerable structural heterogeneity, making the
quantification of BC a challenge. This study was aimed at evaluating
the capability of different detection procedures to recover different
types of BC from soil. The authors added defined quantities of urban
dust (UD, NIST SRM1649a), diesel particulate matter (DPM, NIST
SRM2975), charcoal, lignite, bituminous coal and wood to four topsoil
samples. Mixtures were analysed by way of chemo-thermal oxidation
(CTO), thermal gradient oxidation (ThG), the benzene polycarboxylic
acid method (BPCA) and mid-infrared spectroscopy (MIRS). CTO
returned good quantification of soot BC in the pure DPM, yet the
recovery of soot BC from soil was unsatisfactory (18270%). ThG gave
good precision but lower values for pure soot BC. It severely
overestimated the BC content for all soil-standard mixtures. The
BPCA method gave a low return for soot BC, but for the spiked soil it
reliably detected charcoal and coalified C (69107% avg. recovery) but
underestimated soot BC (5290% recovery of DPM). Linear coherence
in specific MIR vibrations was found in one component soil-BC
mixtures for each BC type. Applying these standard calibrations to
multi-component mixtures allowed detecting charcoal and a quantifi-
cation of soot BC (88% avg. recovery) via MIRS, but ignored the
presence of diagenetic C. The authors saw the greatest potential in
differentiating soot from charcoal in soil by employing a combination
of chemical and thermal oxidation and MIRS, however the differen-
tiation from diagenetic C is not possible yet.
13/00239 Experimental investigation of bio-butanol laminar
non-premixed flamelets
Agathou, M. S. and Kyritsis, D. C. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 296304.
Pure butanol as well as methane-assisted butanol non-premixed flames
were studied in a counter-flow burner configuration in view of the
emergence of butanol production from agricultural sources. Major
combustion species were measured across the flame using line Raman
imaging and temperature measurements were obtained with K-type
thermocouples. Of particular importance was the comparison of flames
of the same heating value and equivalence ratio, as well as flames of the
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 37
08 Combustion (burners, combustion systems)
same overall equivalence ratio but varying reactant flow rates.
Extinction strain rates were measured for a wide range of conditions.
It was shown that there was a decrease of extinction strain rate with
increasing overall equivalence ratio for both constant fuel flow rates
and constant heat release of combustion and that butanol flames were
more vulnerable to extinction compared to methane. Species concen-
tration measurements indicated that N
2
concentrations anti-correlate
with temperature across the non-premixed flame, in agreement with
non-premixed flame theory. Finally, the possibility of estimating the
scalar dissipation rate at the stoichiometric surface
stoich
was
investigated through a measurement of the mixing layer thickness c,
performed with an intensified CCD camera and a modest-power laser.
13/00240 Gas and soot products formed in the pyrolysis
of acetylene mixed with methanol, ethanol, isopropanol or
n-butanol
Esarte, C. et al. Energy, 2012, 43, (1), 3746.
The pyrolysis of acetylene-methanol, acetylene-ethanol, acetylene-
isopropanol and acetylene-n-butanol mixtures has been studied in a
flow reactor in the 9751475 K temperature range. The purpose of this
work is to analyse the effect of each alcohol on soot and gas products
coming from the pyrolysis of the mixtures compared to the results
observed in the pyrolysis of pure acetylene, taken as a reference.
Results show that the presence of alcohols always reduces the
formation of soot and that the lower the atomic carbon/oxygen (C/O)
ratio in the reacting mixture, the higher the soot reduction achieved,
mainly due to the enhancement of oxidation reactions by the presence
of O in the fuel mixture. The experimental evolution of gas products at
the reactor outlet is interpreted through a detailed gas phase chemical
kinetic mechanism, which allows insight into the causes for soot
reduction by the presence of the different alcohols. This analysis
reveals that including methanol in the reacting mixture favours mainly
the formation of CO, preventing most of the carbon coming from the
alcohol to take part in soot formation and its precursors. The rest of
the alcohols not only decompose into oxidation products but they can
also form species that may contribute to soot formation. In particular,
ethanol promotes the formation of CO and CH
4
, which come from
competing reactions that prevent PAH formation, but also forms C
2
H
4
that may contribute to soot precursors growth. Isopropanol contributes
to disfavour PAH formation because it decomposes into CO and CH
4
,
but it also forms C
2
and C
3
hydrocarbons that play an important role in
PAH formation and growth. N-butanol enhances oxidation reactions to
CO and CH
4
formation in a lower degree than the rest of the alcohols
and tends to decompose into small hydrocarbons, able to contribute to
PAH formation and growth.
13/00241 Hierarchical and comparative kinetic modeling of
laminar flame speeds of hydrocarbon and oxygenated fuels
Ranzi, E. et al. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 2012, 38,
(4), 468501.
The primary objective of this study is to collect, consolidate and review
the vast amount of experimental data on the laminar flame speeds of
hydrocarbon and oxygenated fuels that have been reported in recent
years, analyse them by using a detailed kinetic mechanism for the
pyrolysis and combustion of a large variety of fuels at high temperature
conditions and thereby identify aspects of the mechanism that require
further revision. The review and assessment was hierarchically
conducted, in the sequence of the foundational C
0
C
4
species; the
reference fuels of alkanes (n-heptane, iso-octane, n-decane, n-
dodecane), cyclo-alkanes (cyclohexane and methyl-cyclo-hexane) and
the aromatics (benzene, toluene, xylene and ethylbenzene); and the
oxygenated fuels of alcohols, C
3
H
6
O isomers, ethers (dimethyl ether
and ethyl tertiary butyl ether), and methyl esters up to methyl
decanoate. Mixtures of some of these fuels, including those with
hydrogen, were also considered. The comprehensive nature of the
present mechanism and effort is emphasized.
13/00242 Ignition characteristics of co-fired mixtures of
petroleum coke and bituminous coal in a pilot-scale furnace
Clements, B. R. et al. Fuel, 2012, 97, 315320.
This study addresses ignition characteristics encountered when co-
firing petroleum coke with coal and provides insight into addressing
ignition problems that may occur. A pilot-scale test procedure is
proposed to determine lean ignition limits and experimental results are
presented. Experimental data is presented for various co-fired mixtures
of petroleum coke with coal. Qualitative discussions that relate the lean
ignition limit to the volatile matter and aerodynamic conditions are
presented. The study extends these results to the development of a full-
scale pulverized fuel steam generation unit operating procedure that
has been successfully implemented within a power generation utility.
The lean ignition limit is reached between 62% and 67% petroleum
coke for swirl numbers of 0.35 and 0.40, respectively. Although a
burner aerodynamic effect exists, it seems relatively small compared
with the influence of the amount of overall volatile matter. The total
volatile matter in the co-firing case was between 19.9% and 21.0% at
the time of flame extinction for the two different aerodynamic
conditions tested. Full-scale operating conditions had been limited to
20% petroleum coke prior to this study. This study confirmed that this
level of operation was acceptable and far below where ignition
problems are expected during full-scale operation. This conservative
approach is well justified because it must account for extreme con-
ditions that may be experienced during operational upset conditions.
13/00243 Integrated methods to improve efficiency of
furnace burning recovered tail gas
Lee, C. L. and Jou, C. J. G. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy,
2012, 37, (8), 66206625.
Replacing nature gas (NG) by recovered hydrogen-rich tail gas to fuel
a full-scale furnace has been proved to improve furnace efficiency and
reduce NO
x
formation. Adjusting residual O
2
concentration in flue
gases, air preheat temperature and furnace damper angle will further
improve the efficiency of the furnace burning the recovered hydrogen-
rich tail gas. Prolonging the residence time of the hot gas flow increases
the heat release time and reduces the time for the fuel to reach burning
temperature so that the furnace efficiency can be improved. On-site
test results using a full-scale furnace show that reducing the residual O
2
concentration in flue gases from 4.0 to 3.0 vol.% raises the furnace
efficiency by 0.6%. Raising the pre-heated incoming air temperature
from 200

C to 240

C and reducing furnace damper opening angle

from 45

to 39

save 2.4 10
6
and 1.9 10
6
m
3
of natural gas, res-
pectively. Integrating the adjustment of flue gas residual O
2
concen-
tration, temperature of incoming air temperature, and furnace damper
opening angle will assist industries in achieving higher overall furnace
efficiency and reducing carbon dioxide emission.
13/00244 Laminar flame speeds and extinction stretch
rates of selected aromatic hydrocarbons
Hui, X. et al. Fuel, 2012, 97, 695702.
The laminar flame speeds and premixed extinction limits of n-
propylbenzene, 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene, 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene, and
toluene have been studied experimentally to assess the effects of
different alkyl substitutions to the benzene ring on flame propagation
and extinction. The experiments were carried out in a twin-flame
counterflow setup under atmospheric pressure. The laminar flame
speeds of fuel/air mixtures at two unburned mixture temperatures of
400 and 470 K were determined over an equivalence ratio range of
c=0.71.4. Additionally, the extinction stretch rates of fuel/O
2
/N
2
mixtures at an unburned mixture temperature of 400 K were measured
over an equivalence ratio range of c=0.81.6, with an oxidizer
composition of 16% O
2
and 84% N
2
by mole. The experimental
laminar flame speeds and extinction stretch rate values were compared
to simulated results, for each fuel, using detailed kinetic models
available in the literature. The simulation results were found to be in
reasonable agreement with the current experimental data, except for
1,2,4-trimethylbenzene, where the model under-predicts the extinction
limits significantly. Sensitivity and flux analyses were conducted to
identify reactions and species to which the computed results were most
sensitive.
13/00245 Modeling the slag layer in solid fuel gasification
and combustion two-way coupling with CFD
Yong, S. Z. and Ghoniem, A. Fuel, 2012, 97, 457466.
A steady-state model has been developed to describe the flow and heat
transfer characteristics of slag that takes into consideration the
contribution of the momentum of captured particles and the possibility
of slag resolidification along the walls. The model also incorporates a
criterion for particle capture or rebound. Captured particles flow with
the local slag average velocity. Some of these particles may contain
combustibles and they continue to burn at a different rate. To take this
into account, a wall consumption submodel is proposed to predict a
correction factor for the porous char consumption models. The slag
flow model, along with the particle capture and consumption
submodels are two-way coupled with a computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) of coal combustion, resulting in changing the discrete phase and
temperature boundary conditions of the bulk flow simulations. The
coupled CFD simulation shows that the wall traps about 56% of the
coal particles fed to the combustor, while the wall temperature and
heat flux to the wall are not significantly affected by the inclusion of a
slag layer.
13/00246 Numerical analysis of flow and combustion
behavior in tuyere and raceway of blast furnace fueled with
pulverized coal and recycled top gas
Yeh, C.-P. et al. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 233240.
The simultaneous injection of pulverized coal (PC) and CO
2
-stripped
blast furnace top gas (BFG) into the raceway of a blast furnace is an
effective means of reducing carbon dioxide emissions in the ironmaking
process. The BFG can be used as the cooling gas flowing through the
annulus of coaxial lance. To stabilize the operation in the lower zone of
blast furnace, the combustion characteristics of PC with/without BFG
38 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
08 Combustion (burners, combustion systems)
cooling gas within the blowpipe-tuyere-raceway region of a blast
furnace are numerically investigated. The simulations focus on the
effects of the lance configuration, the cooling gas type, and the cooling
gas flow rate. The results show that a significant flow-induced pressure
drop occurs at the blowpipe and tuyere part because of the gaseous
combustion of the oxygen within the blast and the BFG injected via the
lance. Moreover, the burnout of injected coal is significantly decreased
with an increasing BFG cooling flow rates due to the additional oxygen
consumption by the BFG. Finally, it is shown that a stronger swirling
flow was formed when the lance configuration with bigger diameter was
employed. Overall, the current numerical results provide a useful basis
for improving the blast furnace performance in the future.
13/00247 Optimum residence time analysis for a walking
beam type reheating furnace
Han, S. H. and Chang, D. International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer, 2012, 55, (1516), 40794087.
A three-dimensional unsteady numerical simulation of a reheating
furnace was performed to obtain the optimal slab residence time. Too
long residence time decrease the efficiency of the reheating furnace,
whereas too short residence time cannot satisfy the required heating
quality of a slab. The total of five cases of residence times (6032, 6496,
6960, 7424 and 7888 s) were investigated for the optimum residence
time analysis with the two slab requirements, those of emission
temperature and uniformity. In this study, the slab emission tempera-
ture should be in the range between 1373 and 1573 K. The skid mark
severity of an emitted slab should be less than 50 K to satisfy the
uniformity requirement. The numerical analysis was done for the
identical geometry and operating condition of the reheating furnace
using FLUENT. Slabs were assumed to move very quickly that it took
no time for them to move next positions. The quick movements of slabs
were processed with the own developed user-defined function program.
Among the five cases of residence times, the residence time of 7427 s
turned out to be most efficient.
13/00248 Oxy-fuel combustion of coal and biomass blends
Riaza, J. et al. Energy, 2012, 41, (1), 429435.
The ignition temperature, burnout and NO emissions of blends of a
semi-anthracite and a high-volatile bituminous coal with 10 and 20 wt%
of olive waste were studied under oxy-fuel combustion conditions in an
entrained flow reactor (EFR). The results obtained under several oxy-
fuel atmospheres (21%O
2
79%CO
2
, 30%O
2
70%CO
2
and 35%O
2

65%CO
2
) were compared with those attained in air. The results
indicated that replacing N
2
by CO
2
in the combustion atmosphere with
21% of O
2
caused an increase in the temperature of ignition and a
decrease in the burnout value. When the O
2
concentration was
increased to 30% and 35%, the temperature of ignition was lower
and the burnout value was higher than in air conditions. A significant
reduction in ignition temperature and a slight increase in the burnout
value was observed after the addition of biomass, this trend becoming
more noticeable as the biomass concentration was increased. The
emissions of NO during oxy-fuel combustion were lower than under
air-firing. However, they remained similar under all the oxy-fuel
atmospheres with increasing O
2
concentrations. Emissions of NO were
significantly reduced by the addition of biomass to the bituminous coal,
although this effect was less noticeable in the case of the semi-
anthracite.
13/00249 Pulverised fuel feeding for co-firing based on
loss-in-weight flow metering
Teruel, E. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 39, 403412.
An experimental facility to investigate co-firing requires handling
pulverized coal and biomass fuels, to deliver them to a well-
instrumented experimental burner in a precise and flexible manner.
A system based on loss-in-weight mass flow metering has been
successfully used to deliver continuously a wide range of flows of
diverse fuels with great accuracy, even in the presence of refill cycles.
To achieve the required performance the system must be well-
engineered, and in particular the implementation of an appropriate
control strategy is essential.
13/00250 Research on cellular instabilities in outwardly
propagating spherical hydrogen-air flames
Sun, Z. Y. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37,
(9), 78897899.
Experiments were conducted in a closed vessel using Schlieren system
to study the cellular instabilities of hydrogenair premixed flames at
different equivalence ratios (from 0.6 to 2.5), initial temperatures
(from 300 to 450 K), and initial pressures (from 0.1 to 0.3 MPa). The
cellular instabilities of hydrogenair flames were interpreted and
evaluated in the viewpoint of the diffusive-thermal and hydrodynamic
instabilities. Also, critical flame radius and critical Peclet number were
measured. The results showed that for lean hydrogen-air flames, the
cellular instabilities are dominantly influenced by the diffusive-thermal
instability; for stoichiometric and rich hydrogenair flames, the cellular
instabilities are just influenced by the hydrodynamic instability. Critical
flame radius is increased with the increase of equivalence ratio and/or
initial temperature, and is decreased with the increase of initial
pressure. Critical Peclet number is increased with the increase of
equivalence ratio, and is insensitive to initial temperature and initial
pressure.
13/00251 small angle X-ray scattering and electrochemical
study of the decomposition of wood during pyrolysis
Smith, A. J. et al. Carbon, 2012, 50, (10), 37173723.
The pyrolysis of nine wood samples (Basswood, Cherry, Pine, Walnut,
Maple, Hickory, Paduak, Tigerwood and Ipe) between 30 and 1200

C
was investigated. Using small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), the
thermal degradation of the cellular structure of wood followed by the
onset and growth of graphene sheets and associated nanoporosity
between the sheets, was observed as temperature increased. SAXS,
wide angle X-ray scattering and electrochemical studies of Na insertion
using Na batteries were used to study the wood samples pyrolysed to
1100

C. Regardless of the original wood precursor used during

pyrolysis, the nanostructure and resulting electrochemical behaviour
of all the wood samples were similar after heating to 1100

C.
13/00252 Time/temperature combustion profiles of various
wood-based biofuels
Smit, H. C. and Meincken, M. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 39, 317
323.
A lab-scale combustion unit was designed to characterize the
performance of various wood and wood-based biofuels commonly used
in South Africa for energy production, cooking and heating. The unit
was constructed in a way that it provided similar testing conditions for
all samples and produced reproducible results. Time/temperature
profiles were recorded for all biofuels and characteristic values, such
as the maximum temperature or the coal temperature compared.
Rooikrans (an invasive species) and Camelthorn performed best
amongst the wood products, while coal and wood briquettes performed
best amongst the processed products.
13/00253 Transformation behavior of mineral composition
and trace elements during coal gangue combustion
Zhou, C. et al. Fuel, 2012, 97, 644650.
The transformation behaviour of mineral and trace elements during
combustion of Chinese coal gangue at varies temperatures were
studied. The coal gangue sample was placed at muffle roaster and
heated up to eight-desired temperature points, from 500 to 1200

C
with 100

C for each interval. The mineral compositions of coal gangue

and its combustion ash were determined by X-ray powder diffraction
techniques. FTIR spectroscopy analysis was taken to determine coal
gangue and combustion ash functional group, phase transition
characteristics and the variation in combustion. The concentration of
trace element in coal gangue and combustion ash was analysed by
inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Results show that the
transformation behaviour of mineral phase of coal gangue mainly relies
on the combustion temperature. The volatilize ratios of selected trace
elements increase with increasing combustion temperature. Besides, 10
trace elements studied in the current study can be classified into two
categories according to their volatilize tendencies: (a) Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd,
Sn, Pb and As were vaporized at intermediate temperature and have
high volatilize ratio; (b) V, Cr, and Co were relative non-volatile.
13/00254 Wood ash as a potential heterogeneous catalyst
for biodiesel synthesis
Sharma, M. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 41, 94106.
Wood ash is a highly alkaline material comprises of inorganic
constituents. A limited information on use of wood ash as catalyst is
available in literature. The present study was undertaken to investigate
the catalytic activity of wood ash for transesterification of Jatropha oil.
The thermal treatment (calcination) of wood ash was carried out at
temperature in the range of 5001200

C to produce calcined wood ash

catalysts (CWC). The wood ash was also chemically activated with
K
2
CO
3
and CaCO
3
by double carbonate solid state reaction to yield
activated wood ash catalysts (AWC). The prepared catalysts were
characterized by analytical techniques for surface morphology, crystal-
line phases, textural characteristics and alkalinity. Methyl ester
conversion of jatropha oil was achieved in the range of 9799% with
CWC and AWC catalysts. The synthesized jatropha methyl esters using
CWC and AWC catalysts have been found meeting the critical
physicochemical properties of ASTM D-6751 standards of biodiesel.
The present study revealed the possibility of producing potential
heterogeneous catalyst from wood ash for biodiesel synthesis, which
can find a way to utilize abundant wood ash and reduce the overall cost
of biodiesel production.
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 39
08 Combustion (burners, combustion systems)
Fire safety
13/00255 Determination of the risk of self-ignition of coals
and biomass materials
Garc a-Torrent, J. et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2012, 213
214, 230235.
The safe storage, processing and handling of coals and biomass
resources requires their tendency to self-ignite be understood; fires
caused by self-ignition have occurred on many occasions in ports and at
industrial plants. This work provides information on the tendency of
several types of coal and four types of biomass to self-ignite. Data were
obtained using the isothermal oven procedure and analysed using the
FrankKamenetskii method and a scaling procedure, both contem-
plated in standard EN15188. The results obtained throw light on the
optimum volumes and storage times of the studied materials. The
results also validate the methodology followed for determining the risk
of self-ignition.
13/00256 Explosion behavior of hydrogenmethane/air
mixtures
Salzano, E. et al. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries,
2012, 25, (3), 443447.
The effects of enriching natural gas with hydrogen on local flame
extinction, combustion instabilities and power output have been widely
studied for both stationary and mobile systems. On the contrary, the
issues of explosion safety for hydrogenmethane mixtures are still
under investigation. In this work, experimental tests were performed in
a 5 L closed cylindrical vessel for explosions of hydrogenmethane
mixtures in stoichiometric air. Different compositions of hydrogen
methane were tested (from pure methane to pure hydrogen) at varying
initial pressures (1, 3 and 6 bar). Results have allowed the quantifi-
cation of the combined effects of both mixture composition (i.e.
hydrogen content in the fuel) and initial pressure on maximum
pressure, maximum rate of pressure rise and burning velocity. The
measured burning velocities were also correlated by means of a Le
Chateliers rule-like formula. Good predictions have been obtained (at
any initial pressure), except for mixtures with hydrogen molar content
in the fuel higher than 50%.
13/00257 Pinus pinea emissions and combustion
characteristics of limonene potentially involved in
accelerating forest fires
Courty, L. et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences, 2012, 57,
9297.
It has been reported in the literature that under some conditions forest
fires with normal behaviour suddenly start to propagate at unusual and
very fast rate of spread. A possible explanation of these accelerating
forest fires, based on the ignition of a volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) cloud, has been discussed in the literature. Most of vegetal
species when heated emit volatile substances. The authors have shown
using a flash pyrolysis apparatus that a typical Mediterranean species,
Pinus pinea, emits 14 components, mainly limonene. P. pinea needles
are preheated between 373 and 473 K and the maximum emission is
found at 433 K. Combustion characteristics, namely laminar burning
speeds, Markstein lengths and flame thicknesses of limonene/air pre-
mixed flames are determined using the spherical expanding flames
method coupled to a non-linear methodology. Experiments are per-
formed in a spherical combustion chamber at atmospheric pressure and
at elevated temperatures. An empirical correlation is developed to
calculate the laminar burning speeds as a function of equivalence ratio
and temperature. Experimental results of limonene are compared to the
computed values of JP-10 and n-decane.
13/00258 Scale considerations for fire testing of pressure
vessels used for dangerous goods transportation
Birk, A. M. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 2012,
25, (3), 623630.
Fire protection of pressure vessels for transport and storage of
dangerous goods is an active topic of research around the world. In
many cases, organizations are conducting theoretical analysis followed
by fire testing of thermal protection systems to determine how long
they delay thermally induced failure, or if they eliminate failure. In
most recent cases the organizations chose to do small-scale fire testing
because of the obvious cost savings. The question then is: are small-
scale experiments representative of highway tank truck and rail tank
car scales? This paper discusses the scale issues involved. It goes on to
show how identical fire heating conditions can give dramatically
different failure times and modes of failure for small and large scale
tanks if the conditions are not truly similar.
13/00259 Thermal breakage of window glass in room fires
conditions analysis of some important parameters
Dembele, S. et al. Building and Environment, 2012, 54, 6170.
In a compartment fire, the breakage and possible fallout of a window
glass has a significant impact on the fire dynamics. The thermal
breakage of glass depends on various parameters such as glass type,
edge shading, edges conditions and constraints on the glass. The pur-
pose of the present study is to investigate some of the key parameters
affecting the thermal breakage of window glass in fire conditions using
a recently developed and validated computer tool. Fallout is not within
the scope of this study. Different boundary conditions of the glass pane
(unconstrained and constrained) subjected to fire radiant heat are
investigated. The analysis shows that to prevent glass thermal breakage,
it is important to provide enough spacing between the frame and glass
pane to accommodate the thermal expansion, and constraints on the
glass structure should be avoided. The zones where the glass is likely to
crack first are shown. The study also quantifies the effects of glass edge
conditions on its thermal breakage in fire conditions; such analysis has
not been reported in the literature due to its complexity and the
statistical nature of edge flaws. The results show that an ordinary float
glass mostly used in windows, with the as-cut edge condition would
break later and is stronger than a ground edge or polished edge glass
for the scenarios investigated. The study demonstrates how a predictive
tool could be employed for a better understanding of thermal breakage
of window glass in fires and for design guidance.
09 PROCESS HEATING,
POWER AND
INCINERATION
Energy applications in industry
13/00260 Allocation of fuel costs and CO
2
-emissions to
heat and power in an industrial CHP plant: case integrated
pulp and paper mill
Holmberg, H. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 614623.
This paper studies allocation of fuel costs and CO
2
-emissions to heat
and power in a CHP plant producing heat to an integrated pulp and
paper mill and electricity to the liberalized electricity markets (or to
the mill by the market price). The CHP plant and the mill are
considered to be two separate economical units and both the mill and
the CHP plant perspectives are discussed. Fuel costs and CO
2
-
emissions are allocated using the energy, exergy and market based
methods. The CHP plant purchases black liquor and bark from the
mill. It also purchases oil from the markets to cover the whole fuel
demand of the plant. The results indicate that the marked based
method can be recommended as a neutral cost allocation method,
because with that, the energy producer is not collecting extra margins
from selling steam. This means that heat pricing is cost based. The
results also indicate that depending on the emission factor and effici-
ency of alternative energy production form, the marked based method
or the exergy method allocate the lowest CO
2
-emissions to heat.
Therefore, the use of market based method for allocating costs and
CO
2
emissions can be recommended in order to use one single
approach in both.
13/00261 An extended risk assessment approach for
chemical plants applied to a study related to pipe ruptures
Milazzo, M. F. and Aven, T. Reliability Engineering & System Safety,
2012, 99, 183192.
Risk assessments and quantitative risk assessment in particular have
been used in the chemical industry for many years to support decision-
making on the choice of arrangements and measures associated with
chemical processes, transportation and storage of dangerous sub-
stances. The assessments have been founded on a risk perspective
seeing risk as a function of frequency of events (probability) and
associated consequences. The findings of the study point to the need
for extending this approach to place a stronger emphasis on
uncertainties. A recently developed risk framework designed to better
reflect such uncertainties is presented and applied to a chemical plant
and specifically the analysis of accidental events related to the rupture
of pipes. Two different ways of implementing the framework are
presented, one based on the introduction of probability models and
one without. The differences between the standard approach and the
extended approaches are discussed from a theoretical point of view as
well as from a practical risk analyst perspective.
40 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
09 Process heating, power and incineration (energy applications in industry)
13/00262 Assessment of oxy-fuel, pre- and post-
combustion-based carbon capture for future IGCC plants
Kunze, C. and Spliethoff, H. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 109116.
Environmental damage due to the emission of greenhouse gases from
conventional coal-based power plants is a growing concern. Various
carbon capture strategies to minimize CO
2
emissions are currently
being investigated. Unfortunately, the efficiency drop due to de-
carbonization is still significant and the capture rate is limited.
Therefore three future hard coal integrated gasification combined
cycle (IGCC) concepts are assessed here, applying emerging technol-
ogies and various carbon capture approaches. The advanced pre-
combustion capture concept is based on hot gas clean-up, membrane-
enhanced CO conversion and direct CO
2
condensation. The concept
reached a net efficiency of 45.1% (LHV), representing an improvement
of 6.46% compared to the conventional IGCC base case. The second
IGCC concept, based on post-combustion capture via calcination
carbonation loops, hot gas clean-up and oxygen membranes, showed a
net efficiency of 45.87% (LHV). The third IGCC concept applies hot
gas clean-up and combustion of the unconverted fuel gas using pure
oxygen. The oxygen is supplied by an integrated oxygen membrane.
The combination of IGCC and oxy-fuel process reached a net efficiency
of 45.74% (LHV). In addition to their increased efficiency, all of the
concepts showed significantly improved carbon capture rates up to
99%, resulting in virtually carbon-free fossil power plants.
13/00263 Biomass feeding for thermochemical reactors
Dai, J. et al. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 2012, 38, (5),
716736.
Interest in biomass fuels is increasing worldwide to produce heat,
power, liquid fuels and hydrogen with reduced greenhouse gas
emissions. Thermochemical biomass processes are relatively well
developed, e.g. for direct combustion, gasification and pyrolysis.
However, critical problems often arise when attempting to feed
biomass into reactors, preventing continuous operation of the entire
system. Although biomass feeding has received some attention in the
past and several novel feeders have been patented, most feeders are
fuel-specific and unable to provide reliable, efficient and economical
feeding, especially for herbaceous fuels and reactors operating at
elevated pressure. The most common feeding problems are bridging,
rathole formation, blockage, seal failure and reactions in the feed line.
The present study identifies the biomass properties which influence
feeding and reactor performance. Design principles and selection of
feeders are also covered. The authors summarize experiences and
failure potentials of biomass feeding for combustors and gasifiers, as
well as providing an overview based on reported feeder experiments,
useful for later study of biomass utilization.
13/00264 Design of image-based control loops for
industrial combustion processes
Chen, J. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 1321.
Combustion is often used in the industry to produce required energy.
Due to the increasing need of minimizing energy loss or pollution of
combustors, keeping good performance of combustion control is highly
desired. To achieve tight combustion control is not straightforward,
because most of the flames encountered are turbulent flames. A novel
method is proposed in this study to improve the control performance of
product quality by applying the digital flame colour images to control
loops. It will lead to a substantial reduction in oxygen quality
variability. With the minimal oxygen quality variability, the require-
ment of the excess combustion air in a furnace is minimized and it will
have less loss of heat. Based on the novel structure, the designable
performance bound and the corresponding optimal parameters of the
controller structure computed from the closed loop operating data are
proposed. The performance bound can assess the performance of the
current given controller. To demonstrate the advantages of the
proposed method, data from a real combustion system are presented
to delve into the matter.
13/00265 Dynamic model of an industrial heat pump using
water as refrigerant
Chamoun, M. et al. International Journal of Refrigeration, 2012, 35, (4),
10801091.
In order to improve industrial energy efficiency, the development of a
high temperature heat pump using water vapour as refrigerant is
investigated. Technical problems restraining the feasibility of this
industrial heat pump are surmounted by a specifically designed heat
pump and the development of a new twin screw compressor. This
article presents the development of a new dynamic model of this twin
screw compressor and of the heat pump using flash evaporation. This
model takes into account the presence and the purging mechanism
(purging reservoir) of the non-condensable gases especially during the
start-up procedure. A finite volume approach is used for the plate heat-
exchangers models while a moving boundary approach between phases
is implemented for the purging and the flash evaporation systems
models. The models are developed using Modelica as a modelling
language without any library involvement and taking into account as
many details as possible to closely represent the real system.
13/00266 Energy content in manufacturing exports:
a cross-country analysis
Amador, J. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 10741081.
This article compares the energy content in manufacturing exports in a
set of 30 advanced and emerging economies and examines its evolution
from 1995 to 2005, combining information from the OECD input
output matrices and international trade data in 17 manufacturing
sectors. In addition, the article suggests a methodology to disentangle
export structure and sectoral energy efficiency effects, presenting
results according to technological categories. The article concludes that
Brazil, India and, mostly, China, present a high energy content in
manufacturing exports, which has increased from 1995 to 2005.
Conversely, many advanced economies, notably in Europe and North
America, which showed energy contents below the world average in
1995, reinforced their position as exporters with relatively lower energy
usage. The contribution of export structure and energy efficiency
effects to explain differences in the energy content of exports draws
attention to the situation of China. This country increased its relative
energy usage in the exports of all technological categories of goods.
This effect was reinforced by the stronger export specialization in high-
tech products and hindered by a comparatively lower specialization in
medium-high-tech products.
13/00267 Energy efficiency in the German pulp and paper
industry a model-based assessment of saving potentials
Fleiter, T. et al. Energy, 2012, 40, (1), 8499.
Paper production is an energy-intensive process and accounted for
about 9% of industrial energy demand in Germany in 2008. There have
only been slow improvements in energy efficiency in the paper industry
over the past 20 years. Policies can accelerate the progress made, but
knowledge about the remaining efficiency potentials and their costs is a
prerequisite for their success. The authors assess 17 process technol-
ogies to improve energy efficiency in the German pulp and paper
industry up to 2035 using a techno-economic approach. These result in
a saving potential of 34 TJ/a for fuels and 12 TJ/a for electricity, which
equal 21% and 16% of fuel and electricity demand, respectively. The
energy savings can be translated into mitigated CO
2
emissions of 3 Mt.
The larger part of this potential is found to be cost-effective from
a firms perspective. The most influential technologies are heat
recovery in paper mills and the use of innovative paper drying
technologies. In conclusion, significant saving potentials are still
available, but are limited if current paper production processes will
not change radically. Further savings would be available if the system
boundaries of this study were extended to, for example, include cross-
cutting technologies.
13/00268 Energy information integration based on EMS in
paper mill
Wu, B. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 488495.
The systematic, transparent and accurate on-line energy information of
the production process is quite the basis of mill energy management
and conservation. An energy management system (EMS) was built
according to the characteristics of the energy usage in a typical
newsprint paper mill. The EMS first realized the process data
acquisition and integration, second fulfilled the on-line energy
information calculation from the integrated data. A water and steam
properties query component based on IAPWS-IF97 was developed and
plugged into the EMS to facilitate the energy calculation of water and
steam. The practical performance in the paper mill showed that the
integrated energy information of the whole mill was gained and the on-
line energy supervisory was achieved. In the end a systematic,
transparent and accurate energy usage profile is obtained and it would
provide the valuable fundamental energy data for the further energy
analysis and optimization in the EMS.
13/00269 Evaluation of slagging and fouling tendency
during biomass co-firing with coal in a fluidized bed
Teixeira, P. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 39, 192203.
Over the last decades, several indices based on ash chemistry and ash
fusibility have been used to predict the ash behaviour during coal
combustion, namely, its tendency for slagging and fouling. However,
due to the physicalchemical differences between coals and biomass, in
this work only the applicability of an ash fusibility index (AFI) to the
combustion and co-combustion of three types of biomass (straw pellets,
olive cake and wood pellets) with coals was evaluated. The AFI values
were compared with the behaviour of ash during combustion in a pilot
fluidized bed and a close agreement was observed between them. For a
better understanding of the mechanisms associated with bed ash
sintering, they were evaluated by SEM/EDS and the elements present
on the melted ash were identified. Evidences of different sintering
mechanisms were found out for the fruit biomass and herbaceous
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 41
09 Process heating, power and incineration (energy applications in industry)
biomass tested, depending on the relative proportions of problematic
elements. The particles deposited on a fouling probe inserted in the
fluidized bed combustor were analysed by XRD and the differences
between the compounds identified allowed concluding that the studied
biomasses present different tendencies for fouling. Identification of
KCl and K
2
SO
4
in the deposits confirmed the higher tendency for
fouling of fruit biomass tested rather than wood pellets.
13/00270 Exergetic analysis of solar concentrator aided
natural gas fired combined cycle power plant
Reddy, V. S. et al. Renewable Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 114125.
This article deals with comparative energy and exergetic analysis for
evaluation of natural gas fired combined cycle power plant and solar
concentrator aided (feed water heating and low pressure steam
generation options) natural gas-fired combined cycle power plant.
Heat Transfer analysis of Linear Fresnel reflecting solar concentrator
(LFRSC) is used to predict the effect of focal distance and width of
reflector upon the reflecting surface area. Performance analysis of
LFRSC with energetic and exergetic methods and the effect, of con-
centration ratio and inlet temperature of the fluid is carried out to
determine, overall heat loss coefficient of the circular evacuated tube
absorber at different receiver temperatures. An instantaneous increase
in power generation capacity of about 10% is observed by substituting
solar thermal energy for feed water heater and low pressure steam
generation. It is observed that the utilization of solar energy for feed
water heating and low pressure steam generation is more effective
based on exergetic analysis rather than energetic analysis. Further-
more, for a solar aided feed water heating and low pressure steam
generation, it is found that the land area requirement is 7 ha/MW for
large scale solar thermal storage system to run the plant for 24 h.
13/00271 Experiences and results on a 0.8 MWth oxy-fuel
operation pilot-scale circulating fluidized bed
Tan, Y. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 92, 343347.
Oxy-fuel circulating fluidized bed combustion (CFBC) is an alternate
technology to oxy-fuel pulverized combustion (PC), which has a
number of advantages that can often make it a better choice for CO
2
capture. This paper presents experimental results and operating
experiences from a 0.8 MWth pilot-scale, oxy-fuel-fired circulating
fluidized bed. Test work demonstrated smooth transition between air-
fired and oxy-fuel-fired operation and stable oxy-fuel operation with
CO
2
concentrations above 90% on a dry basis. The experimental results
also showed that limestone performance for sulfur removal is impacted
by the combustion mode and that this impact depends on fuel
characteristics as well as on combustion temperature. The test
experiences showed that operating the pilot-scale unit over a long
period under oxy-fuel mode led to enhanced corrosion due to higher
sulfur concentrations in the flue gas. As demonstration projects of oxy-
fuel CFB proceed in both Europe and North America, it is hoped that
these tests can provide valuable data on the combustion characteristics,
pollutant formation and operating experiences specific to this
technology.
13/00272 Fluidized bed gasification of a packaging
derived fuel: energetic, environmental and economic
performances comparison for waste-to-energy plants
Di Gregorio, F. and Zaccariello, L. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 331341.
comparison of possible solutions for small scale (0.21 MWe) waste-to-
energy gasification-based industrial application is presented. A pilot
scale bubbling fluidized bed air blown gasifier, having a capacity of
500 kWe, provided experimental data: the syngas complete composition
as well as the characterization of the bed material and contaminants
downstream of the cyclone and wet scrubber. Mass and energy balances
and material and substance flow analyses have been drawn to assess
and compare design solutions utilizing a packaging derived fuel obtain-
ed as scrap by food industrial processes. The related environmental,
energetic and economic performances have been estimated on the basis
of the experimental data and manufacturers specifications. In the scale
range analysed, the best solution is that of a power gasification coupled
with an internal combustion engine, which provides high reliability and
high internal rate of return.
13/00273 Gasliquid mass transfer in co-current three-
phase fluidized beds with non-Newtonian fluids: theoretical
models based on the energy dissipation rate
Miura, H. et al. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2012, 185186, 337346.
The gasliquid mass transfer in the co-current three-phase fluidized
bed with non-Newtonian liquids was studied. Gas hold-ups (c
g
) and
volumetric gasliquid mass transfer coefficients (k
L
a) in a bed of glass
beads fluidized in non-Newtonian liquids with gas phase were
measured. The gas hold-ups affecting gasliquid mass transfer rate
increased and decreased with increasing particle size and liquid
velocity, respectively. The k
L
a coefficients were evaluated from the
dynamic gassing-out method based on the tanks-in-series model
describing non-ideal mixing in the three-phase fluidized bed. While
an increase in the liquid velocity decreased the k
L
a coefficient, an
increase in the particle size enhanced the k
L
a coefficient. The increase
in purely viscous non-Newtonian flow behaviours reduced gas hold-up
and gasliquid mass transfer rate because of the bubble coalescing
nature of the highly viscous non-Newtonian fluid. The theoretical
models for c
g
and k
L
a in three-phase fluidized beds with non-
Newtonian fluids were developed on the basis of the energy dissipation
rate. They could reasonably fit the present experimental data.
13/00274 Impact review of past UK public industrial energy
efficiency RD&D programmes
Griffin, P. W. et al. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012, 60, 243
250.
Governments face pressures to improve national energy efficiency that
are comparable to those caused by the energy crises of the 1970s. In
British industry, a public programme of research, development and
demonstration (RD&D) emanated from the crises and persisted until
the end of the 1980s. The main element of this strategy was a full-scale
commercial demonstration scheme: the Energy Efficiency Demon-
stration Scheme (EEDS). This work presents a bottom-up/top-down
data analysis to examine the influence of the scheme on the overall
energy demand trend of the British industrial sector as separated from
structural and output effects. It was concluded that earlier deployment
of efficiency technologies as a result of their demonstration under the
scheme may have provided a quarter of the observed energy demand
reduction over the period 19791989. However, it should be noted that
it is inherently difficult to accurately determine the extent to which
earlier technology investments occur as a result of supported
demonstration. The schemes mechanism and replacement was also
discussed in order to derive lessons. Policy and economic implications
for the UK were examined.
13/00275 Industrial energy usage in Australia and the
potential for implementation of solar thermal heat and power
Beath, A. C. Energy, 2012, 43, (1), 261272.
A review of industrial energy usage for Australia was undertaken to
identify potential sites for utilization of solar thermal energy. The
review identified 2498 individual sites by location, industry type, energy
use and characteristic process temperature. These data are presented
on maps in terms of both industry type and characteristic process
temperature, in discrete ranges for comparison with the approximate
insolation patterns and to identify sites that should be considered for
more detailed analysis. High insolation areas of Australia are not
heavily populated or industrialized, but there are electricity demands
for many remote communities and mining sites that may be suitable
targets for solar thermal power generation projects. Relatively few
industrial sites were present in areas of high insolation that could
utilize higher temperature heat directly, but some potential opportu-
nities were identified involving bauxite and laterite ore processing,
ammonia production, oil refining and natural gas processing. In areas
with moderate insolation, outside major cities, there are numerous sites
in the food processing, building products, textiles and wood products
industries that could utilize low to moderate temperature solar heat.
13/00276 Influence of different catalyst deactivation
models in a validated simulator of an industrial UOP FCC
unit with high-efficiency regenerator
Fernandes, J. L. et al. Fuel, 2012, 97, 97108.
Two types of deactivation functions are usually employed when
modelling catalytic cracking: the time-based models and the coke-on-
catalyst models. In this paper, a comparison is made between these two
types of deactivation functions in the simulation of an industrial UOP
fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit with high-efficiency regenerator.
For this purpose, a FCC mathematical dynamic model, previously
presented and validated, is used. The dynamic responses to pertur-
bations of +10% increase in the combustor air mass flowrate and +5%
in the feedstock flow, were studied. The results for these perturbations
show that the slight differences observed were due to the fact that the
coke-on-catalyst approach takes into account the coke content present
at the riser inlet.
13/00277 Modeling an industrial dissolved air flotation tank
used for separating oil from wastewater
Behin, J. and Bahrami, S. Chemical Engineering and Processing:
Process Intensification, 2012, 59, 18.
The fluid flow regime has a great impact on the removal efficiency of
oil from wastewater in a dissolved air flotation tank. This study
examined the hydrodynamic characteristics of an industrial dissolved
air flotation tank by modelling the flow pattern through the residence
time distribution curve. The dissolved air flotation tank included an
active zone, a plug flow zone and a dead zone. The flow patterns and
mixing parameters were experimentally examined throughout the tank
by the coloured tracer injection method. A mathematical expression
predicting the concentration profile of the tracer as it was leaving the
system was developed. The simulation results obtained by compu-
42 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
09 Process heating, power and incineration (energy applications in industry)
tational fluid dynamics were compared and found to agree with the
experimental results. With the dead zone comprising nearly 22.6% of
the tank volume, the results showed that increasing the liquid inlet flow
rate increases the mixing zone volume and decreases the dead zone
volume.
13/00278 Short-term scheduling of industrial cogeneration
systems for annual revenue maximisation
Tina, G. M. and Passarello, G. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 4656.
This paper addresses the optimization of short-term hourly scheduling
(one week ahead) of (CHPs) cogeneration plants inside large industrial
sites. The heat demand in these sites is very high and is crucial for
industrial processes. This optimization aims to find the CHP operation
points that maximize the profits from the sale of heat and electricity.
The electricity price must be forecasted because it depends on the day-
ahead market outcomes, whereas the heat price depends on the long-
term contracts between the utility owners and the industrial site
counterparts. These operation points must comply with technical,
legislative and economic constraints. In particular, the cogeneration
indices that are imposed by current Italian law must be met for a plant
to receive important benefits, such as green certificate purchase
exemptions and priority dispatching. A Matlab application has been
developed for a generic typical configuration of a CHP and consists of
both combined cycle gas turbines and backpressure units. The
optimization procedure has been applied to a case study consisting of
two combined cycle gas turbines and two backpressure units. The
relationships that allow us to evaluate the unit net heat rate have been
calculated using experimental measurements and manufacturer data. It
is worth noting that the application of the optimization method ensures
that the cogeneration indices are met and allows the plant to increase
its yearly profit by approximately 6% in comparison with a typical CHP
management system that is based on a prefixed distribution of heat
demand for each unit.
13/00279 Simultaneous design of ionic liquid entrainers
and energy efficient azeotropic separation processes
Roughton, B. C. et al. Computers & Chemical Engineering, 2012, 42,
248262.
A methodology and tool set for the simultaneous design of ionic liquid
entrainers and azeotropic separation processes is presented. By
adjusting the cation, anion, and alkyl chain length on the cation, the
properties of the ionic liquid can be adjusted to design an entrainer for
a given azeotropic mixture. Several group contribution property models
available in literature have been used along with a newly developed
group contribution solubility parameter model and UNIFAC model for
ionic liquids (UNIFAC-IL). For a given azeotropic mixture, an ionic
liquid is designed using a computer-aided molecular design (CAMD)
method and the UNIFAC-IL model is used to screen design candidates
based on minimum ionic liquid concentration needed to break the
azeotrope. Once the ionic liquid has been designed, the extractive
distillation column for the azeotropic mixture is designed using the
driving force method with a new proposed feed stage scaling to
minimize energy inputs. Along with the distillation column, an ionic
liquid recovery stage is designed and simulations are used to determine
the overall heat duty for the entire process for the best ionic liquid
candidates. Use of a designed ionic liquid reduces material and energy
requirements when compared to an ionic liquid known to experimen-
tally break a given azeotrope but not designed using CAMD methods.
The acetonemethanol and ethanolwater azeotropes are provided as
examples.
13/00280 Synergies from combined pulp & paper and fuel
production
Tuna, P. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 40, 174180.
In this paper, the prospect of integrating a combined paper and pulp
mill with fuel production via biomass gasification was investigated. In
the study, three different types of gasifiers (circulating fluidized bed,
entrained flow and indirect gasification) and three fuel processes
(dimethyl ether, methanol and FischerTropsch wax synthesis) were
investigated using computer simulations. The paper reports differences
from the stand-alone cases and the integrated cases, using the
electricity equivalence efficiency as a measure. Only six out of the 18
integrated cases studied displayed a positive result from integration
and no obvious fuel selection that stand out as the most beneficial one,
however the synthesis of dimethyl ether is, in combination with all
gasifiers assessed a rather good choice, with an change in efficiency
from integration ranging from 1% to 4%. Dimethyl ether is not the
best choice if the electrical equivalence is to be maximized however. In
this case the combination of circulating fluidized bed gasification and
methanol synthesis should be pursued. The production of Fischer
Tropsch wax should according to the chosen measure not be produced;
however there is an added value in the production of a non-oxygenated
fuel which has not been taken into account in this particular study. All
cases leads to a reduction of 0.40.9 kg CO
2
per kg of dry biomass used
in the process for fuel synthesis and the possibility to export bark is a
more significant factor in this respect than which type of fuel is
synthesized.
13/00281 Where does energy R&D come from? Examining
crowding out from energy R&D
Popp, D. and Newell, R. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 980991.
Recent efforts to endogenize technological change in climate policy
models demonstrate the importance of accounting for the opportunity
cost of climate R&D investments. Because the social returns to R&D
investments are typically higher than the social returns to other types of
investment, any new climate mitigation R&D that comes at the expense
of other R&D investment may dampen the overall gains from induced
technological change. Unfortunately, there has been little empirical
work to guide modellers as to the potential magnitude of such crowding
out effects. This paper considers both the private and social oppor-
tunity costs of climate R&D. Addressing private costs, the authors
question whether an increase in climate R&D represents new R&D
spending, or whether some (or all) of the additional climate R&D
comes at the expense of other R&D. Addressing social costs, they use
patent citations to compare the social value of alternative energy
research to other types of R&D that may be crowded out. Beginning at
the industry level, they found no evidence of crowding out across
sectors that is, increases in energy R&D do not draw R&D resources
away from sectors that do not perform R&D. Given this, they
proceeded with a detailed look at alternative energy R&D. Linking
patent data and financial data by firm, they asked whether an increase
in alternative energy patents leads to a decrease in other types of
patenting activity. While they found that increases in alternative energy
patents do result in fewer patents of other types, the evidence suggests
that this is due to profit-maximizing changes in research effort, rather
than financial constraints that limit the total amount of R&D possible.
Finally, patent citation data were used to compare the social value of
alternative energy patents to other patents by these firms. Alternative
energy patents are cited more frequently, and by a wider range of other
technologies, than other patents by these firms, suggesting that their
social value is higher.
10 SPACE HEATING AND
COOLING/HEAT PUMPS
13/00282 A hybrid formulation for fast explicit calculation
of thermodynamic properties of refrigerants
Sieres, J. et al. International Journal of Refrigeration, 2012, 35, (4),
10211034.
When simulating refrigeration systems or equipment, knowledge of
refrigerant thermodynamic properties is required. Even though the
traditional equations of state have the ability to yield all of the
thermodynamic properties, these formulations present the disadvan-
tage of their low computational speed and that most of the thermo-
dynamic properties equations are implicit and require iterations. In this
paper a hybrid formulation for the calculation of thermodynamic
properties of pure refrigerants and refrigerant mixtures is presented.
Explicit formulations are obtained to model some properties that are
used to predict other thermodynamic properties through differen-
tiation, which assures a fast and stable calculation. As an example the
equations for R1234yf and R407C are presented in the paper. The
source data for regressing was obtained from REFPROP 9.0. The
accuracy of the thermodynamic properties formulae is satisfactory for
applications in which computation speed and stability are preferred
rather than accuracy.
13/00283 A review of heat pipe systems for heat recovery
and renewable energy applications
Chaudhry, H. N. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
2012, 16, (4), 22492259.
Advancements into the computational studies have increased the
development of heat pipe arrangements, displaying multiphase flow
regimes and highlighting the broad scope of the respective technology
for utilization in passive and active applications. The purpose of this
review is to evaluate current heat pipe systems for heat recovery and
renewable applications utility. Basic features and limitations are
outlined and theoretical comparisons are drawn with respect to the
operating temperature profiles for the reviewed industrial systems.
Working fluids are compared on the basis of the figure of merit for the
range of temperatures. The review established that standard tubular
heat pipe systems present the largest operating temperature range in
comparison to other systems and therefore offer viable potential for
optimization and integration into renewable energy systems.
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 43
10 Space heating and cooling/heat pumps
13/00284 A review on surface control of thermal radiation
by paints and coatings for new energy applications
Wijewardane, S. and Goswami, D. Y. Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, 2012, 16, (4), 18631873.
Emission of thermal radiation from a surface can be controlled
spectrally and spatially, and the polarization and coherence of the
radiation field can be modified. Of the various methods available for
altering the radiation properties from a surface, paint and coatings
possess a clear advantage regarding the cost, ease of application and
simplicity. This study comprehensively reviews the capabilities of paint
and coating technologies for emission control and for possible new
energy-related applications. It also presents an overview of the involved
theories, common design and fabrication methods and possible future
research opportunities to optimize these paints and coatings for
spectral selectivity for specific applications.
13/00285 Assessment of a closed thermochemical energy
storage using energy and exergy methods
Abedin, A. H. and Rosen, M. A. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 1823.
Thermal energy storage (TES) is an important technology for achieving
more efficient and environmentally benign energy systems. Thermo-
chemical TES is a type of TES with the potential for high energy
density and is only recently being considered intensively. To improve
understanding of thermochemical TES systems and their implemen-
tation, energy and exergy analyses are beneficial. Here, thermodyn-
amics assessments are presented for a general closed thermochemical
TES system, including assessments and comparisons of the efficiencies
of the overall thermochemical TES cycle and its charging, storing and
discharging processes. Locations and causes of thermodynamic losses
in thermochemical TES systems are being specified using exergy
analysis. The analytical methodology applied in this study identifies
that energy and exergy efficiencies differ for thermochemical TESs, e.g.
the energy efficiency for a case study is approximately 50% while the
exergy efficiency is about 10%. Although the focus is to evaluate
thermodynamic efficiencies, other design parameters such as cost, and
environmental impact also need to be examined in assessing thermo-
chemical storage. The efficiencies for thermochemical TES provided
here should be helpful for designing these energy systems and
enhancing their future prospects.
13/00286 Characterising PCM thermal storage systems
using the effectiveness-NTU approach
Belusko, M. et al. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer,
2012, 55, (1314), 33593365.
Thermal performance characterization of thermal storage systems
employing phase change materials (PCMs) has been carried out
predominantly through numerical modelling. These models do not
provide a direct representation of the storage system, and cannot
readily be used to design a thermal storage unit (TSU) for a particular
application to meet the performance specification. Furthermore,
limited consideration is given to exergy efficiency of the PCM system
being studied. The phase change profiles identified in detailed
simulation of PCM encapsulated in flat containers, have been
employed to analytically formulate the TSU effectiveness using the
familiar effective-NTU (-NTU) approach. A one- and two-dimension
formulation were developed with respect to the phase change fraction.
This single parameter function can be used for sizing a TSU, by
determining the redundant amount of PCM defined by the minimum
effectiveness during discharging. Furthermore by optimizing design
parameters, exergy losses can be minimized by maximizing the effec-
tiveness over the full charging discharging cycle. The study demon-
strated that for air-based systems phase change can be represented in
one-dimension, however for liquid based systems two-dimensional
phase change needs to be considered.
13/00287 Combined heat transfer in multi-layered radiation
shields for vacuum insulation panels: theoretical/numerical
analyses and experiment
Kim, J. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 295302.
This paper investigates radiation and conduction heat transfer in
stacked radiation shields to be used in vacuum insulation panels. Test
radiation shields are multi-layered films of 32 nm Al, 12 mm PET and
32 nm Al thicknesses, folded with regular span and stacked in staggered
manner. Radius of curvature of the folded parts is measured by a three-
dimensional scanner and the contact radius is calculated using Hertz
contact theory. Depthwise conduction around the contact spot and two-
dimensional radial conduction models are adopted for the theoretical
and the numerical analyses, together with measured surface emissivity.
Measurement of the effective thermal conductivity of radiation shields
is conducted using a vacuum guarded hot plate apparatus. Measure-
ments show very low values between 0.3 and 1.0 mW/mK. Theoretical
and numerical results agree with measurements with maximum relative
error of 29.1% and 18.3%, respectively. A simplified conduction model
is also proposed and shown to be very useful for practical applications.
It was found that the stacked radiation shields have very high insulation
performance, the numerical model is fairly reliable and finally,
conduction is negligibly small compared with radiation for this shield.
13/00288 Conflation of 0 -N
tu
and EGM design methods for
heat exchangers with uniform wall temperature
Hermes, C. J. L. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2012,
55, (1314), 38123817.
This paper conflates two heat exchanger design approaches the -N
tu
(effectivenessnumber of transfer units) and the EGM (entropy gene-
ration minimization) focusing on heat exchangers with uniform wall
temperature, i.e. condensers and evaporators. An algebraic formu-
lation which expresses the dimensionless rate of entropy generation as
a function of the heat exchanger geometry (number of transfer units),
the thermal-hydraulic characteristics (friction factor and Colburn j-
factor), and the operating conditions (heat transfer duty, core velocity,
surface temperature, and fluid properties) is derived. It is shown that
there does exist a particular number of transfer units which minimizes
the dimensionless rate of entropy generation. An algebraic expression
for the optimum heat exchanger effectiveness, based on the working
conditions, heat exchanger geometry and fluid properties, is also
presented. The theoretical analysis led to the conclusion that a high
effectiveness heat exchanger design does not necessarily provide the
best thermal-hydraulic performance.
13/00289 Cooling capacity of plate type research reactors
during the natural convective cooling mode
Jo, D. et al. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 2012, 56, 3742.
Numerical investigations on the cooling capacity of plate type research
reactors during the natural convective cooling mode are fulfilled in the
present study. The cooling capacity, as a thermal core design criterion,
is determined by the onset of nucleate boiling (ONB) temperature
margin. A simplified model, consisting of the lower plenum, the core,
the chimney, the flap valve, and the pool, is simulated by RELAP5/
MOD3 and NATCON. The axial and radial peaking factors for the
power distribution are applied to investigate the cooling capacity on
the hot spot in a fuel assembly. Several convective heat transfer
correlations developed in earlier studies are implemented into the
simulations; then the coolant and surface temperatures and ONB
temperature margin, as a function of core power, are obtained from the
simulations. The comparisons between RELAP5/MOD3 and NAT-
CON simulations are in good agreement, and the lowest cooling
capacity, which limits the permissible core power during the natural
convection cooling, is found with Sudo heat transfer correlation.
13/00290 Design of heat sink for improving the
performance of thermoelectric generator using two-stage
optimization
Wang, C.-C. et al. Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 236245.
Thermoelectric (TE) devices can provide clean energy conversion and
are environmentally friendly; however, little research has been
published on the optimal design of air-cooling systems for thermo-
electric generators (TEGs). The present study investigates the
performance of a TEG combined with an air-cooling system designed
using two-stage optimization. An analytical method is used to model
the heat transfer of the heat sink and a numerical method with a finite
element scheme is employed to predict the performance of the TEG. In
the first-stage optimization, the optimal fin spacing for a given heat
sink geometry is obtained in accordance with the analytical method. In
the second-stage optimization, called compromise programming,
decreasing the length of the heat sink by increasing its frontal area
(W
HS
H
f
) is the recommended design approach. Using the obtained
compromise point, though the heat sink efficiency is reduced by
20.93% compared to that without the optimal design, the TEG output
power density is increased by 88.70%. It is thus recommended for the
design of the heat sink. Moreover, the TEG power density can be
further improved by scaling-down the TEG when the heat sink length is
below 14.5 mm.
13/00291 Development and analysis of mineral based
coatings for buildings and urban structures
Kolokotsa, D. et al. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (5), 16481659.
Commonly used materials in the construction of the building fac ades
located in warm climates, often entrap a great amount of heat from the
incoming solar radiation, leading to a respective thermal increase in the
interior. The aim of the present study is to examine mineral-based
coatings as a passive solar technique that contributes to buildings
energy efficiency. A series of mineral based samples are developed and
tested. Their thermal performance is estimated by infrared thermo-
graphy and surface temperature measurements. Their optical proper-
ties are also measured while the energy efficiency is quantified using
simulation techniques. The results revealed that renders based on
hydraulic and/or hydrated lime with additions of calcium carbonate
44 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
10 Space heating and cooling/heat pumps
powder, as well as mineral paints comprised either of lime wash or
silicate minerals can behave as cool coatings and contribute to a
significant reduction of the cooling demand in warm climates.
13/00292 Development of approach for reliability
assessment of pipeline network systems
Rimkevicius, S. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 2233.
The aim of the work presented in this paper is to develop a common
scientific methodology for the assessment of reliability of the pipeline
network energy systems. The developed methodology is applicable for
district heating, gas and oil supply networks. The reliability of all these
systems depends on the degradation mechanisms and structural
integrity of pipes. Structural integrity is influenced by loadings, defined
by thermalhydraulic processes. The reliability of energy network
systems also depends on reliability of the installed equipment and the
supply source. The reliability of pipeline networks is treated as a
complex task. Consequently, the developed methodology includes three
types of analyses: probabilistic mathematical, deterministic thermal
hydraulic and deterministic-probabilistic structural integrity analyses.
As a pilot study, the application of the developed methodology for the
analysis of Kaunas (Lithuania) district heating system was performed.
The main results of this pilot study are presented in the paper.
Although the original intention is to apply the developed methodology
for the assessment of the reliability of the Lithuanian energy systems,
in general, the methodology is applicable for any pipeline network
system in any country.
13/00293 Effect of preparation methods on the structure
and thermal properties of stearic acid/activated
montmorillonite phase change materials
Wang, Y. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 47, 467473.
Two kinds of phase change materials (PCMs) were prepared and
various characterization techniques were employed to investigate the
influence of preparation methods on the structural characteristics and
thermal properties. The results show both composites have similar
morphology, structure and comparable latent heats with stearic acid
intercalated into a-MMT gallery. Thermal reliability and thermal
cycling test obviously indicated that preparation technology affected
the thermal properties. Latent heat of the composite prepared by
melting impregnation method changed by 0.59% for fusion and
1.01% for solidification, whereas, it declined by 39.71% and 40.89%
for the composite prepared by solution immersed technology after 600
thermal cycling. In other words, the melting impregnation method is a
potential candidate for preparing reliable composite PCMs.
13/00294 Energy performance evaluation of an evaporative
wind tower
Soutullo, S. et al. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (5), 13961410.
The aim of this paper is to optimize the energy performance of
cylindrical cross section evaporative wind towers as passive systems for
thermal conditioning of urban spaces. Two theoretical models, a
thermal model and a fluid model, have been developed to characterize
the evaporative system and the tower design respectively. The thermal
model evaluates the tower operation when the fan and the nozzles are
working, giving as result the difference between the outlet temperature
and inlet temperature. This model has been used to analyse the
thermal response of the system to fluctuations in design parameters
(water flow, air flow and absorption coefficient of the plastic). To that
effect, three one-parametric and one multi-parametric optimization
have been done. The fluid model describes the tower operation when
the fan and the nozzles are not working, giving as result the wind
behaviour through the tower. Additional configurations of the wind
tower have been evaluated: changing the number of the wind catcher
openings, varying the height of the internal walls of the tower and
modifying the geometry of the lower ventilation apertures.
13/00295 Enhancing heat transfer in vortex generator-type
multifunctional heat exchangers
Habchi, C. et al. Applied Thermal Engineering, 2012, 38, 1425.
Global and local analysis of the heat transfer in turbulent vortical flows
is studied using three-dimensional numerical simulations. Vorticity is
generated by inclined vortex generators in a turbulent circular pipe
flow with 12 different configurations that fall into three categories. In
the first category are rows of trapezoidal vortex generators in different
arrangements; in the second category the vortex generators are fixed at
certain distance from the tube wall, and the third category has vortex
generator rows between which a row of small protrusions are inserted
on the tube wall. First, a global analysis of the thermal performance is
performed for all these configurations, which are also compared with
other heat exchangers from the literature. New correlations for the
friction factor and Nusselt number are then obtained. Local analysis of
the effect of the flow structure on the temperature distribution is
carried out for the four configurations showing the best performances.
The local analysis involves studying the streamwise vorticity flux to
characterize the convective transport process, the turbulent kinetic
energy characterizing the turbulent mixing, and finally the local Nusselt
number.
13/00296 Experimental evaluation on natural convection
heat transfer of microencapsulated phase change materials
slurry in a rectangular heat storage tank
Zhang, Y. et al. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012, 59, 3339.
The main purpose of this experiment is to evaluate natural convection
heat transfer characteristics of microencapsulated PCM (phase change
material) slurry (MPCMS) during phase change process in a
rectangular heat storage tank heated from the bottom and cooled at
the top. The microencapsulated PCM is several material compositions
of n-paraffin waxes (mainly nonadecane) as the core materials, outside
a layer of a melamine resin wrapped. In the present study, its slurry is
used mixing with water. And the specific heat capacity with latent heat
shows a peak value at the temperature of about T=31

C. The authors
investigate the influences of the phase change process of the MPCMS
on natural convection heat transfer. The experimental results indicate
that phase change process of the MPCMS promote natural convection
heat transfer. The local maximum heat transfer enhancement occurs at
approximately T
H
=34

C corresponding to the heated plate tempera-

ture. With high mass concentration C
m
, the onset of natural convection
gets easier for the MPCMS. The temperature gradient is larger near top
plate and bottom plate of a rectangular heat storage tank. Heat
transfer coefficient increases with the phase change of the PCM. And it
summarizes that the phase change process of the PCM promote the
occurrence of natural convection.
13/00297 Experimental evaluations of the building shell
radiant exchange in clear sky conditions
Oliveti, G. et al. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (6), 17851795.
The results of an experimental investigation on the exchange of radiant
energy in the infrared band (`=4100 mm) between the walls of a
building and the surrounding environment, constituted in part by the
sky and in part by the ground, are presented in this paper. The
measures were obtained on a purpose-built test module for studies and
research on building energy. Through measurements of infrared
radiation on a south-facing vertical wall and on a horizontal roof,
and of the relative surface temperatures, the radiant field between
these surfaces and the outdoor environment was resolved in conditions
of clear hourly diurnal and nocturnal sky. The investigation allowed for
the determination of the hourly values of the radiative heat transfer
coefficients between the vertical wall and the sky, between the vertical
wall and the ground and between the horizontal roof and the sky.
Furthermore, EN ISO 13790:2008, which is used for the evaluation of
energy requirements of building air-conditioning, was considered and
the various contributions used in order to evaluate the radiative
exchange with the experimentally obtained values were compared.
13/00298 Form-stable phase change materials for thermal
energy storage
Kenisarin, M. M. and Kenisarina, K. M. Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, 2012, 16, (4), 19992040.
The present paper considers the state of investigations and develop-
ments in form-stable phase change materials for thermal energy
storage. Paraffins, fatty acids and their blends, polyethylene glycol are
widely used as latent heat storage component in developing form-stable
materials while high-density polyethylene (HDPE), styrenebutadiene
styrene (SBS) triblock copolymer, Eudragit S, Eudragit E, poly(vinyl
chloride) (PVC), poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and polyurethane block
copolymer serve as structure supporting component. A set of organic
and metallo-organic materials with high transition heat in solidsolid
state is considered as perspective for-stable materials to store thermal
energy. Another perspective class of form-stable materials are the
materials on the basis of such porous materials as expanded perlite and
vermiculite impregnated with phase change heat storage materials. The
technology of producing new form-stable ultrafine heat storage fibres is
developed. It opens availability to produce clothes with improved heat
storage ability for extremely cold regions. The perspective fields of
application of form-stable materials are discussed. The further direct-
ions of investigations and developments are considered.
13/00299 Heat and mass transfer studies on compact
generator of R134a/DMF vapour absorption refrigeration
system
Balamurugan, P. and Mani, A. International Journal of Refrigeration,
2012, 35, (3), 506517.
Experimental investigation on the performance of compact generator
of R134a/DMF vapour absorption refrigeration system is presented.
The system uses brazed plate heat exchangers as generator, condenser,
absorber, evaporator and solution heat exchanger and has a rated
cooling capacity of 1 kW. The influence of driving temperature ratio,
driving pressure ratio, R134a mass fraction and solution two phase
Reynolds number is studied. This kind of system can be operated with
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 45
10 Space heating and cooling/heat pumps
low grade thermal energy such as solar energy, waste heat, etc. The
generator temperature is chosen accordingly between 353 and 368 K.
Desorption ratio and Sherwood number increase as the solution
Reynolds number, solution initial mass fraction, and driving tempera-
ture ratio increase whereas they decrease as the driving pressure ratio
increases. The performance of the compact generator at different
operating conditions is presented. Based on the present data, empirical
correlations for Nusselt number and Sherwood number are proposed.
13/00300 Improving the exergy efficiency of a cryogenic air
separation unit as part of an integrated gasification
combined cycle
van der Ham, L. V. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012, 61,
3142.
The efficiency of a two-column cryogenic air separation unit (ASU)
that is part of an IGCC (integrated gasification combined cycle) can be
increased significantly by making better use of the heat of compression
and by improving the heat integration of the distillation columns. The
rational exergy efficiency of the ASU, which is defined as the desired
increase in exergy content of the products divided by the amount of
work that is added to the process, can be increased from 35% to over
70%. The exergy destruction per amount of feed is reduced with 1.6 kJ/
mol air, corresponding to a 0.74% increase in the net electric efficiency
of the IGCC. The efficiencies are expected to increase even further
because the full potential of using heat-integrated distillation columns
is not yet achieved.
13/00301 Influence of coupled pinch point temperature
difference and evaporation temperature on performance of
organic Rankine cycle
Li, Y.-R. et al. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 503509.
This paper presented the analysis on the influence of the pinch point
temperature difference (PPTD) and the evaporation temperature on
the performance of organic Rankine cycle in recovering the low
temperature waste heat of the flue gas. Both the net power output and
the heat transfer area of the evaporator and condenser were evaluated
for dry and isentropic working fluids. When the heat and cold source
conditions were given, the maximum net power output and the heat
transfer area were obtained. The results show that some organic
working fluids cannot reach the maximum net power output to avoid
the low temperature corrosion. With the increase of the PPTD of the
evaporator at a given total temperature difference, the total heat
transfer area decreases first and then increases, while the correspond-
ing cost-effective performance (ratio of the net power output to total
heat transfer area) displays almost the opposite variation tendency.
The PPTD of the evaporator for the optimization cost-effective
performance is approximately the same for different organic working
fluids. Meanwhile, the isentropic working fluids show better cost-
effective performance than dry working fluids.
13/00302 Inverse neural network based control strategy for
absorption chillers
Labus, J. et al. Renewable Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 471482.
This paper proposes a novel, model-based control strategy for
absorption cooling systems. First, a small-scale absorption chiller was
modelled using artificial neural networks (ANNs). This model takes
into account inlet and outlet temperatures as well as the flow rates of
the external water circuits. The configuration 962 (nine inputs, six
hidden and two output neurons) showed excellent agreement between
the prediction and the experimental data (R
2
>0.99 and
RMSE<0.05%). This type of ANN model is used to explain the
behaviour of the system when operating conditions are measured and
these measurements are available. A control strategy was also
developed by using the inverse artificial neural network (ANNi)
method. For a particular output (cooling load) the ANNi calculates the
optimal unknown parameter(s) (controlling temperatures and flow
rates). An optimization method was used to fit the unknown
parameters of the ANNi method. The very low percentage of error
and short computing time make this methodology suitable for the on-
line control of absorption cooling systems.
13/00303 Long-term performance of an irregular shaped
borehole heat exchanger system: analysis of real pattern
and regular grid approximation
Teza, G. et al. Geothermics, 2012, 43, 4556.
A reliable evaluation of long-term performance of a heat pump
coupled with a borehole heat exchanger (BHE) field is necessary to
verify the stability of its heat exchange capability over the time. The
BHE field pattern is often assumed to be regular (e.g. rectangular, L-
shaped, T-shaped, etc.), or is assumed to be adequately approximated
by one of these shapes. Moreover, a planned geothermal system is
often designed regardless of the presence of other existing or planned
BHE systems. In order to evaluate the validity and the possible
limitations of these assumptions commonly made by the designer, a
number of 25-year time span simulations have been carried out by
means of two-dimensional finite element modelling. In particular, the
case of a real 28 BHE field, irregularly shaped and related to a building
located in northern Italy, has been studied together with its 7-by-4
regular grid approximation and a series of 28 BHE fields having
different shapes. Besides the real annual thermal load profile
characterized by quasi-balanced winter heating and summer cooling,
two other profiles characterized by increasingly unbalanced operation
have been taken into account. The numerical study shows that (i) the
regularly shaped approximation, a common choice in BHE design,
seems to be reasonable under the condition that groundwater flow is
absent for all the thermal load profiles; (ii) if a strong heating/cooling
imbalance occurs, the thermal footprint of a BHE field can be very
extensive, preventing the installation of future nearby BHE systems.
13/00304 Macroscopic spray behavior and atomization
characteristics of refrigerant R22 injection under increased
ambient pressure
Roh, C. W. and Kim, M. S. International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer, 2012, 55, (1112), 33073315.
This study investigates the spray behaviour and atomization charac-
teristics of refrigerant R22 injection in a high-pressure chamber under
various ambient pressures using a spray visualization system and image
processing. In order to observe the spray behaviour of R22, the spray
images were analysed in time series after the start of injection. From
the spray images, spray characteristics such as the spray tip penetra-
tion, cone angle and spray area were investigated by using the contour
map of the light intensity levels. The results showed that the ambient
pressure significantly affected the spray characteristics of the refriger-
ant. The spray tip penetration velocity was the highest at the ambient
pressure of 500 kPa. When the ambient pressure was lower than
500 kPa, the vaporization of the refrigerant determined the spray and
atomization characteristics; however, when ambient pressure was
higher than 500 kPa, the surface tension and viscosity of the refrigerant
and the density of ambient gas affected the spray behaviour and
atomization characteristics. Furthermore, the injection stream of the
refrigerant was compared with the injection stream of water at the
ambient pressure of 1500 kPa.
13/00305 Novel MILP-based iterative method for the retrofit
of heat exchanger networks with intensified heat transfer
Pan, M. et al. Computers & Chemical Engineering, 2012, 42, 263276.
Heat transfer intensification is an effective technique for improving
energy recovery in heat exchanger networks (HEN) by enhancing heat
transfer without any network topology modifications. In this paper, a
novel optimization method has been developed for the synthesis of
intensified heat exchanger networks with a simple mixed integer linear
programming (MILP) model under retrofit scenario, and a robust
solution strategy based on two iteration loops has been proposed. The
new method has distinctive advantages over existing design methods, as
the new MILP model can effectively and significantly reduce compu-
tational difficulties associated with the non-linear formulation in
existing HEN retrofit formulations. Three cases have been tested to
demonstrate the validity and efficiency of the proposed approach,
which requires very short computational times to obtain optimal solu-
tions when energy saving or profit is to be maximized through retrofit.
13/00306 Objective function proposed for optimization of
convective heat transfer devices
Lee, K. D. and Kim, K. Y. International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer, 2012, 55, (1112), 27922799.
In this work, a general method using exergy analysis has been proposed
to achieve a compromise between heat transfer effectiveness and
pressure loss in heat transfer optimization problems involving internal
channels. The proposed method is applied to the design optimization
of a channel roughened by staggered arrays of dimples for heat transfer
augmentation. Optimization is performed using surrogate-based
optimization techniques and three-dimensional Reynolds-averaged
NavierStokes analysis. Three non-dimensional design variables are
defined using the dimpled channel height, dimple print diameter,
dimple spacing, and dimple depth. The objective function is defined as
the net exergy gain considering the exergy gain by heat transfer, and
exergy losses generated by friction and heat transfer. Twenty design
points are generated using Latin hypercube sampling, and the Kriging
model is used as a surrogate model to approximate the objective
function values in the design space. Through optimization, the objec-
tive function is successfully improved with respect to the reference
geometry.
13/00307 Polyurethanes as solidsolid phase change
materials for thermal energy storage
Alkan, C. et al. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (6), 17611769.
Polyurethane polymers (PUs) have been synthesized as solidsolid
phase change materials for thermal energy storage using three different
kinds of diisocyanate molecules and polyethylene glycols (PEGs) at
three different molecular weights. PEGs and their derivatives are
46 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
10 Space heating and cooling/heat pumps
usually used as phase change units in polymeric solidsolid phase
change materials due to the hydroxyl functional groups. 1000, 6000 and
10,000 g/mol number average molecular weight PEGs are used as
working element as hexamethylene, isophorone and toluene diisocya-
nates are used as hard segment at the backbone. The effects of mole-
cular weight of PEG and type of diisocyanate on the thermal energy
storage properties have been discussed. Only two of the produced
polymers show solidliquid phase change as the rest show solidsolid
phase transitions. The produced PUs with a solidsolid phase tran-
sitions have potential to be used in thermal energy storage systems.
13/00308 Preparation and thermal energy properties of
paraffin/halloysite nanotube composite as form-stable
phase change material
Zhang, J. et al. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (5), 11421148.
Phase change materials (PCMs) have attracted extensively interests in
solar storage. This study prepared a new kind of composite PCM by
impregnating paraffin (P) into halloysite nanotube. The as-prepared
composite PCM was characterized by TEM, FT-IR and DSC analysis
techniques. The composite can absorb paraffin as high as 65 wt% and
maintain its original shape perfectly without any paraffin leakage after
subjected to 50 meltfreeze cycles. The melting temperature and latent
heat of composite (P/HNT: 65/35 wt%) were determined as 57.16

C
and 106.54 J/g by DSC. Graphite was added into the P/HNT composite
to improve thermal storage performance, and the melting time and
freezing time of the composite were reduced by 60.78% and 71.52%
compared with the composite without graphite, respectively. Due to its
high adsorption capacity, high heat storage capacity, good thermal
stability and simple preparation method, the composite can be
considered as cost-effective latent heat storage material for practical
application.
13/00309 Pressure drops and loss coefficients of a phase
change material slurry in pipe fittings
Ma, Z. W. and Zhang, P. International Journal of Refrigeration, 2012,
35, (4), 9921002.
This study investigated the pressure drops and loss coefficients of a
phase change material slurry-tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBAB)
clathrate hydrate slurry (CHS) in pipe fittings. Pressure drops of TBAB
CHS in 6 mm and 14 mm straight tubes, 14 mm 90

elbow, sudden
contraction from 14 to 6 mm, sudden expansion from 6 to 14 mm,
14 mm tee distribution and convergence were measured as the mass
fraction of TBAB CHS varying from 0 to 30 wt%. Power-law model was
applied to describe the characteristics of slurry flow, and the fluid
parameters including the flow behaviour index and fluid consistence
factor were obtained for 6 and 14 mm tubes, respectively. Furthermore,
the loss coefficients of TBAB CHS flowing through the pipe fittings
were obtained from the experimental results and the corresponding
correlations were also developed.
13/00310 Resorption system for cold storage and
long-distance refrigeration
Bao, H. S. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 479487.
A thermochemical resorption refrigeration system was designed and
two types of application were investigated: (1) cold storage and
(2) long-distance refrigeration. Manganese chloride and ammonium
chloride were used as high-temperature salt (HTS) and low-tempera-
ture salt (LTS), respectively, and ammonia was utilized as reacting gas.
The working performance in terms of coefficient of performance
(COP) and specific cooling power (SCP) was assessed at different heat
source temperature (140170

C) and refrigeration temperature (15

to 5

C). The COP obtained at these conditions varied between 0.20

and 0.31, whereas the SCP was from 87 to 125 W per kg of MnCl
2
composite sorbent, depending on the working condition and on the
type of utilization.
13/00311 Rigorous multiple utility targeting in heat
exchanger networks
Castier, M. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012, 59, 7485.
This article presents a non-graphic procedure for utility targeting in
heat exchanger networks. It successfully finds the minimum needs of
hot and cold utilities stratified according to their temperature levels.
This promotes efficient energy use by guiding the design to avoid using
hot utilities at unnecessarily high temperatures and cold utilities at
unnecessarily low temperatures. Another feature is the rigorous
evaluation of the thermodynamic properties of process streams,
without assuming constant heat capacities or ad hoc linearizations of
enthalpytemperature relationships. The biggest advantage of this
approach is that the utility targeting results are more accurate than
those of methods that adopt such simplifying assumptions. The
procedure uses a global line search optimization technique for utility
targeting and its computational effort is well within the capabilities of
current personal computers.
13/00312 Simulated and experimental performance of a
heat pipe assisted solar wall
Albanese, M. V. et al. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (5), 15521562.
Performance was evaluated for a passive solar space heating system
utilizing heat pipes to transfer heat through an insulated wall from an
absorber outside the building to a storage tank inside the building. The
one-directional, thermal diode heat transfer effect of heat pipes make
them ideal for passive solar applications. Gains by the heat pipe are not
lost during cloud cover or periods of low irradiation. Simplified
thermal resistance-based computer models were constructed to
simulate the performance of direct gain, indirect gain, and integrated
heat pipe passive solar systems in four different climates. The heat pipe
system provided significantly higher solar fractions than the other
passive options in all climates, but was particularly advantageous in
cold and cloudy climates. Parametric sensitivity was evaluated for
material and design features related to the collector cover, absorber
plate, heat pipe, and water storage tank to determine a combination
providing good thermal performance with diminishing returns for
incremental parametric improvements. Important parameters included
a high transmittance glazing, a high-performance absorber surface and
large thermal storage capacity. An experimental model of the heat pipe
passive solar wall was also tested in a laboratory setting. Experimental
variations included fluid fill levels, addition of insulation on the
adiabatic section of the heat pipe, and fins on the outside of the
condenser section. Filling the heat pipe to 120% of the volume of the
evaporator section and insulating the adiabatic section achieved a
system efficiency of 85%. Addition of fins on the condenser of the heat
pipe did not significantly enhance overall performance. The computer
model was validated by simulating the laboratory experiments and
comparing experimental and simulated data. Temperatures across the
system were matched by adjusting the model conductances, which
resulted in good agreement with the experiment.
13/00313 Simulation of energy storage system with phase
change material (PCM)
Rostamizadeh, M. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 49, 419422.
Thermal energy storage plays an important role in a wide variety of
industrial, commercial and residential applications. Phase change
material (PCM) is used in these systems in order to store heat. Latent
heat storage in a PCM is very attractive, because of its high-energy
storage density and isothermal behaviour during the phase change
process. Increasing of building energy storage capacity can be achieved
with decreasing the indoor air temperature variations so that the
indoor temperature goes near comforting temperature for a long time
that results in more comfort for human. In this paper, a mathematical
model was developed based on an enthalpy formulation and the effect
of PCM thickness on temperature distribution in PCM and melting
fraction was investigated. Results show that melting time change
linearly with the amount of PCM and lower thicknesses are suitable for
a better PCM performance.
13/00314 Simulation of gas-substrate heat exchange
during cold-gas dynamic spraying
Ryabinin, A. N. et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences, 2012,
56, 1218.
In this study, the Nusselt numbers of impinging compressible fluid jets
originating from a cold-gas dynamic spraying nozzle were determined.
A low-pressure cold-gas dynamic spraying unit was used to generate a
jet of hot compressed nitrogen that impinged upon flat substrates.
Computer codes based on a finite differences method were used to
solve the governing 3-D temperature distribution equation for the
substrate to produce a non-dimensional relationship between the
Nusselt number and the radius of the impinging fluid jet. It was found
that the Nusselt number decreased as the non-dimensional radius of
the jet from the stagnation point increased. It was found further that
for small values of the Biot number, a simplified 2-D approximation of
the substrate temperature distribution produced substrate surface
temperature profiles that were in close agreement with that determined
from the more complex 3-D temperature distribution model.
13/00315 Solar heat gains and operative temperature in
attached sunspaces
Oliveti, G. et al. Renewable Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 241249.
Solar heat gains obtainable from attached sunspaces to air-conditioned
rooms are evaluated by means of the solution to the optical problem of
incident solar radiation absorption through the windows and of the
temperature field in the shell separating the sunspace from outdoors
and adjacent spaces. The effective absorption coefficient of the
sunspace was used for these evaluations as well as the ratio of the
absorbed energy of the internal surfaces to the solar energy entering,
and the utilization factor of the solar contributions that represent the
fraction of the absorbed energy supplied to the indoor air. With
reference to a pre-established geometry and to a system of windows
made up of clear double-glazing, the solar gains of the sunspace and
the adjacent spaces are calculated for some Italian localities at
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 47
10 Space heating and cooling/heat pumps
variation of exposure, optical properties and thermal capacity of the
opaque surfaces, the amount of ventilation and of the shading device.
Finally, the operative temperature was determined for an estimate of
comfort acceptability conditions in the sunspace.
13/00316 Solid state magnetic refrigerator
Silva, D. J. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 570574.
The viability and operation of a fully solid state magnetic refrigeration
system with envisaged applications on chip, sensor and device cooling is
here tested using numerical simulations. The proposed system relies on
the combined use of materials displaying the magnetocaloric effect and
of materials whose thermal conductivities are controlled by an external
magnetic field. This allows the switching of the heat flow direction in
sync with the temperature variation of the magnetocaloric material,
removing the necessity to use fluids which has for long hindered the
implementation of magnetic refrigeration. The authors have found the
optimum operating conditions of the proposed refrigerator, for which a
cooling power density of ~2.75 Wcm
2
was obtained for an operating
temperature of ~296 K, using gadolinium as the magnetocaloric
material and an applied magnetic field of 1 T. The coefficient of
performance (COP) achieved by this refrigerator was found to be COP
~1.5, making it a viable alternative to thermoelectric refrigeration.
13/00317 Study on heat transfer process for in-slab heating
floor
Liu, Y. et al. Building and Environment, 2012, 54, 7785.
In order to improve the accuracy of computational model of the
existing heat transfer process for in-slab heating floor, two heat
transfer models, the revised composite-fin model and the equivalent
heat resistance model, were developed in this paper. The revised
composite-fin model was developed from its original type. The
equivalent heat resistance model is a new method that has the ability
to calculate the heat gain from floor by introducing the concept of
equivalent heat resistance. The expression of equivalent heat resistance
depends on the shape factor of floor, and then a simplification
treatment is adopted to calculate heat gain of floor. The accuracy of
two models was assessed by laboratory test and numerical simulation
based on different heat conduct equations. It is believed that the two
models can provide a rather simple method to calculate the heat gain of
floor and to increase the design flexibility for various types of floors.
13/00318 The application of entransy theory in optimization
design of isopropanolacetonehydrogen chemical heat
pump
Guo, J. and Huai, X. Energy, 2012, 43, (1), 355360.
In the present work, a multi-parameter optimization approach of
isopropanolacetonehydrogen (IAH) chemical heat pump is devel-
oped based on the entransy theory. In the optimization process, the
total low-temperature heat consumed by the heat pump system
generally decreases while the high-temperature heat recovered by the
heat pump increases remarkably. When the temperatures of the
reboiler and endothermic reaction are fixed, the temperature of
exothermic reaction in the optimal design scheme is larger than that
in the initial design scheme, and the high-temperature heat released
from the exothermic reactor increases significantly in the optimal
design scheme. The enthalpy efficiency and exergy efficiency mono-
tonously increase as the entransy efficiency increases in the optimiz-
ation process. The entransy efficiency has a definite physical meaning
and pays more attention to the quality of the high-temperature heat
recovered by the heat pump than enthalpy efficiency; it does not
introduce an additional parameter and has more succinct expression
than exergy efficiency. The multi-parameter optimization approach
taking entransy efficiency as the objective function is very effective in
the optimization design of IAH chemical heat pump.
13/00319 The role of external heat exchangers in oxy-fuel
circulating fluidized bed
Bolea, I. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 215223.
Recently, oxy-fuel combustion has received increasing attention as one
of the short-term solutions for capturing CO
2
from power plants.
Despite their quick development, there are several issues that need
further research. Combustion characteristics, heat transfer, emissions
levels, optimum oxygen concentration and flue gas recycle are the main
concern of the literature. All these issues may introduce several
changes in power plant and boiler configuration that causes uncertainty
in the final design of future installations. In this respect, oxy-fuel
combustion in fluidized bed seems to present advantages in terms of
flexibility, operational adaptability and simplicity of design modifi-
cations respect to air combustion. These issues have been though
scarcely analysed in open literature. Oxy-fuel combustion in fluidized
beds would require the use of additional heat transfer surfaces in order
to control the bed temperature and the pollutant formation, minimiz-
ing the CO emission and taking advantage of the fuel energy in the
steam cycle. Moreover, the adaptability to different operational
conditions (flue gas recycle, oxygen concentration, boiler load, etc.)
inherent to fluidized bed characteristic would require an accurate
location of heat transfer surfaces. To achieve this aim, this paper
describes and compares the simulation results of a circulating fluidized
bed boiler with an external heat exchanger, working under air and oxy-
firing conditions. Calculation of fluidization conditions and comparison
with different oxy-fuel combustion characteristics are presented.
Results show the suitable location of heat transfer equipment in
circulating fluidized bed to obtain similar temperature profiles along
the boiler. A broad range of conditions have been run for different
boiler designs, and several operational limitations have been set for
selected boiler geometries.
13/00320 The use of TiO
2
nanoparticles to reduce
refrigerator ir-reversibility
Padmanabhan, V. M. V. and Palanisamy, S. Energy Conversion and
Management, 2012, 59, 122132.
The irreversibility of the process of a vapour-compression refrigeration
system (VCRS) with nanoparticles in the working fluid was investi-
gated experimentally. Mineral oil (MO) with 0.1 g L
1
TiO
2
nanopar-
ticles mixture were used as the lubricant instead of Polyol-ester (POE)
oil in the R134a, R436A (R290/R600a-56/44-wt%) and R436B (R290/
R600a-52/48-wt%) VCRSs. The VCRS irreversibility at the process
with the nanoparticles was investigated using second law of thermo-
dynamics. The results indicate that R134a, R436A and R436B and MO
with TiO
2
nanoparticles work normally and safely in the VCRS. The
VCRSs total irreversibility (529, 588 and 570 W) at different process
was better than the R134a, R436A and R436B and POE oil system
(777, 697 and 683 W). The same tests with Al
2
O
3
nanoparticles showed
that the different nanoparticles properties have little effect on the
VCRS irreversibility. Thus, TiO
2
nanoparticles can be used in VCRS
with reciprocating compressor to considerably reduce irreversibility at
the process.
13/00321 Thermal and electrical conductivity enhancement
of graphite nanoplatelets on form-stable polyethylene
glycol/polymethyl methacrylate composite phase change
materials
Zhang, L. et al. Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 294302.
Graphite nanoplatelets (GnPs), obtained by sonicating the expanded
graphite, were employed to simultaneously enhance the thermal (k)
and electrical (o) conductivity of organic form-stable phase change
materials (FSPCMs). Using the method of in situ polymerization on
ultrasonic irradiation, GnPs serving as the conductive fillers and
polyethylene glycol (PEG) acting as the phase change material (PCM)
were uniformly dispersed and embedded inside the network structure of
polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), which contributed to the well
package and self-supporting properties of composite FSPCMs. X-ray
diffraction and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy results
indicated that the GnPs were physically combined with PEG/PMMA
matrix and did not participate in the polymerization. The GnPs
additives were able to effectively enhance the k and o of organic
FSPCM. When the mass ratio of GnP was 8%, the k and o of FSPCM
changed up to nine times and eight orders of magnitude over that of
PEG/PMMA matrix, respectively. The improvements in both k and o
were mainly attributed to the well dispersion and large aspect ratio of
GnPs, which were endowed with benefit of forming conducting
network in polymer matrix. It was also confirmed that all the prepared
specimens possessed available thermal storage density and thermal
stability.
13/00322 Thermal energy storage: how previous findings
determine current research priorities
Fernandes, D. et al. Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 246257.
Thermal energy storage is an expanding field within the subject of
renewable energy technologies. After a listing of the different
possibilities available for energy storage, this paper provides a
comparison of various materials for high temperature thermal energy
storage (HTTS). Several attributes and needs of each solution are
listed. One in particular is using the latent heat as one of the most
efficient ways to store thermal energy. The mixture of phase change
material (PCM) embedded in a metal foam is optimizing the thermal
properties of the material for latent heat energy storage. The results of
previous studies show that mechanical and thermal properties of foam
were extensively studied separately. This paper highlights the potential
for an advanced study of thermo-mechanical properties of metal foams
embedded with PCM.
13/00323 Thermodynamic performance of R32/R152a
mixture for water source heat pumps
Lee, H.-S. et al. Energy, 2012, 40, (1), 100106.
Air-conditioning and heat pumping performance of R32/R152a
mixture is measured in the composition range of 2050% R32 with
an interval of 10% for the comparison with HCFC22 in a water source
heat pump bench tester. Tests are carried out under the same capacity
in the bench tester equipped with a variable speed open type
48 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
10 Space heating and cooling/heat pumps
compressor at the evaporation and condensation temperatures of 7/
45

C and 7/41

C for summer and winter conditions, respectively.

Test results show that the compressor power of R32/R152a mixture is
up to 13.7% lower than that of HCFC22 while the coefficient of
performance (COP) of R32/R152a mixture is up to 15.8% higher than
that of HCFC22. From the view point of energy efficiency, R32/R152a
mixture is excellent as compared to HCFC22. Compressor discharge
temperatures of R32/R152a mixture are increased up to 15.4

C as
compared to those of HCFC22. The amount of charge for R32/R152a
mixture is decreased up to 27% as compared to that of HCFC22.
Overall, R32/R152a mixture is an excellent long-term solution to
replace HCFC22 in water source heat pumps under the similar
evaporator and condenser temperatures. The flammability study shows
that the mixture is virtually not flammable at the drop-in composition
of 36%R32/64%R152a.
13/00324 Using phase change materials in window shutter
to reduce the solar heat gain
Alawadhi, E. M. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 47, 421429.
A significant amount of the solar heat gain in buildings comes through
the windows, and the most effective way to reduce it is to install
exterior shading devices, such as window shutters. The window shutters
are typically made of foam-filled aluminium rolling shutter slat. In this
research, a technique of solar heat gain reduction in building through
windows using phase change material (PCM) in the shutter instead of
foam is investigated using finite element method. The objective of
using PCM in the shutters is to utilize its high latent heat of fusion to
reduce the heat gain by absorbing the heat gain before it reaches the
indoor space. The thermal effectiveness of the proposed PCM shutter
system is evaluated by comparing the gain at the indoor space to the
heat gain of foam shutter during typical working hours. A parametric
study is conducted to assess the effect of different design parameters,
such as PCMs type and quantity in the shutter. The result indicates
that PCM with the highest examined melting temperature shows the
best thermal performance, and the heat gain through windows can be
reduced as high as 23.29%.
13/00325 Verification and validation of EnergyPlus phase
change material model for opaque wall assemblies
Tabares-Velasco, P. C. et al. Building and Environment, 2012, 54, 186
196.
Phase change materials (PCMs) represent a technology that may
reduce peak loads and HVAC energy consumption in buildings. A few
building energy simulation programs have the capability to simulate
PCMs, but their accuracy has not been completely tested. This study
shows the procedure used to verify and validate the PCM model in
EnergyPlus using a similar approach as dictated by ASHRAE Standard
140, which consists of analytical verification, comparative testing, and
empirical validation. This process was valuable, as two bugs were
identified and fixed in the PCM model, and version 7.1 of EnergyPlus
will have a validated PCM model. Preliminary results using whole-
building energy analysis show that careful analysis should be done
when designing PCMs in homes, as their thermal performance depends
on several variables such as PCM properties and location in the
building envelope.
11 ENGINES
Power generation and propulsion,
electrical vehicles
13/00326 Assessment of flash-boiling for pulse detonation
engines
Wen, C. S. et al. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2012,
55, (1112), 27512760.
Liquid-fuelled pulse detonation engines must complete the process of
feeding, mixing and purging in milliseconds. Such an engine is
extremely sensitive to the Sauter mean diameter (SMD must be less
than 10 mm) and particle size distribution of the fuel, requirements
which are difficult if impossible for most fuel injectors to achieve. This
study selected an injector from a direct injection engine and used the
aviation fuel JP-8. Utilizing a wide range of operation pressure and
duration time, the injection timing and equivalence ratio could be
accurately controlled with good response time. The results of the
experiment indicate that an SMD of less than 10 mm can be achieved
with a fuel pressure greater than 8 MPa. This condition, however,
resulted in an overly long injection penetration. This study further
incorporated the concept of flash boiling to derive a smaller SMD.
However, this causes carbon deposition to occur due to cracking or
thermal reaction. To circumvent this phenomenon, this study estab-
lished a deoxygenation device to mitigate oxidization, further investi-
gating the influence of heating temperature on the generation of
deposition. The results of spray distribution indicated that when the
fuel is heated to 100

C, only 6 MPa is necessary for achieving fuel

droplet characteristics favourable for detonation. Regarding deoxy-
genation, the results were most significant in fuel heated to 500

C.
13/00327 Effect of low ambient temperature on fuel
consumption and pollutant and CO
2
emissions of hybrid
electric vehicles in real-world conditions
Alvarez, R. and Weilenmann, M. Fuel, 2012, 97, 119124.
Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) can potentially reduce vehicle fuel
consumption and CO
2
emissions by using recuperated kinetic vehicle
energy stored as electric energy in a hybrid system battery (HSB). Low
ambient temperatures can affect the overall HEV powertrain operation
under warm-up and hot driving conditions and, consequently, affect
fuel consumption and emission performance. The present study
investigates the influence of low ambient temperatures on HEV fuel
consumption and pollutant and CO
2
emissions for five in-use HEV
models. Chassis dynamometer measurements have been conducted at
different set ambient temperatures using a real-world driving cycle
suitable for investigating vehicle cold-start emissions. The main
observation is that the amount of HEV cold-start extra emissions
(CSEEs) of regulated pollutants are reduced by 30% to 85% on
average in comparison to sample CSEEs of conventional gasoline
vehicles. The results for HEV CSEEs of CO
2
and fuel consumption are
mainly similar than those of conventional gasoline vehicles except for
CSEEs of some HEVs at the ambient temperature of 23

C. There,
increased CSEEs are observed that exceed maximum sample CSEEs of
conventional gasoline vehicles, reaching values for CO
2
between 155 [g/
start] and 300 [g/start] even though the test runs were initiated with
maximum initial state of charge (SOC) of the HSB. Because SOC of
the HSB considerably influences the fuel consumption of HEVs, this
aspect should be further investigated in regard to the effect of low
ambient temperatures on HEV fuel consumption and CO
2
emissions.
Moreover, no particular influence of low ambient temperatures on
HSB performance was observed during hot-phase operation.
13/00328 Experimental analysis on a spark ignition petrol
engine fuelled with LPG (liquefied petroleum gas)
Masi, M. Energy, 2012, 41, (1), 252260.
The use of LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) as alternative fuel to petrol
is common practice in spark ignition engines. While the main driving
force to the use of LPG still remains the low cost for the end user, its
favourable pollutant emissions, in particular carbon dioxide, will in the
middle term probably increase interest in LPG as an IC engine fuel. In
addition, there are both theoretical and technical reasons to consider
LPG as an attractive fuel also in terms of engine performance. Despite
the continuously increasing stock production of dual-fuel (petrolLPG)
passenger car models, doubts still exist about both real engine
performance in LPG operation and the reliability of the dual-fuel
feeding system. This paper deals with the theoretical advantages of
using LPG as fuel for SI engines. Brake performance tests of a
passenger car engine fed with petrol and LPG are analysed and
compared. The stock engine has been equipped with a third-
generation standard kit for dual-fuel operation. The performance
reductions in LPG operation are discussed in both steady state and
transient condition. The results of some modifications to the set-up of
both the petrol and LPG metering devices, designed for a better
justification of the measured performance, are also presented.
13/00329 Failure of fuel injectors in a medium speed diesel
engine operating on bio-oil
Galle, J. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 40, 2735.
The residue of a fatty acid distillation was used as a diesel fuel in a
medium speed diesel engine. This bio-oil was heated to 110

C to
decrease the viscosity to 8 mPa s. The injectors working with the bio-oil
failed prematurely with operation times ranging from 50 to 1500 h. The
injectors and the fuel were investigated in order to know the reasons of
the failure and to improve the operation of the engine. The
investigation revealed different causes, including plastic deformation
and clogging of the injectors passages, as well as micro cracks, erosion
and cavitation damage. The failed injectors were compared with non-
affected ones from the same engine and injectors from fossil diesel
fuelled engines. It was found that the chemical and physical comp-
osition of the fuel enforced the failure of the injectors.
13/00330 Heat transfer analysis in a turbocharger turbine:
an experimental and computational evaluation
Romagnoli, A. and Martinez-Botas, R. Applied Thermal Engineering,
2012, 38, 5877.
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 49
11 Engines (power generation and propulsion, electrical vehicles)
This paper presents the performance of a turbocharger under non-
adiabatic conditions in order to assess the impact of heat transfer. A
commercial turbocharger was installed on a 2.0-litre diesel engine and
measurements were conducted for a range of engine speeds and loads.
The test results enabled to assess the impact of the engine on the
temperature distribution of the bodies constituting the turbocharger,
quantify the heat fluxes through the turbocharger and evaluate their
effects on the deterioration of compressor performance. A one-
dimensional heat transfer model was also developed and validated
against the experimental measurements. The algorithms calculate the
heat transferred through the turbocharger by means of lump
capacitances. Compressor maps were then generated for a range of
speeds and temperatures of the exhaust gases at the inlet to turbine
and the efficiency drop associated with heat transfer was quantified.
Based on the data generated by the model, a new correlation for the
compressor non-adiabatic efficiency was found by means of a multiple
regression analysis; the work is based on a statistical description of the
different parameters that affect the heat transfer model.
13/00331 Integrated probabilistic design of marine
propulsors to minimize lifetime fuel consumption
Motley, M. R. et al. Ocean Engineering, 2012, 45, 18.
Marine propellers are typically designed to achieve optimal perform-
ance at a single or a few design points. It is well understood that the
performance of marine propulsion systems decays at off-design
conditions, where the system operates for the majority of its life,
where fuel consumption rates are high and the system as a whole
operates at lower efficiencies. This paper presents a novel integrated
design methodology that considers the propeller, prime mover, and
vessel as one integrated system, and considers the probabilistic
operational profile of the vessel, to minimize lifetime fuel consump-
tion. The proposed design methodology represents a new approach to
evaluate the tradeoffs between different design objectives and
constraints by considering the system performance characteristics
along with probability of occurrence, and hence allows for global
optimization of the propeller geometry. Results are shown for a pair of
fixed-pitch propellers designed for a twin-screw naval combatant craft.
System performance for a design obtained using the proposed
methodology is compared with designs obtained using traditional
point-based design approaches. This methodology can be easily extend-
ed to investigate the effects of variations in resistance, operational
profile or additional performance criteria, such as safety during
extreme operations, lifetime carbon emission, and life cycle costs.
13/00332 Measure of the volumetric efficiency and
evaporator device performance for a liquefied petroleum
gas spark ignition engine
Masi, M. and Gobbato, P. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012,
60, 1827.
The use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as fuel for spark ignition
engines originally designed to be gasoline fuelled is common practice in
many countries. Despite this, some questions remain still open. The
present paper deals with the two main problems related to LPG port-
fuel spark ignition (SI) engines: the volumetric efficiency drop and the
LPG evaporator device performance. A passengers car SI engine
equipped with a third generation kit for the dual-fuel operation was
tested using a dynamometer test rig. A single-stage pressure reducer
was selected as LPG evaporator, to take advantage of an additional
pre-heating of the liquid LPG that allows higher power output than a
two-stage device of the same size. Engine performance, volumetric
efficiency and change of LPG thermodynamic states in the evaporator
were measured both in steady-state and transient operation of the
engine. Steady-state measurements show the advantage of LPG in
terms of engine efficiency, and quantify the drop in steady-state brake
torque due to the volume swept by gaseous fuel in the fresh charge
admission process. On the other hand, transient measurements show
that a single-stage evaporator device is capable to match overall
simplicity and satisfactory performance during strong changes in
engine load.
13/00333 Performance and emission analysis of hydrogen
fueled compression ignition engine with variable water
injection timing
Adnan, R. et al. Energy, 2012, 43, (1), 416426.
The effect of variable water injection timing on performance and
emission characteristics of hydrogen-fuelled compression ignition
(HFCI) engine has been investigated and the results are presented in
this paper. In this study, water is injected from 20

before top dead

centre (BTDC) to 20

after top dead centre (ATDC) with injection

duration of 20

crank angle (CA) and 40

CA. Hydrogen is injected at

the intake port with fixed injection timing from 0

CA to 40

CA and
constant flow rate of 5 litres per minute. The results indicate that water
injection timing of 20

ATDC and duration of 20

CA has shown better

engine performance due to increased gross indicated work and
indicated thermal efficiency. It has also demonstrated that the lowest
NO
x
concentrations for engine speed greater than 2500 rpm and lower
exhaust gas temperature (EGT) throughout entire speed range. Water
injection timing of 20

BTDC and duration of 40

CA has shown the

highest heat release rate and the longest ignition delay. Water injection
timing of 0

CA and duration of 40

CA indicated that the highest O

2
and SO
2
emissions throughout entire speed range. It is observed that
water injection technique appears to be promising method to enhance
the performance and emissions quality of HFCI engine effectively.
13/00334 The effect of firing biogas on the performance
and operating characteristics of simple and recuperative
cycle gas turbine combined heat and power systems
Kang, D. W. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 215228.
The authors investigated the influence of firing biogas on the
performance and operating characteristics of gas turbines. Combined
heat and power systems based on two different gas turbines (simple
and recuperative cycle engines) in a similar power class were simulated.
A full off-design analysis was performed to predict the variations in
operations due to firing biogas instead of natural gas. A wide range of
biogas compositions differing in CH
4
content was simulated. Without
consideration of operating restrictions on the compressor and turbine,
using biogas was predicted to augment the power output in both
engines. Power output increased as CH
4
content decreased. The main
reason is the increase in turbine power due to increased fuel flow. Gas
turbine efficiency increased with decreasing CH
4
content in the simple
cycle engine, but decreased in the recuperative cycle engine. Net
efficiency including the fuel compression power consumption de-
creased with decreasing CH
4
content even in the simple cycle engine.
The heat recovery also increased by firing biogas. However, the
increased turbine flow was accompanied by a surge margin reduction of
the compressor and overheating of the turbine blade. These two
problems were more severe in simple cycle gas turbines and as the
ambient temperature increased. The turbine blade temperature and
the compressor surge margin could be recovered to the reference
values by either under-firing or compressor air bleeding, which are
effective for blade temperature control and surge margin control,
respectively. However, satisfaction of both restrictions by a single
modulation caused excessive power and efficiency losses. An optimal
combination between under-firing and air bleeding would minimize the
performance penalty.
13/00335 The impact of varying spark timing at different
octane numbers on the performance and emission
characteristics in a gasoline engine
Sayin, C. Fuel, 2012, 97, 856861.
The performance and emissions of gasoline engine using different
research octane number (RON) gasolines (91, 93, 95 97, and 98 RON)
at varying spark timing (ST) has been presented in this paper. For this
work, a single cylinder, four stroke, naturally aspirated spark ignition
engine requiring gasoline fuel with 95 RON was used. The original
(ORG) ST of the engine is 23

CA BTDC. The tests were conducted

for three different STs (20

CA BTDC, 23

CA BTDC, and 26

CA
BTDC) by varying cam positions mechanically. Results showed that
using RONs higher than the requirement of an engine not only
decreased brake thermal efficiency (BTE) but also increased brake
specific fuel consumption (BSFC), the emissions of carbon monoxide
(CO) and hydrocarbon (HC) at ORG ST. On the other hand, with the
increased ST (26

CA BTDC); BSFC, the emissions of HC and CO

decreased, and BTE boosted for higher RON.
Hybrid engine systems
13/00336 Comparative evaluation of performance,
emission, lubricant and deposit characteristics of spark
ignition engine fueled with CNG and 18% hydrogen-CNG
Mathai, R. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37,
(8), 68936900.
Gaseous fuels such as compressed natural gas (CNG) and hydrogen are
promising alternative fuels which receive more attention all over the
world. This paper investigates the effect of CNG and 18% hydrogen-
blended CNG (HCNG) on a retrofitted gasoline genset engines
performance, emissions, deposits and lubricants under long duration
testing. During the 60 h test, lower BSFC, CO and HC are observed for
HCNG with the penalty of NO
x
values. The deposits of iron on spark
plug and cylinder liner are higher for HCNG compared to CNG. As
kinematic viscosity and TBN values of lubricant decreased significantly
with HCNG, it has resulted in higher concentration of wear metals
(iron and copper) in the used oil.
50 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
11 Engines (hybrid engine systems)
13/00337 Electrostatic atomization of hydrocarbon fuels
and bio-alcohols for engine applications
Agathou, M. S. and Kyritsis, D. C. Energy Conversion and Management,
2012, 60, 1017.
Electrostatically assisted sprays of butanol were established and
compared with the ones of fuels of automotive interest, namely ethanol
and heptane. First, electrospray phenomenology was investigated
through high-speed visualization for a variety of conditions. Then,
spray structure was studied through droplet size and velocity
measurements, using phase Doppler anemometry, for a wide range of
flow rates and applied voltages. Particular emphasis was placed on the
determination of the dependence of droplet size and velocity on mass
flow rate and applied electric field. Visualization and measurements of
droplet size and speed revealed an unstable and polydisperse electro-
spray behaviour for most conditions. Several factors were identified as
responsible for this unstable behaviour and were investigated exper-
imentally for the butanol case. These included: oscillations of e-spray
menisci, droplet disruption due to Coulombic fission and secondary
droplet break-up because of high Weber numbers.
13/00338 Exhaust emissions of diesel engines operating
under transient conditions with biodiesel fuel blends
Giakoumis, E. G. et al. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science,
2012, 38, (5), 691715.
This work reviews the literature regarding the effects of diesel-
biodiesel blends on the regulated exhaust emissions of diesel engines
operating under transient conditions (acceleration, load increase,
starting and transient cycles). The analysis focuses on all regulated
pollutants, i.e. particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide
and unburned hydrocarbons; results are also presented for combustion
noise and particle size concentration/distribution. The most important
mechanisms of exhaust emissions during transients are analysed based
on the fundamental aspects of transient operation and on the impacts
the physical and chemical properties of biodiesel have relative to
conventional diesel oil. Biodiesel feedstock, transient cycle and fuel
injection system effects are also discussed. For the majority of the
reviewed transients, a decreasing trend in PM, HC and CO, and an
increasing trend in NO
x
emissions is established when the biodiesel
ratio in the fuel blend increases. Irrespective of driving cycle type, the
NO
x
emission penalty and the PM benefit with biodiesel seem to
increase for more aggressive cycles/driving patterns. Moreover,
biodiesels produced from unsaturated feedstocks tend to increase the
NO
x
emission liability, at least for older production engines; no such
correlation has been established for the emitted PM, HC or CO. Since
the research so far stems from engines optimized for diesel fuel,
application of a revised engine calibration (e.g. EGR, injection system)
can prove very useful in eliminating, at least in part, any inefficiencies
caused by the use of biodiesel. Based on a large amount of published
data over the last 20 years, best-fit correlations are deducted for
quantification of biodiesel benefits or penalties on all regulated
pollutants during various transient/driving cycles. Also, a detailed list
is provided summarizing data from all published works on the subject
during the last 20 years.
13/00339 Experimental assessment of toxic phorbol ester
in oil, biodiesel and seed cake of Jatropha curcas and use of
biodiesel in diesel engine
Prasad, L. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 245250.
The present study deals with estimation of toxic phorbol esters in
Jatropha curcas oil, cake and biodiesel and performance emission of
different blends of biodiesel in diesel engine. The jatropha seed was
collected from Chattishgarh, India and oil content of the seed kernel
was 56.5%, determined by soxhlet apparatus. The oil was subjected to
biodiesel preparation by twin step method of acid esterification
followed by alkali transesterification. The total conversion of jatropha
oil methyl ester (JOME) after reaction was 96.05% from proton
nuclear magnetic resonance (
1
H NMR) studies. The phorbol esters
content of oil, cake and biodiesel was determined by high-performance
liquid chromatography. The phorbol esters content of the oil was more
(2.26 0.01 mg/g) than the cake (0.6 0.01 mg/g) but no phorbol esters
peak was detected in biodiesel. The performance and emission study of
the fuel blends (JB2, JB5 and JB10) with conventional diesel were
tested for their use as substitute fuel for a single cylinder direct
injection diesel engine at constant speed (1500 rpm). The emissions
such as CO, HC and smoke opacity decreased whereas NO
x
and BSCF
increased with biodiesel blends.
13/00340 Impact of biodiesel application at various
blending ratios on passenger cars of different fueling
technologies
Kousoulidou, M. et al. Fuel, 2012, 98, 8894.
The effect of biodiesel on emissions of diesel passenger cars is a
combination of the fuel properties, the blending ratio, and the vehicle
technology. In this study, saturated and unsaturated biodiesel fuels
were tested neat (B100) and in 30% blend with fossil diesel (B30) on
two Euro 3 diesel passenger cars of different engine technologies,
namely common rail and unit injector. The measured dataset is
enlarged by introducing B10 results from an earlier study in order to
produce generalized conclusions over a wider range of blends. None of
these vehicles was equipped with a particle filter and different
conclusions might be reached for filter-equipped vehicles. The results
indicate that the influence of biodiesel on pollutant emissions primarily
depends on the blending ratio and secondly on the level of
unsaturation and engine technology. Tailpipe CO
2
, NO
x
and PM
emissions with biodiesel varied from 1% to +3%, 1% to 14%, and
18% to 35%, respectively, compared to fossil diesel. The difference
over fossil diesel generally increased with an increasing blending ratio.
CO and HC emissions increased over the fossil diesel but remained at
low levels and did not threaten the compliance of the vehicles with
their respective emission limits. Use of biodiesel on the common rail
vehicle led to a smaller NO
x
increase and a higher PM reduction than
in the unit-injector case. The unsaturated fuel generally led to higher
NO
x
emissions from both engine technologies. However, the maximum
blending ratio of saturated biodiesel is limited to around B30 due to
cold-flow limitations. Hence, the saturated vs unsaturated species ratio
should be carefully designed in market fuels in order to optimize
environmental and operational benefits. Overall, it appears that blends
up to 10% v/v may be introduced with limited urban air quality
implications.
13/00341 Improving the performance of a spark-ignited
gasoline engine with the addition of syngas produced by
onboard ethanol steaming reforming
Ji, C. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37, (9),
78607868.
Producing the syngas by onboard ethanol steam reforming is an
effective way for recovering the exhaust heat in the engine tailpipe.
Besides, as hydrogen is contained in the syngas, the addition of syngas
is also capable of improving engine combustion and emissions
characteristics. In this paper, an experimental study was carried out
on a four-cylinder 1.6-litre spark-ignited engine to explore the effect of
syngas addition on the engine performance. A fuel reforming reactor
with the copper based catalysts was designed and mounted on the
engine tailpipe, so that the ethanol solution could be decomposed to be
syngas which is mainly composed of hydrogen and carbon monoxide
when the catalysts were heated by the exhaust gas. The intake
manifolds was also modified to permit syngas to be injected into the
fourth cylinder of the engine. The engine was run at 1800 rpm and a
manifolds absolute pressure of 61.5 kPa. The spark timing for the
maximum brake torque was adopted for each testing point. The syngas
volume fraction in the total intake gas was gradually increased from 0
to 2.43%. Meanwhile, the gasoline injection duration governing by a
hybrid electronic control unit was adjusted to keep the excess air ratio
of the fuelair mixture in the fourth cylinder at about 1.00. The
experimental results demonstrated that the syngas volume flow rate
was markedly enhanced from 90 to 240 L/h when the feedstock flow
rate was increased from 18 to 54 mL/min. The peak ethanol conversion
efficiency reached 81.16% at a feedstock flow rate of 36 mL/min. The
hydrogen concentration was increased whereas carbon monoxide
concentration was decreased in the syngas with the increase of the
feedstock supply. The engine indicated thermal efficiency was raised to
be 39.01% at the syngas volume fraction of 2.43%. The flame
development and propagation durations were shortened; HC and
NO
x
emissions were reduced whereas CO emission was increased after
the syngas addition at the stoichiometric condition.
Transport battery development
13/00342 A contribution to the progress of high energy
batteries: a metal-free, lithium-ion, siliconsulfur battery
Hassoun, J. et al. Journal of Power Sources, 2012, 202, 308313.
This work discloses a new, lithium metal-free, siliconsulfur, lithium
ion battery based on a high-rate sulfurcarbon composite cathode,
formed by trapping sulfur in highly porous and hard carbon spherules,
combined with a lithiated, siliconcarbon nanocomposite anode,
separated by a glycol-based electrolyte. This 2 V battery shows an
average specific capacity of 300 mAh g
1
(S)
, a long cycle life, an
expected low cost and high safety. Due to these properties, this new
battery is expected to be a very valid power source for efficient electric
vehicles.
13/00343 A review on the economic dispatch and risk
management of the large-scale plug-in electric vehicles
(PHEVs)-penetrated power systems
Peng, M. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16,
(3), 15081515.
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 51
11 Engines (transport battery development)
The deterioration of ecological environment and an ever-rising gas
price makes green transportation a relentless pursuit. Energy-saving,
low-emission even zero-emission electric vehicles (EVs) have been
considered as one solution to the problem. With the rapid development
of plug-in electric vehicle (PHEV) and forceful support and incentives
from the government, PHEV and its supporting facilities are being
gradually popularized. When randomly being connected to the power
grid in large scale, PHEVs will bring new challenges to power grid in
operation and management. This paper presents an overall review on
historical research on power system integrated with electric vehicles
and especially focuses on economic dispatch of PHEV in the electricity
market. The paper also discusses the joint scheduling problem
considering other renewable energy resources and risk management
of PHEV-penetrated power systems.
13/00344 Are room temperature ionic liquids able to
improve the safety of supercapacitors organic electrolytes
without degrading the performances?
Abdallah, T. et al. Journal of Power Sources, 2012, 201, 353359.
Acetonitrile (ACN) is widely used as solvent for electrolyte in
supercapacitors in the presence of tetraethylammonium tetrafluoro-
borate (Et
4
N
+
BF
4

). The main advantage is its low viscosity leading to

high conductivities in the presence of salts, but unfortunately it is too
volatile and flammable. In order to reduce both the flammability and
the volatility of ACN based electrolytes, aprotic room temperature
ionic liquids, RTILs, are added either to ACN or to -butyrolactone
(GBL), another typical solvent for the electrochemical devices. The
effects of these molten salts on ACN and GBL are investigated with the
aim of improving the supercapacitors security. Flammability tests are
performed on these electrolytes to study their security. The results
show that mixtures GBL based are more flammable than those ACN
based, in spite of a higher boiling point for pure GBL because of the
presence of solvates. DSC measurements over ambient temperature
strengthen these flammability results. To complete this study, physical
and electrochemical characteristics (density, viscosity, conductivity,
linear and cyclic voltamperometry) are investigated. The results
indicate that no degradation of the electrochemical performances
appears with RTIL/ACN mixture by comparison with the standard
electrolyte (ACN+1 M Et
4
N
+
BF
4

).
13/00345 Assessment of world lithium resources and
consequences of their geographic distribution on the
expected development of the electric vehicle industry
Grosjean, C. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16,
(3), 17351744.
Electric vehicles (EVs) are on the verge of breaking through, most
presumably flooding the automotive market with lithium-ion batteries
as energy storage systems. This paper investigates the availability of
world lithium resources and draws conclusions on its actual impact on
the EV industry. Apart from lithium deposits geographic distribution,
the contributions to the global knowledge range from a short-term
forecast of lithium price evolution to a picture of the existing lithium
industry and market plus a detailed explanation of the geologic origins
of all the inventoried lithium resources.
13/00346 Calibration and finite element simulation of
pouch lithium-ion batteries for mechanical integrity
Sahraei, E. et al. Journal of Power Sources, 2012, 201, 307321.
Mechanical tests were performed on pouched and bare lithium-ion
cells under five loading conditions. These included through-thickness
compression, in-plane unconfined compression, in-plane confined
compression, hemispherical punch indentation and three-point bend-
ing. From the measured loaddisplacement data, the individual
compression stressstrain curves were calculated for the separator,
the active anode and cathode materials. The FE model was developed,
composed of shell elements, representing the Al and Cu foil, and solid
elements for the active material with a binder lumped together with the
separator. Very good correlation was obtained between LS Dyna
numerical simulation and test results for the through-thickness
compression, punch indentation and confined compression. Closed
form solutions were also derived to reveal the underlying physics and
identify important groups of parameters. It was also demonstrated that
a thin pouch enclosure provided considerable reinforcement and in
some cases changed the deformation and failure mechanism. The
present computational model of an individual cell provides a
fundamental building block for modelling battery modules and battery
packs across different length scales. The present test program differs
substantially from the nail indentation or punch crush loading
performed by the industry, and provides data for the development of
an advanced constitutive model needed for strength/weight optimiz-
ation and safety assessments of Li-ion batteries.
13/00347 Configuration of solar-hydrogen mild hybrid fuel
cell power systems for electric vehicles
Chen, P.-C. Journal of Power Sources, 2012, 201, 243252.
This paper considers the evaluation of a configuration of solar-
hydrogen mild hybrid fuel cell power systems for electric vehicles. The
primary objectives are to relieve the prerequisite need on the
infrastructure for hydrogen supply and reduce the cost of fuel cell
module compared to the conventional fuel cell electric vehicles. The
advantage of the proposed vehicle power system configuration is
addressed in terms of the criteria of availability and affordability.
Availability considers issues of energy resource and engineering
technology. Affordability considers issues of operational cost and
environmental cost. With regard to issues of implementation, a cost-
benefit ratio is defined and used to evaluate the feasibility of the
proposed mild hybrid power systems. A demonstration is conducted
based on four exemplary vehicles. The value of the computed cost-
benefit ratio can be used to determine the suitability of implementation
of the proposed configuration of a hybrid power system for electric
vehicles. The presented costs are based on per/unit prices as cited by
manufacturers on the Internet and are useable guidelines for further
development. In actual practice, substantial further efforts would be
needed to facilitate safe, reliable cost-efficient operation of the
proposed system.
13/00348 Environmental consequences of the use of
batteries in low carbon systems: the impact of battery
production
McManus, M. C. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 288295.
Adoption of small-scale micro-generation is sometimes coupled with
the use of batteries in order to overcome daily variability in the supply
and demand of energy. For example, photovoltaic cells and small wind
turbines can be coupled with energy storage systems such as batteries.
When used effectively with renewable energy production, batteries can
increase the versatility of an energy system by providing energy storage
that enables the systems to satisfy the highly variable electrical load of
an individual dwelling, therefore changing usage patterns on the
national grid. A significant shift towards electric or hybrid cars would
also increase the number of batteries required. However, batteries can
be inefficient and comprise of materials that have high environmental
and energy impacts. In addition, some materials, such as lithium, are
scarce natural resources. As a result, the overall impact of increasing
reliance on such sustainable or low carbon systems may in fact have
an additional detrimental impact. This paper reviews the currently
available data and calculated and highlights the impact of the
production of several types of battery in terms of energy, raw materials
and greenhouse gases. The impact of the production of batteries is
examined and presented in order that future studies may be able to
include the impact of batteries more easily within any system. It is
shown that lithium based batteries have the most significant impact in
many environmental areas in terms of production. As the use phases of
batteries are extremely variable within different situations this has not
been included here, instead providing comprehensive data for the
production stage.
13/00349 How green are electric vehicles?
Thomas, C. E. S. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37,
(7), 60536062.
Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
(PHEVs) are often labelled green, implying that they will significantly
reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. But actual GHG reductions
will depend on two factors: the number of electric vehicles that can be
sold to Americans that are fond of driving large vehicles long distances,
and the GHGs emitted by the electrical power plants that charge the
electric vehicles (EV) batteries. This article evaluates the maximum
potential of EVs to cut GHG emissions and oil consumption in the
USA and compares them with the GHG and oil reduction potential of
hydrogen-powered fuel cell electric vehicles. Even if all US light-duty
vehicles (LDVs) (cars and trucks) were replaced by a combination of
battery EVs for small vehicles and plug-in hybrids for all other LDVs,
then GHGs could at most be reduced by 25% and oil consumption
could be reduced by less than 67%. But if all LDVs in the USA were
replaced by fuel cell EVs powered by hydrogen made from natural gas,
then GHGs would be immediately reduced by 44% and oil consump-
tion by nearly 100%.
13/00350 Microporous gel polymer electrolytes for lithium
rechargeable battery application
Idris, N. H. et al. Journal of Power Sources, 2012, 201, 294300.
Microporous poly(vinylidene fluoride)/poly(methyl methacrylate)
(PVDF/PMMA) membranes were prepared using the phase-separation
method. Then, the membranes were immersed in liquid electrolyte to
form polymer electrolytes. The effects of PMMA on the morphology,
degree of crystallinity, porosity, and electrolyte uptake of the PVDF
membrane were studied. The addition of PMMA increased the
pore size, porosity and electrolyte uptake of the PVDF membrane,
which in turn increased the ionic conductivity of the polymer
electrolyte. The maximum ionic conductivity at room temperature
was 1.21 10
3
S cm
1
for sample E70. The polymer electrolyte was
52 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
11 Engines (transport battery development)
investigated, along with lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO
4
) as cathode
for all solid-state lithium-ion rechargeable batteries. The lithium metal/
E70/LiFePO
4
cell yielded a stable discharge capacity of 133 mAh g
1
after up to 50 cycles at a current density of 8.5 mAg
1
.
13/00351 Online model-based estimation of state-of-charge
and open-circuit voltage of lithium-ion batteries in electric
vehicles
He, H. et al. Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 310318.
This paper presents a method to estimate the state-of-charge (SOC) of
a lithium-ion battery, based on an online identification of its open-
circuit voltage (OCV), according to the batterys intrinsic relationship
between the SOC and the OCV for application in electric vehicles.
First, an equivalent circuit model with n RC networks is employed that
models the polarization characteristic and the dynamic behaviour of
the lithium-ion battery, the corresponding equations are built to
describe its electric behaviour and a recursive function is deduced for
the online identification of the OCV, which is implemented by a
recursive least squares (RLS) algorithm with an optimal forgetting
factor. The models with different RC networks are evaluated based on
the terminal voltage comparisons between the model-based simulation
and the experiment. Then the OCV-SOC lookup table is built based on
the experimental data performed by a linear interpolation of the
battery voltages at the same SOC during two consecutive discharge and
charge cycles. Finally a verifying experiment is carried out based on
nine urban dynamometer driving schedules. It indicates that the
proposed method can ensure an acceptable accuracy of SOC estimation
for online application with a maximum error being less than 5%.
13/00352 Performance of the SAC-C satellite electricity
storage system
Garaventta, G. N. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy,
2012, 37, (7), 57065709.
The analysis of telemetry data of the Argentine electricity storage
system SAC-C satellite is presented. Diagnostic indicators were
established in order to evaluate the in-flight performance of the
satellite nickel-hydrogen batteries. The state of charge of the batteries
was related to the hydrogen pressure. A predictive analysis allowed us
to detect early failure of the electricity storage system.
13/00353 State-of-charge estimation for lithium-ion
batteries under various operating conditions using an
equivalent circuit model
Cho, S. et al. Computers & Chemical Engineering, 2012, 41, 19.
This paper describes a state-of-charge estimation methodology for
lithium-ion batteries in hybrid electric vehicles. The proposed
methodology is intended for SOC estimation under various operating
conditions including changes in temperature, driving mode or power
duty. The suggested methodology consists of a recursive estimator and
employs an equivalent circuit as the electrochemical cell model. Model
parameters are estimated by parameter map on experimental cell data
with various temperatures and current conditions. The parameter map
is developed by a least sum square error estimation method based on
non-linear programming. An adaptive estimator is employed and is
based on the combination of current integration and battery model
based estimation. The proposed SOC estimation methodology is
demonstrated with experimental LiB pack data under various driving
schedules with low and ambient temperature and sensor failure cases.
The results show that the proposed methodology is appropriate for
estimating SOC under various conditions.
13/00354 Time-dependent plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
charging based on national driving patterns and
demographics
Kelly, J. C. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 395405.
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are one promising technology
for addressing concerns around petroleum consumption, energy
security and greenhouse gas emissions. However, there is much
uncertainty in the impact that PHEVs can have on energy consumption
and related emissions, as they are dependent on vehicle technology,
driving patterns, and charging behaviour. A methodology is used to
simulate PHEV charging and gasoline consumption based on driving
pattern data in USDOTs National Household Travel Survey. The
method uses information from each trip taken by approximately
170,000 vehicles to track their battery state of charge throughout the
day, and to determine the timing and quantity of electricity and
gasoline consumption for a fleet of PHEVs. Scenarios were developed
to examine the effects of charging location, charging rate, time of
charging and battery size. Additionally, demographic information was
examined to see how driver and household characteristics influence
consumption patterns. Results showed that a compact vehicle with a
10.4 kWh useable battery (approximately a 42 mile (68 km) all-electric
range) travels between 62.5% and 75.7% on battery electricity,
depending on charging scenario. The percentage of travel driven
electrically (utility factor, UF) in a baseline charging scenario increased
from 64.3% using 2001 NHTS data to 66.7% using 2009 data. The
average UF was 63.5% for males and 72.9% for females and in both
cases they are highly sensitive to age. Vehicle charging load profiles
across charging scenarios and demographics show a varying effect on
summertime peak load, which can be useful for PHEV market
segmentation and electric utility planning.
13/00355 Developments in international solid biofuel trade
an analysis of volumes, policies, and market factors
Lamers, P. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16,
(5), 31763199.
This paper presents and analyses international solid biofuel trade and
concludes by considering interactions with bioenergy policies and
market factors. It shows that trade has grown from about 56 to 300 PJ
between 2000 and 2010. Wood pellets grew strongest, i.e. from 8.5 to
120 PJ. Other relevant streams by 2010 included wood waste (77 PJ),
fuelwood (76 PJ), wood chips (17 PJ), residues (9 PJ), and roundwood
(2.4 PJ). Intra-European Union trade covered two-thirds of global
trade by 2010. Underlying markets are highly heterogeneous; generally
though trade evolved whenever supply side market factors coincided
with existing/emerging demand patterns. Market factors and policies
both defined trade volumes; though policy changes did not have as
prominent effects on trade developments as in the liquid biofuel sector.
Economic viability is the key limiting factor. Main exporting countries
have low feedstock costs and already existing wood processing
industries. Trade-relevant aspects are the commoditys monetary value;
determined by its homogeneity, heating value, and bulk density.
Consumer markets are diverse: in residential heating, demand/trade
patterns have been influenced by local biofuel availability and short-
term price signals, i.e. mainly price competitiveness and investment
support for boilers/stoves. Commodities are mainly sourced regionally,
but price differences have triggered a growing trade. The industrial
segment is greatly influenced by policy frameworks but more mature
(e.g. established routes). Trade is strictly linked to margins (defined
mainly by policies) and combustion technologies. Uncertainties in the
analysis are due to data gaps across and within databases regarding
import/export declarations. To estimate bioenergy related trade,
anecdotal data was indispensable. The authors believe datasets should
be streamlined across international institutions to eventually enable
reporting of global trade beyond digit-6-level. Research is needed to
provide further insights into informal markets. Interrelations between
trade factors are particularly relevant when mapping future trade
streams under different policy/trade regime scenarios.
12 REFRACTORIES/
CERAMICS
Properties, production, applications
13/00356 A new dynamic test method for thermal
performance of all-glass evacuated solar air collectors
Xu, L. et al. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (5), 12221231.
A new study on testing thermal performance of all-glass evacuated
solar collectors with the air as heat transfer fluid under dynamic
conditions outdoors has been developed. The model of this dynamic
method was established with the energy balance analysis on solar
collectors of this type. Compared with the first order model under
steady-state conditions, this model can characterize thermal efficiency
of solar collectors under more extensive conditions, reducing consider-
able operating time spent in waiting for the right test conditions.
Through the derivation of the proposed model, it proved a strong
relationship existed between this model and the first order model
mentioned above. The dynamic model projection for the outlet
temperatures was in good agreement with the measured result.
13/00357 Compliant alkali silicate sealing glass for solid
oxide fuel cell applications: the effect of protective YSZ
coating on electrical stability in dual environment
Chou, Y.-S. et al. Journal of Power Sources, 2012, 202, 149156.
Recently, compliant sealing glass has been proposed as a potential
candidate sealant for solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) applications. In a
previous paper, the thermal stability and chemical compatibility were
reported for a compliant alkali-containing silicate glass sealed between
anode supported YSZ bi-layer and YSZ-coated stainless steel inter-
connect. This paper reports the electrical stability of the compliant
glass under a DC load and dual environment at 700800

C. Apparent
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 53
12 Refractories/ceramics (properties, production, applications)
electrical resistivity was measured with a four-point method for the
glass sealed between two plain SS441 metal coupons or YSZ-coated
aluminized substrates. The results showed instability with plain SS441
at 800

C, but stable behaviour of increasing resistivity with time was

observed with the YSZ-coated SS441. In addition, results of interfacial
microstructure analysis with scanning electron microscopy will be
correlated with the measured resistivity results. Overall, the YSZ
coating demonstrated chemically stability with the alkali-containing
compliant silicate sealing glass under electrical field and dual
environments.
13/00358 End user impacts of automated electrochromic
windows in a pilot retrofit application
Lee, E. S. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 47, 267284.
Automated electrochromic windows, advanced thermally improved
window frames, and a dimmable lighting system were installed in a
single, west-facing conference room in Washington, DC, USA. The
electrochromic windows were commercially available, tungsten-oxide
switchable devices, modulated automatically between either fully clear
or fully tinted transparent states to control solar gains, daylight, and
discomfort glare. Occupants were permitted to manually override the
automated electrochromic controls. The system was monitored over a
15-month period under normal occupied conditions. The final 6 months
were used in the analysis. Manual override data were analysed to assess
the electrochromic control system design and user satisfaction with
electrochromic operations. Energy and comfort were evaluated using
both monitored data and simulations. Of the 328 meetings that
occurred over the 6-month period, the automatic system was manually
overridden on 14 or 4% of the meetings for reasons other than
demonstration purposes. When overridden, occupants appeared to
have switched the individual zones with deliberation, using a
combination of clear and tinted zones and the interior venetian blinds
to produce the desired interior environment. Monitored weekday
lighting energy savings were 91% compared to the existing lighting
system, which was less efficient, had a higher illuminance setpoint, and
no controls. Annual performance was estimated using EnergyPlus,
where the existing condition met the ASHRAE 90.12007 prescriptive
requirements except for a higher window U-value. Annual energy
savings were 48% while peak demand savings were 35%.
13/00359 Experimental investigation on the role of kerogen
and clay minerals in the formation of bitumen during the
oxidation of Boom clay
Blanchart, P. et al. Fuel, 2012, 97, 344351.
Experiments were conducted on bulk Boom clay and Boom clay
kerogen concentrate in order to study bitumen formation during air
oxidation. Samples were collected in the HADES underground facility
of Mol, Belgium, during excavation of the Praclay gallery. RockEval
and elemental analyses show that the organic matter is immature and
primarily of type III. Air oxidation experiments were carried out during
62, 114 and 139 days at 130

C. These experimental conditions were

used to simulate natural oxidation occurring during the excavation and
operation of an underground disposal facility. Molecular and spectro-
scopic characterizations show that during air oxidation, the kerogen is
enriched in oxygenated aromatics while it releases an aliphatic rich
bitumen. The clay minerals, in their turn, catalyse the air oxidation of
the released bitumen constituents (e.g. n-alkanes). The consequence is
that air oxidation of Boom clay leads to the release of oxygen
functionalized organic matter likely to be mobilized by water.
13/00360 Influence of horizontal joint on the thermal
properties of single-leaf walls with lightweight clay blocks
Juarez, M. C. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 49, 362366.
In the present work, single-leaf walls built of large-format lightweight
ceramic clay blocks are taken as the starting point. Several types of
block, tongue and groove systems and horizontal joint are examined.
To compare the improvements provided by each of the systems studied
in terms of energy, the equivalent thermal transmittance levels of the
shell of the wall are compared. Recent studies have optimized the
geometry of the voided clay bricks [0035], [0040], [0045] and [0050] and
the tongue and groove system [11], but the influence of the mortar
horizontal joint has not been studied. The mortars suppose one of the
principal weak points of the wall due to his high conductivity, his
penetration and his great thickness. Calculations are drawn up in line
with Spanish UNE [16], AENOR [14], European EN [0085], [0090] and
[0095], and international ISO [0100], [0105], [0110] and [0115]
standards. It is concluded that the type of exterior wall used has a
great impact on the energy consumption of buildings. By using blocks
with the optimal geometric distribution, optimal vertical joints and thin
horizontal joints energy savings of up to 37%.
13/00361 Ni modified ceramic anodes for solid oxide fuel
cells
Xiao, G. et al. Journal of Power Sources, 2012, 201, 4348.
Ni modified Sr
2
Fe
1.5
Mo
0.5
O
6
(SFM) and La
0.75
Sr
0.25
Cr
0.5
Mn
0.5
O
3
(LSCM) anodes have been studied as anode materials for solid oxide
fuel cells (SOFCs). Temperature-programmed reduction (TPR) results
show that Ni promotes the oxidation of H
2
on SFM. As a result, a cell
with Ni-SFM as the anode, La
0.8
Sr
0.2
Ga
0.83
Mg
0.17
O
3
(LSGM) as the
electrolyte, and La
0.6
Sr
0.4
Co
0.2
Fe
0.8
O
3
(LSCF) as the cathode shows a
high peak power density of 1166 mWcm
2
at 800

C using H
2
as the
fuel and ambient air as the oxidant. Ni modified SFM also shows
enhanced performance in CH
4
(with 3 vol% H
2
O). Compared with
SFM, Ni-SFM anode demonstrates enhanced catalytic activity, result-
ing in higher open-circuit voltage and lower electrode polarization
resistance in CH
4
. However, due to the presence of Ni, the sulfur
tolerance of these Ni-modified anodes is still low. The cell performance
drops by almost 18% after the cell with Ni-SFM anode has been
operating for 20 h in a fuel of H
2
with 100 ppm H
2
S at 800

C. However,
the cell performance can be fully recoverable on removal of H
2
S from
the fuel stream. Similar cell performance improvements have also been
observed on cells with Ni-modified LSCM anodes. The cells with the
Ni-LSCM anodes have shown relatively stable performance during the
short-term durability test at 800

C in CH
4
at 800

C.
13/00362 SiO
2
ceramic nanoporous substrate-reinforced
sulfonated poly(arylene ether sulfone) composite
membranes for proton exchange membrane fuel cells
Seol, J. H. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37,
(7), 61896198.
Porous substrate-reinforced composite membranes have been exten-
sively investigated due to their promising application to proton
exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC). This study has developed a
new ceramic-based reinforcing porous substrate, which consists of
hygroscopic silica (SiO
2
) nanoparticles interconnected by 3-glycid-
oxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GPTMS)-based silicate binders and a
poly(paraphenylene terephthalamide) (PPTA) non-woven support.
This unusual ceramic substrate is featured with the strong mechanical
strength, well-developed nanoporous structure (i.e., nanosized inter-
stitial voids formed between the close-packed SiO
2
nanoparticles), high
hydrophilicity, and more notably, good water retention capability. The
nanostructured pores of the ceramic substrate are subsequently
impregnated with sulfonated poly(arylene ether sulfone) (SPAES,
degree of sulfonation =49.3%). In comparison to a pristine SPAES
membrane, the ceramic substrate-reinforced SPAES composite mem-
brane offers the significantly improved dimensional change and also
effectively mitigates the steep decline of proton conductivity at low
humidity conditions, which is further discussed by considering the state
of water in the reinforced composite membrane.
13/00363 Structural irradiation damage and recovery in
nanometric silicon carbide
Gosset, D. et al. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 2012, 57, 5256.
Silicon carbide is one of the candidate materials for core components
of some nuclear reactor projects (Gen-IV). In order to improve their
thermo-mechanical properties, materials with nanometric grain size are
considered. For such materials, almost no data concerning their
behaviour under irradiation are available. This paper studies the
damage and subsequent recovery of a nanostructured 3CSiC ceramic.
Samples were irradiated at room temperature with 4 MeV Au ions and
subsequently annealed. Their structural modifications are analysed
with a grazing incidence X-ray diffraction method. Results show that
these nanoceramic materials present the same damage kinetics during
irradiation as conventional micrometric grained SiC, with total
amorphization at the highest fluence. However, while the recrystalliza-
tion of a conventional ceramic is expected to occur through an epitaxial
recrystallization from the non-damaged parts of the large grains, the
nanometric material is healed only after annealing at 1000

C through
mechanisms that can be attributed to a heterogeneous nucleation and
growth of u crystallites in the totally amorphized grains.
13/00364 Theoretical discussions of perfect window, ideal
near infrared solar spectrum regulating window and current
thermochromic window
Ye, H. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 49, 164172.
In order to evaluate the energy saving performance of various windows
on a common basis, three conceptual window models are presented,
and an energy consumption index is defined as the ratio of the energy
consumption of a given window to the corresponding value of the
perfect window. A building energy analysis program, BuildingEnergy,
was used to evaluate the energy consumption value of different window
models. The following results are obtained: the energy saving potential
of regulating the emissivity of the window is greater than that of
regulating the solar transmissivity, the optimized phase transition
temperature of the ideal near infrared solar spectrum regulating
window is between 16 and 21

C, and due to the high absorptivity in the

metal state, the single vanadium dioxide (VO
2
) glazing discussed here
behaves differently than the ideal near infrared solar spectrum
regulating window, and it shows no obvious solar control advantage
54 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
12 Refractories/ceramics (properties, production, applications)
in energy savings over the ordinary window, and the phase transition
process has no contribution to the energy saving effect of the single
VO
2
glazing in the summer.
13/00365 Thermodynamic approach to the vaporization and
growth phenomena of SiC ceramics. I. SiC and SiCSiO
2
mixtures under neutral conditions
Honstein, G. et al. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, 2012, 32,
(5), 11171135.
Matter transport by vaporization and condensation processes during
sintering or consolidation of SiC components at high temperature is
analysed using thermodynamics of the binary SiC and ternary SiCO
systems. The erosion flows due to vaporization and the potential
growth flow of SiC are calculated in order to determine the conditions
prevailing at the surface of SiC powder grains. Pure SiC vaporization
leads to rapid precipitation of carbon at the SiC surface. Vaporization
of SiCSiO
2
mixtures under neutral atmospheric conditions or absolute
vacuum contributes to the rapid departure of any Si or C impurities
first of all, and then silica according to congruent vaporization in the
SiCSiO
2
pseudo-binary system. The calculated SiC growth rate by
vapour transport is always less than the erosion rate and further
subsequent growth of pure SiC cannot be obtained as long as silica co-
exists with SiC.
13 ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
SUPPLIES
Biofuels and bioconversion energy
13/00366 A model for evaluating the economic feasibility of
small-scale biodiesel production systems for on-farm fuel
usage
Pienaar, J. and Brent, A. C. Renewable Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 483489.
Farming operations in Africa have, in general, not adopted small-scale
biodiesel production technology well for on-farm fuel usage. This is
mainly due to the lack of an acceptable method to assess the economic
feasibility of constructing small-scale biodiesel production facilities,
and the impact of such operations on existing farming production
processes. The research study summarized in this paper subsequently
set out to develop a model, termed the biodiesel production system
optimization model (BPSOM), which predicts the cost of producing
biodiesel on a small-scale, and optimizes on-farm production processes
to maximize profits. The model was validated using a South African
case study to evaluate the predicted cost of biodiesel per litre
produced, and the economic impact of a small-scale facility on the
production profits of a farm. A proxy indicator, profit per hectare
cultivated land, is introduced to measure the impact. BPSOM predicts
a positive profit increase of 33% for the specific farm case study, which
proves the economic potential of small-scale biodiesel production
facilities for fuel usage at farm level in Africa.
13/00367 A review of multi-criteria decision-making
methods for bioenergy systems
Scott, J. A. et al. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 146156.
Bioenergy schemes are multi-faceted and complex by nature, with
many available raw material supplies and technical options and a
diverse set of stakeholders holding a raft of conflicting opinions. To
develop and operate a successful scheme there are many requirements
that should be considered and satisfied. This paper provides a review of
those academic works attempting to deal with problems arising within
the bioenergy sector using multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM)
methods. These methods are particularly suitable to bioenergy given its
multi-faceted nature but could be equally relevant to other energy
conversion technologies. Related articles appearing in the international
journals from 2000 to 2010 are gathered and analysed so that the
following two questions can be answered. (i) Which methods are the
most popular? (ii) Which problems attract the most attention? The
review finds that optimization methods are most popular with methods
choosing between few alternatives being used in 44% of reviewed
papers and methods choosing between many alternatives being used in
28%. The most popular application area was to technology selection
with 27% of reviewed papers followed by policy decisions with 18%.
13/00368 An optimisation framework for a hybrid first/
second generation bioethanol supply chain
Akgul, O. et al. Computers & Chemical Engineering, 2012, 42, 101114.
Assessment of both economic and environmental performance of
biofuel supply chains is crucial to have a complete view of the future
implications of those systems. This paper presents a multi-objective,
static modelling framework for the optimization of hybrid first/second
generation biofuel supply chains. Using the proposed modelling
framework, different aspects are analysed. Bioethanol production in
the UK using hybrid first/second generation technologies is considered
as the case study to highlight the model applicability. The results
highlight the better environmental performance of the second
generation biofuel production technologies compared to first gener-
ation by evaluating the potential greenhouse gas emissions (GHG)
savings that can be achieved through biofuel production in hybrid
facilities that integrate first and second generation technologies. The
use of set-aside land for cultivation of energy crops offers significant
advantages in this aspect. Among the life cycle stages, biofuel
production is the most significant source of emissions. However, with
future improvements in production technologies, there is scope to
reduce these emissions. Apart from the trade-off between the
economic and environmental objectives, the effect of different cap
levels of the total supply chain cost on the maximum ethanol
production that can be attained has been analysed for scenario 2020
where four types of different biomass feedstock were considered. The
maximum ethanol production has been evaluated as approximately
9000 tonnes per day, which is about 14% higher than the European
Union (EU) biofuel target for 2020 (7899 t/d). Finally, a multi-period
optimization problem considering bioethanol production from wheat
and wheat straw in the UK from 2012 to 2020 has been solved taking
into account the reduction in unit production costs through techno-
logical learning. The results indicate that high learning and high
interest rates can improve the economic performance of the supply
chain by decreasing the costs remarkably. The total GHG emissions
over time increase, mainly due to increasing wheat imports to meet the
elevated bioethanol demand. The ethanol-production based average
emissions result in a 44% GHG emission savings overall, meeting the
EU minimum target of 35% but not the interim target of 60%. This
result emphasizes the significance of second generation special energy
crops (miscanthus and SRC) for meeting the environmental and
sustainability targets in the longer term.
13/00369 Biodiesel from Jatropha curcas oil using Zn for
esterification step and solar radiation as energy source
Corro, G. et al. Fuel, 2012, 97, 7279.
The production of biodiesel is greatly increasing due to its environ-
mental benefits. However, production costs are still rather high com-
pared to petroleum-based diesel fuel. This investigation reports a
production process that reduces the cost of biodiesel. The process
proposed in this investigation, brings biodiesel production cost down
due to the use of a solar heater as energy source to attain the reaction
temperatures, the use of non-edible Jatropha curcas crude oil (JCCO)
as raw material, and the use of low cost Zn filings as esterification
catalyst. This biofuel was produced from non-edible Mexican J. curcas
crude oil (JCCO) by a two-step catalysed process. The free fatty acids
(FFAs) were first esterified with methanol, catalysed by Zn filings. This
catalyst showed a high FFA esterification activity and high stability.
XRD study indicated that after 20 esterification runs, the Zn metallic
surface remained unaffected. The use of Zn filings prevents the water
waste streams, excess of methanol, high pressure and high cost stainless
steel equipment used to eliminate the homogeneous acid catalyst that
would have been used for the FFA esterification. During the second
step, the triglycerides present in the JCCO were transesterified with
methanol catalysed by NaOH. The chromatographic analysis of the
biodiesel obtained, revealed that the process proposed in this investi-
gation led to a very high-quality biodiesel, meeting the international
requirements for its utilization as a fuel.
13/00370 Biodiesel production based on heterogeneous
process catalyzed by solid waste coral fragment
Roschat, W. et al. Fuel, 2012, 98, 194202.
This paper presents an environmentally friendly, efficient, simple
heterogeneous transesterification process combining palm oil, soybean
oil, rice bran oil, and waste cooking oil with methanol to make a
biodiesel and glycerol by-product using calcined waste coral fragments
in solid form as a catalyst. Under optimum reaction conditions, the
coral fragments calcined at 700

C for 1 h; catalyst/oil ratio of 100 wt%;

methanol/oil molar ratio of 15:1; reaction temperature of 65

C with a
constant stirring are able to transesterify oils to a biodiesel product
with a FAME yield over 98% in 2 h. The catalyst can be easily
separated from the reaction mixture by pouring off the reaction
solution and can be reused several times with consistent results.
Biodiesel and glycerol products without any treatment and cleansing
show a high quality product in which fuel properties of the biodiesel
meet all EN 14214 standards for bio-auto fuels.
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 55
13 Alternative energy supplies (biofuels and bioconversion energy)
13/00371 Bioenergy recovery from olive mill effluent in a
hybrid reactor
Gonc alves, M. R. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 39, 253260.
An anaerobic hybrid reactor was tested in the treatment of raw olive
mill effluent (OME) without water dilution, chemical correction and
any pretreatment. A feeding strategy was applied by increasing
progressively the OME volume fraction from 8% to 83% in the feed
mixture combined with an OME complementary substrate (piggery
effluent). A biogas production of 3.16 m
3
m
3
d
1
was achieved at an
organic loading rate of COD at 7.1 kg m
3
d
1
, when the highest
fraction of OME was added to the influent (volume fraction of 83%;
COD concentration fraction of about 94%). At these conditions, the
degradation of olive mill effluent occurred without any inhibition. The
reactor was capable to digest an acid influent (pH=4.7), revealing a
high buffering capacity. The increase of influent phenols concentration
from 0.87 to 2.31 kg m
3
did not influence the reactor removal capacity
(phenolic fraction removal from 51% to 61%). Biomass acclimation to
OME was accomplished by using a feeding strategy based on effluents
complementarity. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that the hybrid
digester was able to recover after an accidental overload, and the
packing material on the top of the unit prevented excessive loss of
biomass. Comparatively to the classic configuration digesters, the
hybrid digester is an effective alternative to maximize bioenergy
recovery from OME.
13/00372 By-products inhibition effects on bio-hydrogen
production
Castro-Villalobos, M. C. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen
Energy, 2012, 37, (8), 70777083.
In this work the effect of the undissociated fermentation products
concentration on the biomass growth and bio-hydrogen generation by
acidogenic fermentation has been studied. A mixed culture enriched by
biokinetic control was used to perform parallel batch experiments at
different substrate concentrations. From these experiments it was
observed that the biomass growth rate and yield significantly depended
on the fermentation products concentration reached. The concen-
tration of undissociated fermentation products causing significant
effects on the growth rate were found to be 10 mM, for the shift from
the typical exponential trend to a linear one, and 30 mM for the total
inhibition of the biomass growth. Regarding the bio-hydrogen
generation it was observed that its generation rate was linked to the
biomass concentration, being the average yield not affected. However,
when working at very high concentration of undissociated fermentation
products, values higher than 30 mM, it was observed a slight decrease
of the generation rate which could be caused by a change in the
metabolic route used to ferment the substrate.
13/00373 Chrysomya megacephala (Fabricius) larvae:
a new biodiesel resource
Li, Z. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 349354.
This study introduces a potential biodiesel source: Chrysomya
megacephala (Fabricius) larvae (CML), which are proliferative and
can be fed with a variety of low cost materials, such as manure, wheat
bran, rotted meat and decayed vegetation. The potential of
C. megacephala (Fabricius) larvae oil (CMLO) for biodiesel appli-
cations was explored. Oil was extracted from the CML raised by
feeding on restaurant garbage for five days. The oil content obtained
from the dehydrated CML ranged from 24.40% to 26.29% since
restaurant garbage varies in composition day to day. The acid value of
the CMLO was tested to be 1.10 mg KOH/g. Four factors were
subsequently considered to optimize the transesterification of CMLO
to biodiesel. The optimized conditions included a 6:1 methanol to oil
molar ratio, 1.6% KOH catalyst, a reaction temperature of 55

C and a
reaction time of 30 min. Under these conditions, the maximum yield of
fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) from CMLO was 87.71%. Finally,
properties of the FAME were within the specifications of ASTM D6751
and EN 14214 biodiesel standards. Therefore, it was concluded that
C. megacephala (Fabricius) larvae represent a potential alternative
feedstock for biodiesel production.
13/00374 Comparative economic assessment of ABE
fermentation based on cellulosic and non-cellulosic
feedstocks
Kumar, M. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 193204.
Biobutanol can become the replacement of petroleum gasoline in near
future. However, economic feasibility of biobutanol production from
ABE fermentation is suffering due to the unavailability of cheap
feedstocks, production inhibition and inefficient product recovery
processes. Here, economic analysis of ABE fermentation has been
performed based on cellulosic (bagasse, barley straw, wheat straw, corn
stover, and switchgrass) and non-cellulosic (glucose, sugarcane, corn,
and sago) feedstocks, which are widely and cheaply available in
agriculture based countries. Analysis shows that utilization of glucose
required 37% lesser total fixed capital cost than the other cellulosic and
non-cellulosic feedstocks for the per year production of 10,000 tonnes
of butanol. However, the production cost of butanol from glucose was
fourfold higher than sugarcane and cellulosic materials because of its
(glucose) high cost. The cost of sago also affected threefold production
cost of butanol comparative to other feedstocks. Therefore, these two
substrates turned the biobutanol production far from being economi-
cally feasible. Interestingly, sugarcane and cellulosic materials showed
suitability for economically feasible production of butanol with the
production cost range of $0.59$0.75 per kg butanol. Consequently,
quantitative variation in the design and process parameters namely
fermenter size, plant capacity, production yield using sugarcane and
cellulosic materials as raw materials, trigger significant reduction in
unitary cost of butanol up to 53%, 19% and 31%, respectively.
Therefore, these parameters will play significant role in making the
butanol production economical from cheaper feedstocks (sugarcane
and cellulosic materials). Further, high sensitivity of production cost
from the product yield postulates significant manipulation in genome
of butanol producing bacteria for improving the yield of ABE
fermentation.
13/00375 Contract theory and implications for perennial
energy crop contracting
Alexander, C. et al. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 970979.
This article provides an overview of modern contract theory and
discusses the implications of the theory for contracting for perennial
dedicated energy crops. The authors discuss some of the unique
challenges of contracting for dedicated energy crops used for the
production of advanced biofuels and survey some of the relevant
concepts and research from the contract theory literature to address
these challenges. They focus primarily on the mechanism design or
complete contracts approach to contracting, which involves optimiz-
ing some objective function (e.g. profits, costs, etc.) with respect to
contract terms, subject to important incentive constraints. The solution
to these optimization problems typically highlight important tradeoffs
that a contract designer needs to consider in order to maximize profits
and/or minimize costs.
13/00376 Design of green diesel from biofuels using
computer aided technique
Kashinath, S. A. A. et al. Computers & Chemical Engineering, 2012, 41,
8892.
This paper presents a systematic computer-aided technique to design a
sustainable (safe, environmentally friendly and economical) tailor-
made green diesel blend that satisfies a set of desirable target
properties. In this work, the software, integrated computer-aided
system (ICAS) was used to predict the green diesel properties. The
blending model is formulated to identify a set of feasible mixture
blends that satisfy the desirable target properties such as density and
viscosity. The blend design problem is formulated as an NLP problem
and solved through GAMS. Application of the systematic technique
yields several promising green diesel blends. Four final candidate
blends were selected based on three key criteria: cost, sulfur content
and carbon dioxide emissions. The results show that the best diesel
contains 82.4% diesel, 16.6% butanol and 1% butyl levulinate. This
diesel blend contributes to the reduction of CO
2
emission and sulfur
content by up to 15% and 17%, respectively.
13/00377 Effect of microwave irradiation pretreatment of
cow dung compost on bio-hydrogen process from corn stalk
by dark fermentation
Song, Z. X. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37,
(8), 65546561.
The bio-hydrogen production potential from corn stalk was signifi-
cantly affected by microwave irradiation pretreatment of cow dung
compost in batch tests. The maximum hydrogen yield of 144.3 ml/g-
corn stalk and hydrogen production rate of 3.6 ml/g-corn stalk h
1
were
observed using the pretreated compost by microwave radiation of
1.5 min at fixed Na
2
CO
3
dosage of 800 mg/l, Fe dosage of 400 mg/l,
substrate concentration of 20 g/l, which increased about 99.6% and
85.2% compared with that of the control. The effects of microwave
irradiation on microbial characteristics were further discussed by
atomic force microscope, determination of protein content and PCR-
DGGE. The four dominant hydrogen-producing strains had been
isolated and confirmed to be Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, B. lichenifor-
mis, B. subtilis and Enterococcus faecium, respectively. The diversity
and symbiosis relations of the mixed bacteria were also observed in
fermentation hydrogen production process.
13/00378 Energy balances for biogas and solid biofuel
production from industrial hemp
Prade, T. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 40, 3652.
If energy crops are to replace fossil fuels as a source for heat, power or
vehicle fuel, their whole production chain needs a higher energy output
than input. Industrial hemp has high biomass and energy yields. The
study evaluated and compared net energy yields (NEY) and energy
output-to-input ratios (R
O/I
) for production of heat, power and vehicle
56 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
13 Alternative energy supplies (biofuels and bioconversion energy)
fuel from industrial hemp. Four scenarios for hemp biomass were
compared; (i) combined heat and power (CHP) from spring-harvested
baled hemp, (ii) heat from spring-harvested briquetted hemp, and
(iii) CHP and (iv) vehicle fuel from autumn-harvested chopped and
ensiled hemp processed to biogas in an anaerobic digestion process.
The results were compared with those of other energy crops.
Calculations were based on conditions in the agricultural area along
the Swedish west and south coast. There was little difference in total
energy input up to storage, but large differences in the individual steps
involved. Further processing to final energy product differed greatly.
Total energy ratio was best for combustion scenarios (i) and (ii) (R
O/I
of 6.8 and 5.1, respectively). The biogas scenarios (iii) and (iv) both had
low R
O/I
(2.7 and 2.6, respectively). They suffer from higher energy
inputs and lower conversion efficiencies but give high quality products,
i.e. electricity and vehicle fuel. The main competitors for hemp are
maize and sugar beets for biogas production and the perennial crops
willow, reed canary grass and miscanthus for solid biofuel production.
Hemp is an above-average energy crop with a large potential for yield
improvements.
13/00379 Establishment and two-year growth of a bio-
energy plantation with fast-growing Populus trees in
Flanders (Belgium): effects of genotype and former land use
Broeckx, L. S. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 42, 151163.
In April 2010, a large-scale short rotation coppice (SRC) plantation
was established with mainly poplar (Populus spp.) on a former
agricultural site (cropland and pasture) in Flanders, Belgium. The 12
selected genotypes planted were assessed on establishment and
production characteristics during the first 2 years of growth and were
found highly productive, with a volume index ranging between 1.00
(0.68) and 1.93 (0.97) dm
3
in growing season 1 (GS1) and between
2.75 (1.70) and 11.91 (6.33) dm
3
in growing season 2 (GS2). Despite
high survival rates of the cuttings after planting, competitive weeds and
management operations increased tree mortality during the growing
season from 3.4% up to 18.2% averaged over the entire plantation.
Weed control therefore turned out to be the key factor in the
establishment success. Only a minor influence of former land use was
observed during GS1, which is explained by the non-limiting nutrient
conditions on both former cropland and pasture, and which dis-
appeared during GS2. These productive soils also explained the high
growth rates, with an average tree height of 247 and 445 cm and stem
diameter (at 22 cm height) of 25.21 and 40.73 mm after GS1 and GS2,
respectively. Genotypic and parentage variations were found to be less
pronounced during GS1, and increased during GS2 as expected. The
maximum leaf area index and total leaf area duration were shown to be
good indicators of production and growth performance. The results of
this paper confirm the high potential of SRC with poplar on
agricultural land for bio-energy purposes.
13/00380 Integrating sugar beet pulp storage, hydrolysis
and fermentation for fuel ethanol production
Zheng, Y. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 168175.
Sugar beet pulp (SBP) as-received has a fairly high moisture content of
7585%, which makes SBP storage a challenge. Ensilage was studied
over 90 days and was found to effectively preserve SBP without lactic
acid bacterium inoculation. Higher packing density yielded a slightly
better silage quality. Ensilage improved sugar yield upon enzymatic
hydrolysis of ensiled SBP washed with water. However, neither washing
nor sterilization improved ethanol production from ensiled SBP using
Escherichia coli KO11, suggesting ensiled SBP could be used directly in
fermentation. The ethanol yield from ensiled SBP was nearly 50%
higher than raw SBP. Fed-batch fermentation obtained approximately
30% higher ethanol yield than batch. Fed-batch could also be carried
out at 12% solid loading with a 50% lower enzyme dosage compared to
batch at the same solid loading, indicating opportunities to improve the
economics of SBP conversion into liquid fuels.
13/00381 Lignocellulosic biomass for bioethanol
production: current perspectives, potential issues and
future prospects
Limayem, A. and Ricke, S. C. Progress in Energy and Combustion
Science, 2012, 38, (4), 449467.
The willingness of the US government to face the issues of more
heavily high-priced foreign oil and climate change has led to more
investment on plant-derived sustainable biofuel sources. Biomass
derived from corn has become one of the primary feedstocks for
bioethanol production for the past several years in the USA. However,
the argument of whether to use food as biofuel has led to a search for
alternative non-food sources. Consequently, industrial research efforts
have become more focused on low-cost large-scale processes for
lignocellulosic feedstocks originating mainly from agricultural and
forest residues along with herbaceous materials and municipal wastes.
Although cellulosic-derived biofuel is a promising technology, there
are some obstacles that interfere with bioconversion processes reaching
optimal performance associated with minimal capital investment. This
review summarizes current approaches on lignocellulosic-derived
biofuel bioconversion and provides an overview on the major steps
involved in cellulosic-based bioethanol processes and potential issues
challenging these operations. Possible solutions and recoveries that
could improve bioprocessing are also addressed. This includes the
development of genetically engineered strains and emerging pretreat-
ment technologies that might be more efficient and economically
feasible. Future prospects toward achieving better biofuel operational
performance via systems approaches such as risk and life cycle
assessment modelling are also discussed.
13/00382 Measurements of physical properties during
transesterification of soybean oil to biodiesel for prediction
of reaction progress
Moradi, G. R. et al. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012, 61, 67
70.
Biodiesel is a pure, non-toxic, biodegradable, clean-burning fuel and
renewable alternative for fossil diesel fuel. In this work, a new method
was introduced to determine reaction progress in transesterification of
soybean oil to biodiesel by the use of physical property variation during
reaction. Quantitative analysis stage for determination fatty acid
methyl ester which is expensive and time-consuming can be replaced
by this method. To develop the method, in the first stage, transester-
ification of soybean oil at optimum conditions (70

C with MeOH to oil

molar ratio of 12:1 and 5 wt% of BaO as catalyst) was carried out to
determine how conversion and physical properties change with time.
Then appropriate functions were fitted on the extracted data and were
evaluated by comparison with GC results. Refractive index was selected
as good physical property to predict reaction progress.
13/00383 Methane production from lignocellulosic
agricultural crop wastes: a review in context to second
generation of biofuel production
Chandra, R. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16,
(3), 14621476.
The aim of this paper is to present a comprehensive review on
renewable methane fuel production through the biological route of
biomethanation process from major lignocellulosic agricultural crop
waste biomass (maize, wheat, rice and sugarcane). Global annual
approximate production of major agriculture based lignocellulosic
biomass has been explored. Fundamental requirements of biomethana-
tion process have been discussed in details for optimum production of
methane. The essential properties of biomass (proximate, ultimate and
compositional) conscientious for quality of derived fuel have also been
presented along with the pretreatment requirements for lignocellulosic
biomass. Methane generation potential of the major lignocellulosic
agricultural crop biomass has been explored and presented. Further-
more, the methane production potential and its energetic analysis have
also been compared with the bio-ethanol productions. The overall
parametric analysis involved in anaerobic digestion and alcoholic
fermentation explore that methane generation from lignocellulosic
agricultural crop waste biomass is more economical and environmen-
tally beneficial way of biomass utilization in a sustainable way of energy
production.
13/00384 Multicomponent evaporation model for pure and
blended biodiesel droplets in high temperature convective
environment
Saha, K. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 7179.
In this study a multicomponent evaporation model has been developed
for pure and blended biodiesel droplets to investigate their evaporation
characteristics in high temperature convective environment as encoun-
tered in practical combustion systems; and it is validated through a
comparison with experimental results. The vaporization characteristics
of pure diesel, pure biodiesel fuel droplets as well as the effect of
mixing them in different proportions (B20 and B50) are presented. The
results reveal that biodiesel droplets evaporate at a slower rate than the
diesel droplets because of biodiesels relatively low vapour pressure.
Consequently, the blending of diesel fuel with small proportions of
biodiesel results in an increase in the evaporation timescale of the
blended fuel droplets. Diffusion in the liquid phase is observed to be
the rate controlling factor for blended droplet vaporization. The
possibility of internal gasification for blended droplets is also
investigated. A droplet with higher quantity of diesel is more prone
to undergo internal gasification but micro-explosion is not likely to
occur at atmospheric pressure.
13/00385 Oil and furfural recovery from Brassica carinata
Stamigna, C. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 39, 478483.
With the purpose of increasing the net energy balance of Brassica
carinata, this study proposes to recover, in addition to oil from seeds,
furfural from straws. To evaluate the net energy yield of transform-
ation, about 600 plants of B. carinata have been cultivated and 100
randomly selected plants analysed. Seeds and straws were divided,
weighed and used for oil and furfural extraction, respectively. The oil
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 57
13 Alternative energy supplies (biofuels and bioconversion energy)
content ranged from 2.5 up to 40 g per plant with a mean value of
19.6 g. The quantity of extracted oil resulted strictly correlated to seed
weight rather than to oil percentage in the seed. The straw weight
ranged from 450 up to 625 g per plant with a mean value of 500.6 g.
Furfural was produced with a yield of 6.4% from fresh weight straw.
Oil and furfural productivity per hectare were calculated from the
obtained mean values per plant. It was found that the energy content in
the furfural is similar to that of oil. The furfural production increases
the overall energy yield of conversion from 7.1% (calculated consider-
ing only the oil from the seeds) up to 13.8% (calculated considering the
oil from the seeds plus the furfural from the straws). The steam needed
for furfural production and purification can be obtained by burning
about one half of the cellulose and lignin, obtained as byproduct after
straw processing for furfural extraction. Furfural can be hydrogenated
to produce tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol a renewable bio-fuel of new
generation with chemicalphysical characteristics very similar to those
of kerosene.
13/00386 Optimization of reactive extraction of castor seed
to produce biodiesel using response surface methodology
Pradhan, S. et al. Fuel, 2012, 97, 848855.
Biodiesel was produced by reactive extraction (RE) of castor seed to
reduce the cost and time associated with conventional method. The
objective of this study is to determine the relationship between various
important parameters of the RE process to obtain a high yield of fatty
acid methyl ester (FAME). Response surface methodology (RSM) was
used to statistically analyse and optimize the operating parameters of
the process. A central composite design (CCD) was adopted to study
effects of catalyst concentration, methanol to oil molar ratio, reaction
temperature and mixing intensity on yield of FAME. The results of
RSM analysis indicate that catalyst concentration and methanol to oil
molar ratio have most significant effect on the yield of FAME, with
R
2
=0.998 shows fitness of a second-order model. The interaction
terms of catalyst concentration with both methanol to oil molar ratio
and reaction temperature exhibited a positive effect delivering
(P<0.0001). Based on second-order model, optimum condition for
this reaction is found to be methanol to oil molar ratio of 225:1,
catalyst concentration 1.0 wt% of oil, reaction temperature 55

C and
mixing intensity of 350 rpm. The mathematical model (a quadratic
polynomial equation) has developed adequately describing ranges of
the experimental parameters studied and provides a statistically
accurate prediction of the optimum yield of FAME.
13/00387 Rethinking the cane sugar mill by using selective
fermentation of reducing sugars by Saccharomyces
dairenensis, prior to sugar crystallization
Ohara, S. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 42, 7885.
High yield sugarcane is expected to resolve the competition between
food and fuel regarding farmland and biomass resources. However, its
higher composition of reducing sugars (i.e. glucose and fructose),
which inhibit sucrose crystallization, hinders the production of sugar
from high yield sugarcane. Under the conventional integrated sugar
ethanol manufacturing system, high biomass yield causes only the
increase of ethanol production because of the increase in unrecovered
sugar after extraction, which represents a failure in resolving the
competition. The technology presented here is the worlds first to solve
this problem via selective ethanol fermentation using Saccharomyces
dairenensis, an unconventional yeast that ferments only reducing sugars
and leaves sucrose untouched. A laboratory-scale test using sugarcane
juices with a high composition of reducing sugars (100 g kg
1
) resulted
in a sucrose crystal yield increase from a single extraction, from 16.2 to
65.1%, by introducing selective fermentation. The second extraction,
from the molasses, which was enabled by the lowered residual reducing
sugar composition, further enhanced the total sugar crystal yield (up to
83.4%). A simulation of the application of this technology in the USA
revealed that both sugar and ethanol production were enhanced,
whereas sugar production declined by the mere adoption of high yield
cultivar, even with the increase in sugarcane yield.
13/00388 Solid acid mediated hydrolysis of biomass for
producing biofuels
Guo, F. et al. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 2012, 38, (5),
672690.
Solid acid catalysts, which have favourable characteristics such as
efficient activity, high selectivity, long catalyst life and ease in recovery
and reuse, have great potential for efficiently transforming lignocellu-
losic biomass into biofuels and can replace many conventional liquid
acids for hydrolysis and pretreatment. This work briefly introduces
conventional biomass pretreatment and hydrolysis techniques, and
reviews in detail the characteristics of biomass hydrolysis for five types
of solid acid catalysts grouped as H-form zeolites, transition-metal
oxides, cation-exchange resins, supported solid acids and heteropoly
compounds. Carbonaceous solid acid (CSA) catalysts are considered as
the most promising catalyst for cellulose hydrolysis, since they provide
good access of reactants to the acidic sites of SO
3
H groups. High
glucose yields of up to 75% with 80% selectivity have been achieved at
150

C for 24 h with CSA. However, separation of CSA from un-

hydrolysed cellulose residues after hydrolysis needs further research
since these catalysts have similar physical and chemical properties to
the residues. Use of functionalized CSA catalysts that contain
paramagnetic groups is one method to improve CSA separation and
reuse. Suggestions are given for promoting catalytic efficiency for each
kind of solid acid catalysts. Methods to promote reactions or increase
selectivities such as microwave, ultrasonication and nanotechnology are
introduced. Finally, the authors highlight a recent strategy that exploits
acid-functionalized paramagnetic nanoparticles suitable for cellulose
hydrolysis, and address new opportunities for the use of solid acid
catalysts.
13/00389 Status of biogas technologies and policies in
South Korea
Kim, Y.-S. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16,
(5), 34303438.
To date, there are about 49 biogas plants in South Korea that are
generally recognized as economically and technically unsuccessful due
to lack of knowhow, deficient technologies and policies. There is a need
to analyse the status of biogas technology and policy in South Korea
from the point of view of an external biogas expert, since biogas
technology in South Korea has not yet been analysed by foreign biogas
experts so far. For analysing site investigation, literature research and
interviews are performed. It was found that there are several lacks of
conceptual design of biogas technology, such as plant dimension,
energy balance, operation knowhow. Technical and financial support
for the development of biogas technology was insufficient so far. There
are some policies to support biogas technologies, however financial
support from different ministries seemed not to have been used
efficiently. Some policies are planned excessively so that they cannot be
realized on time. Based on the general policy called Green Growth,
the Korean government plans to establish a biogas market in South
Korea in order to recover energy from organic waste. For this purpose,
R&D efforts should be intensified for consulting and education in
national and international networks for the transfer of knowhow and
technologies. Definition of the existing restrictions on the development
of biogas technology is required. By developing a biogas roadmap, the
creation of a biogas market could be promoted efficiently in South
Korea.
13/00390 Technical assessment of bioenergy recovery
from cotton stalks through anaerobic digestion process and
the effects of inexpensive pre-treatments
Adl, M. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 251260.
Methane yields from cotton stalks have been reported in the range of
0.0220.150 Nm
3
/kg-VS in the preceding studies. In this study,
hydrothermal pre-treatment of cotton stalks was performed under
atmospheric conditions prior to anaerobic digestion process through
which, three agents were examined; hot water, dilute ammonia solution
containing 2% NH
3
(dry matter basis), and recycled liquid from
anaerobic process. All three options increased methane yield but the
highest results (over 0.200 Nm
3
/kg-VS) were obtained by utilization of
recycled process liquid (PL) under an adjusted ammonia content and
C:N ratio, which was achieved by dilution of PL with water as well as
application of stabilized swine sludge as a nitrogen rich inoculum. The
energy balance evaluation of the overall process revealed that
bioenergy recovery from pre-treated cotton stalks by anaerobic
digestion is feasible and viable only at feed streams with above 10%
solids content, methane yield above 0.175 Nm
3
/kg-VS and with heat
recovery from hydrothermal pre-treatment tank. A methane yield of
0.184 Nm
3
/kg-VS was observed under semi-continuous feeding of PL
treated stalks to a hybrid plug-flow pilot reactor.
13/00391 The assessment of the contribution of short-term
wind power predictions to the efficiency of stand-alone
hybrid systems
Tascikaraoglu, A. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 156165.
Distribution of electricity to the rural areas, particularly in regions
which have rough topography causes high costs and losses. Hybrid
systems can provide electricity at a relatively economic price at these
regions. This paper designs and tests a stand-alone hybrid system
combining variable speed wind turbine (WT), fuel cell (FC) and
battery. The main objective is to optimize the hydrogen utilization
while guaranteeing the load balance implicitly as well as to achieve
proper FC operation. To this end, a wind power prediction based
controller is proposed in order to take action according to foreseen
amount of power deficit or excess in the system. For the purpose of
investigating the effects of predictions on the system efficiency, a case
study is carried out on a coastal area with a high wind potential in
Izmir, Turkey. The results obtained provide insights about the
advantages of utilizing wind power predictions in a hybrid system.
58 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
13 Alternative energy supplies (biofuels and bioconversion energy)
13/00392 Use of different alkaline pretreatments and
enzyme models to improve low-cost cellulosic biomass
conversion
Chen, B.-Y. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 39, 182191.
Two commonly alkaline pretreatment processes base on aqueous
ammonia and lime under different enzyme hydrolysis models were
evaluated to provide comparative sugar production performance from
silvergrass, napiergrass and rice straw. The chemical composition
variation of all biomass were nearly in stable after 4 weeks of
pretreatment under room temperature and recovery of the cellulose
fraction was >90% by both pretreatment methods, the silvergrass
recovered more dry matter than other biomass after pretreatment.
Compared with other combination of pretreatment and enzyme model,
mixed enzyme model after lime pretreatment significantly enhanced
the biomass degradation especially in silvergrass and rice straw, but
single enzyme supplement (cellulase or hemicellulase) result in limited
sugar yield in this study. The biomass conversion result showed that
considerable sugar yield from untreated napiergrass under the mixed
enzyme model. However, alkaline pretreatment had no positive effect
on glucose conversion from napiergrass. Increasing the mixed enzyme
activity from 2.89 to 10.68 FPUg
1
improved the glucose yield from 3.4
to 4.4 times and from 2.8 to 3.3 times after ammonia and lime
pretreatment, respectively. The findings of this study suggest that
pretreatment methods and enzyme loading model should be considered
simultaneously to enhance cellulosic biomass degradation. Further-
more, the pretreatment method should be applied according to the
fibre composition of the biomass. The suitable pretreatment process
and constituent of enzyme mixture for individual cellulosic biomass is a
promising line of inquiry.
Geothermal energy
13/00393 A numerical model of a deeply buried
airearthtunnel heat exchanger
Su, H. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 48, 233239.
An airearth (rock)tunnel system has often been used for building
energy saving. A computing model of the airearth (rock) heat
exchanger is necessary to predict the thermal performance. A
numerical simulating model has been developed for the deeply buried
airearth (rock)tunnel system, in which a one-dimensional (1D)
implicit transient convection-diffusion sub-model describes the air
temperature and humidity, and a 1D transient explicit heat conduction
sub-model computes the rock temperature. Based on an appropriate
discrete scheme, a sequential computing algorithm has been given for
solving the air sub-model and the rock sub-model respectively. The
accuracy of this numerical model has been verified by comparisons of
temperatures of the air and rock and the relative humidity between
numerical results and the test data.
13/00394 Comparative performance of U-tube and
coaxial loop designs for use with a ground source heat
pump
Wood, C. J. et al. Applied Thermal Engineering, 2012, 37, 190195.
The installation cost and coefficient of performance (COP) of a ground
source heat pump (GSHP) system can be greatly affected by the design
of its ground loop. An experimental investigation was conducted to
compare the performance of two loop designs for use with the ground
source heat pump of an energy pile installation or a conventional
borehole system. A coaxial loop (a 40 mm OD coaxial tube with a
20 mm OD interior pipe) and a U-tube (20 mm OD pipes) of a length
of 72 m were constructed, tested and analysed in terms of ground heat
extraction capability and hydraulic flow characteristics. The use of the
coaxial loop design could potentially reduce the cost of drilling
boreholes and make the installation easier on site, as the effective
diameter would be smaller than a comparable U-tube with the same
mass flow rate, considering that the U-tube requires a minimum 10 mm
spacer between the legs. Hydraulic performance tests have shown that
the U-tube achieved the transitional-turbulent flow at a glycol flow rate
of approximately 0.14L/s, whereas the flow in the coaxial remained
laminar across the glycol flow rate range of 0.050.25 L/s. Heat pump
performance tests have shown that the U-tube achieved a COP of at
least 0.08 greater than the coaxial loop across the range of glycol flow
rates investigated, while the heat output was at least 12% greater when
using the U-tube. Therefore, it can be concluded that the coaxial loop
in its current form is seen not to add any performance benefit against
the U-tube.
13/00395 Cooling dominated hybrid ground source heat
pump system application
Sagia, Z. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 4147.
A cooling dominated hybrid ground source heat pump system
(HGSHPS) is utilized to cover the energy demands of an office build-
ing. The energy demands are computed by TRNSYS 16.1, considering
two different scenarios, based on different glazing properties. A ground
loop consisted of a rectangular field of 15 borehole heat exchangers is
utilized to cover building loads. GLD 2009 sizing software calculates
borehole length setting two different fixed temperatures for the heat
carrier fluid entering heat pump, 30 and 33

C. Assuming different
cooling tower capacity, the desired flow rate is estimated for a cooling
range of 5.7

C (the difference between the water inlet and outlet

temperature). A MATLAB code is created to calculate the required
pressure drop per packing height of cooling tower for four packings in
different operating conditions.
13/00396 Determining ground thermal properties using
logs and thermal drill cutting analysis. First relationship
with thermal response test in principality of Asturias, Spain
Alonso-Sanchez, T. et al. Applied Thermal Engineering, 2012, 37, 226
234.
A simple and inexpensive method was used for determining the
thermal properties of materials that have been drilled through by a
borehole. The samples used for the experiment were drill cuttings of
the sort that are produced whenever a hole is bored, regardless of the
drilling method employed. The procedure was carried out on dry
cuttings, such that it is valid only for materials found above the
groundwater level. The resources needed are simple, and the method,
though lengthy to carry out, is not complicated. The Ingersoll model
equation was used, which represents heat flow from a point source
through an infinite, homogeneous and isotropic medium, and good
correlation coefficients were observed between the dependent variable
T and the independent variables (t, r). The results for the conductivity
of the limestone were quite similar in all three trials, and the same is
true for the trials carried out with shale. However, in the results for the
diffusivity of the limestone, there were two very similar values, and a
third value with greater discrepancy. The same occurred in the case of
the shale. The results for the thermal parameters are in line with those
that have been reported in the literature. Thus, the authors have
concluded that this is an appropriate procedure for measuring
conductivity, and one which should be perfected in order to improve
its replicability when measuring diffusivity. The procedure could be
improved through the use of more precise sensors. Also, an analysis of
the effect of water content is in order. The borehole logs recorded prior
to installing the geothermal tubes made it possible to determine the
different lithologies through which the borehole had cut. If the
borehole were to have contained water, its water level and any possible
aquifers could have been detected. Furthermore, the water flow in the
borehole could have been detected with a flowmeter probe. However,
since the borehole in this study proved to be dry, all that could be
detected were the different lithological levels that had been bored
through. The drill cuttings were classified into two groups, shale and
limestone, based on the interpretation of the Gamma Ray log. The
thermal conductivity of the borehole was calculated as the weighted
average of the formations conductivity, which, in turn, was determined
based on the thermal conductivity of the cuttings. In addition,
volumetric heat capacity was determined. Using the TRT analysis,
the thermal resistance of the borehole was determined, which solves the
problem of having to rely on tabulated values to determine the thermal
resistance of a shallow geothermal borehole.
13/00397 Development of the thermally affected zone (TAZ)
around a groundwater heat pump (GWHP) system:
a sensitivity analysis
Lo Russo, S. et al. Geothermics, 2012, 43, 6674.
Open-loop groundwater heat pumps (GWHPs) are considered one of
the most energy efficient and environmentally friendly air-conditioning
systems for temperate zones. A fundamental aspect in GWHP plant
design is early evaluation of the thermally affected zone (TAZ) that
develops around the injection well. This is particularly important to
avoid interference with previously existing groundwater uses (wells)
and subsurface underground structures. Numerical modelling is useful
for delineating temperature anomalies. Numerical simulations and a
sensitivity analysis are carried out for the subsurface parameters
affecting the TAZ. Using the simulation results, a relative hierarchy of
significance for the parameters with respect to the final result was
obtained and then this analysis was applied to an actual site. The
results of the analysis indicate that the hydrodynamic parameters
correlated with groundwater flow such as the hydraulic conductivity
and the gradient are highly important, particularly those relating to the
advective heat flow component.
13/00398 Development program of hot dry rock geothermal
resource in the Yangbajing Basin of China
Feng, Z. et al. Renewable Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 490495.
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 59
13 Alternative energy supplies (geothermal energy)
Geothermal energy from hot dry rock (HDR), considered an almost
inexhaustible source of green energy, was first developed and tested in
the 1970s, leading to installations in the USA, Japan, Britain, France
and other countries. In the present work, a liquating rock mass at a
depth of 515 km in the Tibet Yangbajing region in China was
subjected to detailed analysis. The temperature distribution of the
geothermal field in the region was determined by the finite element
method. The results estimate that the HDR geothermal resource of the
Yangbajing region is 5.4 10
9
MWa, representing a huge potential
source of HDR geothermal energy for China. Based on detailed
research into the continental dynamics of the environment forming the
HDR geothermal field of Tibet, along with the tectonic characteristics
of the southern slope of Tanggula Mountain and the Dangxiong
Yangbajing Basin, and the magnitude and orientation of the in situ
stresses in the region, the design of an arrangement for extracting these
HDR geothermal resources is proposed: taking the fault zone nearest
the high-temperature liquating rock region as the location of an
artificial reservoir, a vertical injection well could be drilled at a low
point on the downdip side of the fault, and two dipping production
wells drilled higher up. In this way, an artificial reservoir 3 10
11
m
3
in
volume would be created: 360 times the volume of the HDR
geothermal reservoir in Cornwall, UK, which uses hydrofracturing.
An investigation of the reservoir features, including seepage analysis of
the heat exchange area, project implementation and investment
analysis, indicates that a 10
4
MW capacity power station with a
projected operating life of approximately 100 years could be con-
structed. An analysis of a geothermal extraction system comprising one
injection well and two production wells suggest that a power station of
1000 MW installed capacity could be constructed initially to provide
electricity production of 8.64 10
9
kWh per year.
13/00399 Effect of borehole array geometry and thermal
interferences on geothermal heat pump system
Kurevija, T. et al. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012, 60, 134
142.
Properly sized borehole heat exchanger in geothermal heat pump
system (widely known also as ground source heat pump system) needs
to minimize long-term ground and working fluid temperature changes.
These changes occur due to imbalances of heat extracted from the
ground during winter and heat rejected into the ground during summer
months, as well as thermal interferences of adjacent boreholes in
borehole array. Simple calculations and spreadsheet-based analogical
solutions of required borehole length for heat transfer run into
difficulties when dealing with such large, complex ground source heat
pump heating and cooling systems which use compact borehole array.
A number of analytical computer programs are available to simulate
how ground loop fluid temperature varies in such complex systems,
using so-called g-function a mathematical function dependent on
the geometry and shape of the borehole array. The type of calculation
involves a type of step-function, where 24 h step of peak loading is
superimposed on a top of a long-term base load. In analytical
simulation models, the base load is typically specified as the heating
and cooling load per month of a typical year, and is simulated as the
combination of sequential monthly steps. This paper will show, by
simulating long-term operation of complex geothermal heat pump
system with multiple boreholes in various geometric arrays, how
spacing of adjacent boreholes and thermal interferences influence
required borehole length for heat transfer.
13/00400 Exergy analysis and operational efficiency of a
horizontal ground-source heat pump system operated in a
low-energy test house under simulated occupancy
conditions
Ally, M. R. et al. International Journal of Refrigeration, 2012, 35, (4),
10921103.
This paper presents data, analyses, measures of performance, and
conclusions for a ground-source heat pump (GSHP) providing space
conditioning to a 345 m
2
house whose envelope is made of structural
insulated panels. The entire house thermal load with R
SI
-3.7 (R
US
-21)
walls, triple-pane windows (U-factor of 1.64 Wm
2
K
(0.29 Btu h
1
ft
2
F
1
)) and solar heat gain coefficient of 0.25, a roof
assembly with overall thermal resistance of about R
SI
-8.8 (R
US
-50),
and low leakage rates of 0.74 ACH at 50 Pa, was satisfied with a 2.16 ton
(7.56 kW) GSHP unit. Coefficient of performance is calculated on the
basis of the total power input (including duct, ground loop, and control
power losses). Exergy analysis provides a true measure of how closely
actual performance approaches the ideal, and it unequivocally
identifies, better than energy analysis does, the sources and causes of
lost work the root cause of system inefficiencies and wasted energy.
13/00401 Exergy analysis of borehole thermal energy
storage system for building cooling applications
Kizilkan, O. and Dincer, I. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 49, 568574.
In this study, exergy analysis of a borehole thermal energy storage
system (BTES) for cooling season is carried out. A comprehensive case
study is conducted based on the system at University of Ontario Insti-
tute of Technology in Oshawa, Canada, and actual thermal load data
are employed for analysis. The exergy destruction rates of each system
component and overall system are calculated and studied for com-
parison purposes. It is determined from the analysis that the exergy
destructions in a system particularly take place in condensers of cooling
systems. Also, it is found that condenser and evaporator temperatures
have strong effects on the exergetic performance of the system. For
system performance analysis and improvement, exergy efficiencies of
the overall BTES are investigated and determined to be a maximum
of 62%.
13/00402 Geoenergy in Poland
Iglinski, B. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16,
(5), 25452557.
This paper presents the current state of geothermal energy production
in Poland and its future development prospects. At present, there are
four geothermal heating plants in Poland. In addition, warm water is
used in seven spa towns in balneology as well as in seven thermal
swimming pools for recreational purposes. There has recently been an
increase in the number of installed heat pumps in Poland reaching
10,000 in 2010. In the near future the development of geothermics in
Poland is forecast to continue. The first power and heat geothermal
plant is being built in Uniejow while in more than 10 other towns
special swimming pool complexes using geothermal warm water are
being built or designed. In the coming years heat pumps will be
installed in living and office buildings as well as in public use buildings
(mostly in newly built ones). Moreover, in Poland it is planned to use
heat pumps in order to recover waste heat from factories and power
plants.
13/00403 Hydrochemistry and geothermometrical modeling
of low-temperature Panticosa geothermal system (Spain)
Asta, M. P. et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research,
2012, 235236, 8495.
The chemical characteristics of the low-temperature geothermal system
of Panticosa, Spain, were investigated in order to determine the water
temperature at the reservoir and to identify the main geochemical
processes that affect the water composition during the ascent of the
thermal waters. In general, the studied waters are similar to other
geothermal systems in the Pyrenees, belonging to the group of granite-
related alkaline thermal waters (high pH, low total dissolved solids,
very low magnesium concentration, and sodium as the dominant
cation). According to the alkaline pH of these waters, they have a very
low CO
2
partial pressure, bicarbonate is the dominant anion and silica
is partially ionized as H
3
SiO
4

. The unusually active acidbase pairs

(HCO
3

/CO
3
2
and, mainly, H
4
SiO
4
/H
3
SiO
4

) act as homogeneous pH
buffers and contribute to the total alkalinity in these alkaline waters.
On the basis of the study of the conservative elements, a mixing process
between a hot and a cold end-member has been identified. Addition-
ally, in order to determinate the water temperature at the reservoir,
several geothermometric techniques have been applied, including both
geothermometrical modelling and classical geothermometrical calcu-
lations. The geothermometrical modelling seems to indicate that
thermal waters re-equilibrate with respect to calcite and kaolinite
during their ascent to the surface. Modelling results suggest that these
thermal waters would be in equilibrium with respect to albite, K-
feldspar, quartz, calcite, kaolinite and zoisite at a similar temperature
of 90 20

C in the reservoir, which is in good agreement with the

results obtained by applying the classical geothermometers.
13/00404 Investment in wind power and pumped storage in
a real options model
Reuter, W. H. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012,
16, (4), 22422248.
Promoting renewable energy has been a key ingredient in energy policy
seeking to de-carbonize the energy mix and will continue to do so in the
future given the European Unions (EU) high ambitions to further
curb carbon emissions. A wide range of instruments has been suggested
and implemented in various countries of the EU. A prominent policy
promoting investment in renewable technologies is the use of feed-in
tariffs, which has worked well at large scale in Germany for example,
but which has only been implemented in a very limited way in countries
such as the UK. Being subject to environmental uncertainties, however,
renewables cannot be seen in isolation: while renewables-based
technologies such as wind and solar energy, for example, suffer from
uncertain loads depending on environmental conditions, hydropower
allows for the storage of water for release at peak prices, which can be
treated as a premium (partially) offsetting higher upfront investment
costs. In addition, electricity prices will respond to changes in electric
capacity in the market, which is often neglected in standard investment
models of the electricity sector. This paper contributes to the existing
literature in two ways: it provides a review of a renewables-based
60 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
13 Alternative energy supplies (geothermal energy)
technology in a specific policy context and provides additional insight
by employing a real options approach to investigate the specific
characteristics of renewables and their associated uncertainties in a
stylized setting taking explicitly into account market effects of
investment decisions. The prices of the model are determined
endogenously by the supply of electricity in the market and by
exogenous electricity price uncertainty. The inclusion of market effects
allows us to capture the full impact of public incentives for companies
to invest into wind power and hydro pumped storage installations.
13/00405 Isotope and hydrochemical assessment of the
Samothraki Island geothermal area, Greece
Dotsika, E. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 2012,
233234, 1826.
Thermal and cold water samples were collected from the Greek island
of Samothraki, in the northern part of the Aegean Sea. Isotopic (cD,
c
18
O, c
34
S
SO
4
, c
34
S
S
2, c
18
O
SO
4
) and chemical analyses (major ions, Br,
B, Li, SiO
2
) were performed in most of them. The study of ionic and
isotopic contents shows that, the thermal waters of Samothraki Island
are mainly locally fed groundwater that changes, chemically and
isotopically, during its circulation within a major fracture zone reaching
great depths. More specifically, the evaluation of the entire dataset
indicates that waterrock reactions and mixing with brines are the
principal sources of the isotopic and salinity fingerprint of these waters.
The isotopic [c
18
O (SO
4
2
H
2
O)] and chemical geothermometers
applied on the waters of the thermal springs, suggest the probable
existence of a geothermal reservoir of high enthalpy. The temperature
attributed to this deep geothermal field is higher than 220

C.
13/00406 Modeling the dynamics of a geothermal reservoir
fed by gravity driven flow through overstanding saturated
rocks
Cerminara, M. and Fasano, A. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal
Research, 2012, 233234, 3754.
This study formulates a mathematical model for a geothermal basin
with an idealized geometry characterized by: (1) radial symmetry
around an extracting well (or a cluster of wells), (2) a relatively thin
horizontal fractured layer lying underneath a low permeability, low
porosity rock layer, saturated with water. Vaporization is allowed only
at the boundary of the extracting well (or well cluster). The model is
based on the assumption that the flow from the reservoir to the well is
fed by a gravity driven flow through the overstanding rocks. Despite the
various simplifying assumptions, the resulting mathematical problem is
difficult also because the effect of thermal expansion and thermal
variation of viscosity is also considered. Though there is no evidence
that the assumed configuration of the basin approaches the structure of
a known geothermal field, the results obtained match with surprising
accuracy the data of a specific field in the Mt Amiata area.
13/00407 Numerical analysis of three direct cooling
systems using underground energy storage: a case study of
Jinghai County, Tianjin, China
Deng, N. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 47, 612618.
Three kinds of ground source energy system used as heat sink directly
for cooling the buildings in summer are presented, which are
underground water system, ground heat exchange system and under-
ground sink system, respectively. Correspondingly, three numerical
models are established. Based on a rural housing in Jinghai County,
Tianjin, the simulated operating results of three systems are analysed
and compared. The applied size parameters for direct cooling system
(DCS) were coincident with traditional compression refrigeration
system. The results indicate that the outlet water temperature of the
double-wells circulating system remains stable and the system
operation effect is satisfied. Hence, it is recommended as a prior way
for DCS to give long-term, safe and stable operation. However, the
outlet water temperature of the U-shaped tube system easily exceeds
23

C after 10 days of running, which is the maximum temperature limit

for DCS due to heat transfer effect. This is not recommended. The
feasibility of using an underground sink for DCS depends on
reasonable analysis of the adaptability between the building cooling
load and the cooling capability of the sink. Because of economic and
ecological reasons, it is still recommended as an auxiliary cooling
system.
13/00408 Predicting in situ heat pump performance:
an investigation into a single ground-source heat pump
system in the context of 10 similar systems
Stafford, A. and Lilley, D. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 49, 536541.
Ten similar ground-source heat pump systems installed in small rural
social housing bungalows in the UK have been monitored in detail over
a period of more than a year. The purpose of the present work was to
take one system at random, and study its performance characteristics in
the context of the group, in order to explore the potential for predicting
performance from a few readily obtainable parameters. The chosen
system performed relatively well in summer and relatively poorly in
winter (despite an average temperature lift for space-heating). This was
found to be readily explicable in terms of domestic hot water set-point
temperature, and compressor cycling behaviour. The latter may be
affected by building fabric issues, or by user behaviour (e.g. window-
opening). The study suggests that where sizeable groups of similar
systems are installed in similar buildings (e.g. by social housing
providers), an appropriate monitoring strategy may be to monitor a
sample of installations in detail, and to predict the performance of the
remainder based on limited but more easily obtained data. However,
the limited dataset may need to include internal and ground-loop fluid
temperatures, heat pump electricity consumption, and some detailed
knowledge of building fabric and occupier practices.
13/00409 The feasibility of using circulating groundwater
as renewable energy sources for air-conditioning in Taipei
basin
Kuo, C. and Liao, H. Renewable Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 175182.
To reduce the uplift pressure of groundwater, many wells, deep into
the Chingmei gravel stratum underneath Taipei city, were installed
during construction of Taipei mass rapid transit underground stations.
These wells can also be used to establish a circulating groundwater
system for air-conditioning. To study the feasibility of this circulating
cooling system and the thermal response of the Chingmei gravel
stratum, some groundwater parameters of the Chingmai gravel stratum
were studied such as pumping and recharging capacities, flow direction,
and flow velocity etc. Two small-scale in situ discharge tests and
numerical simulations were used for this purpose. However, the tests
could not be performed for a long period to prove the purpose, the
computer modelling provided the predicted long time response of the
stratum. The discharge tests on the wells confirmed the discharge
capacity of the Chingmei stratum and the numerical results also
indicate that circulating groundwater with a steady temperature can be
provided to cool down air-conditioners, as long as groundwater is
flowing at a slow velocity. This study confirms the feasibility of using
the groundwater of the Chingmei gravel stratum as a steady and clean
cool source for air-conditioners.
13/00410 Thermodynamic analysis of a novel integrated
geothermal based power generation-quadruple effect
absorption cooling-hydrogen liquefaction system
Ratlamwala, T. A. H. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy,
2012, 37, (7), 58405849.
This paper proposes a novel integrated geothermal absorption system
for hydrogen liquefaction, power and cooling productions. The effect
of geothermal, ambient temperature and concentration of ammonia
water vapour on the system outputs and efficiencies are studied
through energy and exergy analyses. It is found that both energetic and
exergetic coefficient of performances, and amounts of hydrogen gas
pre-cooled and liquefied decrease with increase in the mass flow rate of
geothermal water. Moreover, increasing the temperature of geothermal
source degrades the performance of the quadruple effect absorption
system, but at the same time it affects the liquefaction production rate
of hydrogen gas in a positive way. However, an increase in ambient
temperature has a negative effect on the liquefaction rate of hydrogen
gas produced as it decreases from 0.2 to 0.05 kg/s. Moreover, an
increase in the concentration of the ammoniawater vapour results in
an increase in the amount of hydrogen gas liquefied from 0.07 to
0.11 kg/s.
13/00411 Towards a de-carbonized energy system in north-
eastern Morocco: prospective geothermal resource
Rimi, A. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16, (4),
22072216.
Geothermal data has been indicating promising potentialities in the
north-eastern Morocco. This paper presents new temperature data,
recently recorded in water boreholes located in the Berkane and Oujda
areas. Generally, the observed temperature gradients are rather high.
One hole near Berkane, revealed an average geothermal gradient of
more than 110

C/km at depths greater than 300 m. This result confirms

the geothermal gradient estimated in a mining borehole located about
30 km west of the Berkane borehole, in which water temperature of
96

C is reached at a depth of about 700 m. Such a high geothermal

gradient, exceeding by far the ones already determined for north-
eastern Morocco, could act as a stimulus to programs aimed at the
geothermal exploitation of high temperature aquifers.
13/00412 Tracer design for tracking thermal fronts in
geothermal reservoirs
Nottebohm, M. et al. Geothermics, 2012, 43, 3744.
This paper describes the first steps in the design of new custom-made
tracers for the investigation of thermal characteristics in deep
geothermal reservoirs. Based on ester hydrolysis, the influences of
different substituents on the reaction kinetics are studied in detail
using the analogue phenol acetates under the influence of varying pH
and temperatures. Furthermore, a 2-ethylbutyl-2-naphthol-6-sulfonic
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 61
13 Alternative energy supplies (geothermal energy)
ester is tested in laboratory experiments for its applicability as a
practical thermo-sensitive tracer, considering also the influences of
brine and rock matrix. The reaction is shown to be strongly thermo-
sensitive while the reaction kinetics can be varied by two orders of
magnitude by altering the sterical hindrance groups. These changes in
the reaction kinetics are found to be predictable by using the results of
this work. It has been found that the half-life can be decreased by the
factor of three, if the reacting group is sterically hindered from one side
and by the factor of 10, if the reacting group is hindered from both
sides. Also mesomeric and inductive effects of substituents on the
aromatic ring have significant effects on reaction rates. The pH-
dependency on the reaction speed could be quantified and it is shown
that the reaction complete alkaline catalysed. Therefore, this reaction
fulfils the many considerations of a tracer-test, such as varying absolute
temperature, test durations, and temperature gradients.
13/00413 Water geochemistry and soil gas survey at
Ungaran geothermal field, central Java, Indonesia
Phuong, N. K. et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research,
2012, 229230, 2333.
A soil gas survey for radon (Rn), thoron (Tn), CO
2
, and mercury (Hg),
and the chemical analysis of hot spring waters, were undertaken in the
Ungaran geothermal field, central Java, Indonesia. The results of soil
gas surveys indicate fault systems trending NNESSW and WNWESE.
Particularly high CO
2
concentrations (>-20%), and high Hg concen-
trations were detected in vicinity of the fumaroles. Emanometries of
Rn, Tn and CO
2
also conclusively identified the presence of a fracture
zone for the migration of geothermal fluid. The Hg results infer that
the up-flow zone of high temperature geothermal fluids maybe located
in the north of fumaroles in the Gedongsongo area (near the collapse
wall). Chemistry of thermal springs in the up-flow zone are acid
(pH=4) and show a CaMgSO
4
composition. The thermal waters are
mainly CaMgHCO
3
and Ca(Na)SO
4
HCO
3
types near the
fumarolic area and are mixed Na(Ca)Cl(HCO
3
) waters in the
south east of Gedongsongo. The c
18
O (between 5.3 and 8.2%) and c
(between 39 and 52%) indicate that the waters are essentially
meteoric in origin. A conceptual hydro-geochemical model of the
Gedongsongo thermal waters based on the soil gas, isotope and
chemical analytical results, was constructed.
13/00414 World geothermal power production status:
energy, environmental and economic study of high enthalpy
technologies
Chamorro, C. R. et al. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 1018.
The current world status of geothermal electricity production,
including installed capacities, number of units and energy produced
by exploitation technology, is presented in this paper. Four geothermal
model plants based on different modes of high enthalpy technologies
are analysed from energy, environmental and economic points of view
for specific reservoir characteristics. Once process parameters are
optimized for the best plant operation, a cost and financial analysis is
performed within a given economic frame. This analysis shows that dry
steam power plants are the most efficient. Flash steam power plants
increase their exergy efficiency with increasing reservoir temperature.
Double flash technology raises the energy produced with respect to
single flash between 17% and 25%, and economic parameters become
better. An additional third flash process increases power production by
10%, but economic parameters are not improved unless a reservoir of
very high temperatures is considered. The energy and economic study
conclude that the choice of the best flash technology depends on the
resource characteristics, the financial frame and the technology costs.
Solar energy
13/00415 Corrosion effects between molten salts and
thermal storage material for concentrated solar power plants
Guillot, S. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 174181.
Today, thermal energy storage (TES) is a key issue for concentrated
solar power plants (CSPs). The available and mature technologies of
TES do not match all the actualized criteria for those properties.
Alternative approaches have to be identified and developed to
guaranty the expected extension of CSP implementations with respect
to the IEA 2050 scenario. In this context, promising hybrid TES
systems based upon the combination of sensible heat and liquid/solid
phase change material (PCM) sub-systems are considered. For the
sensible heat stage, a recycled refractory ceramic made of inertized
asbestos-containing waste (IACW) is proposed. For the PCM stage,
high temperature inorganic salts are considered. One major aspect of
the hybrid TES is the integration of the two stages together. Therefore,
the present study is focused on the needed assessment concerning the
compatibility between the IACW and the molten salts in terms of
corrosion. Sulfates, phosphates, carbonates and nitrates salts have been
experimented and the corrosion effects characterized by in situ NMR,
ex situ X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. Among
those available salts, only the nitrates have shown good compatibility
with IACW materials. For higher temperature levels, other salts or
eutectics will have to be considered to allow hybrid TES with direct
contact.
13/00416 Design and dynamic simulation of a novel solar
trigeneration system based on hybrid photovoltaic/thermal
collectors (PVT)
Calise, F. et al. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012, 60, 214225.
In this paper, a solar heating and cooling (SHC) system including
photovoltaic/thermal (PVT) collectors is considered, implementing a
novel polygeneration system producing electricity, space heating and
cooling and domestic hot water. In particular, PVT collectors operating
up to 80

C are considered. A case study for a university building

located in Naples, Italy is developed and discussed. The system is
mainly composed by: PVT collectors, a single-stage LiBrH
2
O
absorption chiller, storage tanks and auxiliary heaters. The system
also includes additional balance-of-plant devices: heat exchangers,
pumps, controllers, cooling tower, etc. The PVT produces electricity
which is utilized in part by the building lights and equipment and in
part by the system parasitic loads; the rest is eventually sold to the grid.
Simultaneously, the PVT system provides the heat required to drive the
absorption chiller. The system performance is analysed from both
energetic and economic points of view by means of a zero-dimensional
transient simulation model, developed with TRNSYS. The economic
results show that the system under investigation can be profitable,
provided that an appropriate funding policy is available. In addition,
the overall energetic and economic results are comparable to those
reported in literature for similar systems.
13/00417 Economical assessment of large-scale
photovoltaic power development in China
Zhang, D. et al. Energy, 2012, 40, (1), 370375.
Photovoltaic (PV) power has a huge resource of supply, wide range of
usage, and low impact on environment and it is considered as a key
factor of the supply mix in the future for China. PV power is still in its
infancy in China. It has higher cost than coal-fired power, and needs
policy support. In recent years, China has launched a series of policies
to stimulate PV power. These policies, however, are temporal, mainly
because the total additional investment to make PV power grid parity is
uncertain. After a brief review on current status of PV power
development in China, this paper applies learning curve theory to
study the cost-reduction trends of polycrystalline silicon PV cells
main components of large-scale PV (LS-PV) power generation it
then sets different scenarios to estimate time and the total learning cost
of PV powers grid parity. MESSAGE model is also applied to make a
comparable estimation of the future PV installation in China. The
results show that long-term subsidy policy for PV power is feasible in
China with the rising cost of coal-fired power, but aggressive subsidy
policy is not very efficient.
13/00418 Electric properties and surface structure of TiO
2
for solar cells
Aljufairi, N. H. Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 610.
In this paper the electric properties of titanium dioxide (TiO
2
) thin
film, which is one of most basic functional materials, were studied for
the purpose of solar cell applications. As an initial step, it describes the
preparation of thin films of TiO
2
by the sol-gel dip-coating technique
on ITO conducting glass substrates. It then discusses the fabrication of
the Al/TiO
2
/ITO device and the characterization of direct current (DC)
electrical properties of TiO
2
thin films. The currentvoltage I (V)
properties of TiO
2
were measured under different temperatures from 80
to 400 K, using a digital Keithley 6571A electrometer. The I (V)
characteristics appeared to be ohmic at low voltage and the space
charge was limited (SCL) at higher voltage. The activation energy (E
a
)
of TiO
2
was also calculated to yield two values, depending on the
temperature regime. As the particle increased in size, the conductivity
increased while the grain boundary effect was reduced. The results
show that the film was the conductor. The surface structure of TiO
2
was studied to reveal the films uniformity and nanoparticles.
13/00419 Enhanced photovoltaic performance of dye-
sensitized solar cells using TiO
2
-decorated ZnO nanorod
arrays grown on zinc foil
Guo, T. et al. Journal of Power Sources, 2012, 201, 408412.
TiO
2
-decorated ZnO nanorod arrays directly grown on zinc foil are
fabricated by a two-step approach combining hydrothermal oxidation
and a solgel process for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) appli-
cations. Its dye absorption and light harvesting are increased by
decoration with a TiO
2
particle layer, resulting in enhancement of the
photocurrent density. In addition, the open-circuit voltage (V
OC
) of the
DSSCs is improved by suppressing interfacial carrier recombination.
62 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
13 Alternative energy supplies (solar energy)
As a result, the conversion efficiency (j) of the TiO
2
-decorated ZnO
photoanode is increased by a factor of 1.78 compared with that of the
bare ZnO. The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) analysis
shows that depositing TiO
2
particles on the surface of the ZnO
nanorod arrays can effectively extend electron lifetime and decrease
electron recombination rate.
13/00420 Exergy analysis of two phase change materials
storage system for solar thermal power with finite-time
thermodynamics
Li, Y.-Q. et al. Renewable Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 447454.
A mathematical model for the overall exergetic efficiency of two phase
change materials named PCM1 and PCM2 storage system with a
concentrating collector for solar thermal power based on finite-time
thermodynamics is developed. The model takes into consideration the
effects of melting temperatures and number of heat transfer unit of
PCM1 and PCM2 on the overall exergetic efficiency. The analysis is
based on a lumped model for the PCMs which assumes that a PCM is a
thermal reservoir with a constant temperature of its melting point and
a distributed model for the air which assumes that the temperature of
the air varies in its flow path. The results show that the overall
exergetic efficiency can be improved by 19.053.8% using two PCMs
compared with a single PCM. It is found that melting temperatures of
PCM1 and PCM2 have different influences on the overall exergetic
efficiency, and the overall exergetic efficiency decreases with increasing
the melting temperature of PCM1, increases with increasing the melt-
ing temperature of PCM2. It is also found that for PCM1, increasing its
number of heat transfer unit can increase the overall exergetic
efficiency, however, for PCM2, only when the melting temperature of
PCM1 is less than 1150 K and the melting temperature of PCM2 is
more than 750 K, increasing the number of heat transfer unit of PCM2
can increase the overall exergetic efficiency. Considering actual
application of solar thermal power, it is suggested that the optimum
melting temperature range of PCM1 is 10001150 K and that of PCM2
is 750900 K. The present analysis provides theoretical guidance for
applications of two PCMs storage system for solar thermal power.
13/00421 Experimental analysis of a direct expansion solar
assisted heat pump with integral storage tank for domestic
water heating under zero solar radiation conditions
Fernandez-Seara, J. et al. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012,
59, 18.
This paper deals with the experimental evaluation of the performance
of a direct expansion solar assisted heat pump water heating (DX-
SAHPWH) system working under zero solar radiation conditions at
static heating operation mode of the storage tank. The DX-SAHPWH
system includes two bare solar collectors as evaporator, a R134a rotary-
type hermetic compressor, a thermostatic expansion valve and a helical
coil condenser immersed in a 300 L water storage tank. The zero solar
radiation and stable ambient air temperature working conditions were
established by placing the solar collectors into a climate chamber. The
analysis is based on experimental data taken from the DX-SAHPWH
provided by the manufacturer and equipped with an appropriate data
acquisition system. In the paper, the experimental facility, the data
acquisition system and the experimental methodology are described.
Performance parameters to evaluate the energy efficiency, such as COP
and equivalent seasonal performance factors (SPFe) for the heating
period, and the water thermal stratification in the storage tank are
defined and obtained from the experimental data. Results from the
experimental analysis under transient operating working conditions of
the DX-SAHPWH system and its main components are shown and
discussed. Lastly, the Huang and Lee DX-SAHPWH performance
evaluation method was applied resulting in a characteristic COP of 3.23
for the DX-SAHPWH system evaluated under zero solar radiation
condition.
13/00422 External perforated solar screens for daylighting
in residential desert buildings: identification of minimum
perforation percentages
Sherif, S. et al. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (6), 19291940.
The desert climate is endowed by clear sky conditions, providing an
excellent opportunity for optimum utilization of natural light in
daylighting building indoor spaces. However, the sunny conditions of
the desert skies, in countries like Egypt and Saudi Arabia, result in the
admittance of direct solar radiation, which leads to thermal discomfort
and the incidence of undesired glare. One type of shading systems that
is used to permit daylight while controlling solar penetration is solar
screens. Very little research work addressed different design aspects of
external solar screens and their influence on daylighting performance,
especially in desert conditions, although these screens proved their
effectiveness in controlling solar radiation in traditional buildings
throughout history. This paper reports on the outcomes of an
investigation that studied the influence of perforation percentage of
solar screens on daylighting performance in a typical residential living
room of a building in a desert location. The objective was to identify
minimum perforation percentage of screen openings that provides
adequate illuminance levels in design-specific cases and all-year-round.
Research work was divided into three stages. Stage 1 focused on the
analysis of daylighting illuminance levels in specific dates and times,
while stage 2 was built on the results of the first stage, and addressed
year round performance using dynamic daylight performance metrics
(DDPMs). Stage 3 addressed the possibility of incidence of glare in
specific cases where illuminance levels where found very high in some
specific points during the analysis of first stage. The research examined
the daylighting performance in an indoor space with a number of
assumed fixed experimentation parameters that were chosen to
represent the principal features of a typical residential living room
located in a desert environment setting. Stage 1 experiments demon-
strated that the screens fulfilled the requirements of the majority of
tested cases. Illuminance levels in the examined residential space were
satisfactory in 83% of the near zone cases and 53% in the mid-length
zone, while the far zone suites 40% of the cases. Screen influence on
daylighting was found to be very much dependent on the orientation of
the window and time of the day. In stage 2, the percentage of annual
daylight availability was very much related to screen perforation
percentage. As perforation percentage decreased, the percentage of
daylit and overlit spaces decreased. At the same time, partially daylit
areas of the space increased with similar percentages irrespective of the
orientation. As a result of the twofold research stages, it is recom-
mended to utilize a minimum of 80% perforation percentages for
spaces similar to the tested case in the South orientation. In stage 3, an
initial investigation suggests that the use of screens can significantly
reduce the occurrence of glare phenomena. Also, it is suggested to
study the efficiency of designing solar screens that have non-uniform
perforation ratios. These could prove useful in improving the illumi-
nance levels in the mid-length and far zones of the unsatisfactory cases.
In conclusion, minimum perforation percentages for solar screens were
presented for specific design cases that encompassed different
orientations, seasons and time of the day. In addition, a tool that
could be used by architects for based on required annual daylit areas
for the design of solar screens that effectively achieve functional needs
was provided.
13/00423 Feasibility study of developing photovoltaic
power projects in Italy: an integrated approach
Cucchiella, F. and DAdamo, I. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 2012, 16, (3), 15621576.
The balance between the demand for electricity by consumers and
businesses, and environmental protection, is one of the key challenges
of our society. The photovoltaic (PV) industry in 2010 compared to
2009 registered a growth of 130%, consolidating the previous
achievements. The reduction in costs of system and incentive policies
have favoured the development of solar energy. At the same time, the
results achieved have led to a resulting reduction of feed-in tariffs by
central governments, generating concern from the owners, investors
and operators. This article belongs to a wider research and aims to
analyse the determinants of investment risk in the PV industry through
a sensitivity analysis, scenario analysis and risk analysis. To do this,
alternative business plans have been developed that compared to the
static situation, allow one to quantify how net present value varies
according to different parameters. Attention is placed on the projects
critical variables, the opportunity cost of capital, the time duration of
the project, the plant size and geographical location of the system,
analysing the specific case of Italy.
13/00424 Incorporating shading losses in solar
photovoltaic potential assessment at the municipal scale
Nguyen, H. T. and Pearce, J. M. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (5), 12451260.
Recently several algorithms have been developed to calculate the solar
photovoltaic (PV) potential on the basis of 2.5D raster data that can
capture urban morphology. This study provides a new algorithm that
(i) incorporates both terrain and near surface shadowing effects on the
beam component; (ii) scales down the diffuse components of global
irradiation; and (iii) utilizes free and open source GRASS and the
module r.sun in modelling irradiation. This algorithm is semi-automatic
and easy to upgrade or correct (no hand-drawn areas), open source,
detailed and provides rules of thumb for PV system design at the
municipal level. The workflow is pilot tested on LiDAR data for 100
buildings in downtown Kingston, Ontario, Canada. Shading behaviour
was considered and suitable roof sections for solar PV installations
selected using a multi-criteria objective. At sub-metre resolution and
small time steps the effect of occlusion from near object was deter-
mined. Annual daily horizontal irradiation values were refined at
0.55 m resolution and were shown to be lower than those obtained at
90 m by 30%. The robustness of r.sun as capable of working with
different levels of surface complexity has been confirmed. Finally, the
trade-off of each computation option (spatial resolution, time step and
shading effect) has been quantified at the meso-scale, to assist planners
in developing the appropriate computation protocols for their regions.
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 63
13 Alternative energy supplies (solar energy)
13/00425 Influence of atmospheric cross flow on solar
updraft tower inflow
Zhou, X. et al. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 393400.
A model of correlating atmospheric cross flow and the fluid flow inside
a solar updraft tower (SUT) was presented by assuming SUT inflow as
a compressible flow. The influence of atmospheric cross flow on SUT
inflow was studied using the model. Results showed that atmospheric
cross flow had a large influence on SUT inflow, and the SUT inlet air
velocity was approximately equal to 26% of cross flow velocity for
collector air temperature rise T=0

C. With an increase in
atmospheric cross flow velocity, the fluid flow velocity inside SUT
was found to increase. The enlargement effect of pressure potential
and SUT inlet air velocity induced by atmospheric cross flow increased
with higher SUT height, but decreased with higher temperature rise,
which is proportional to collector area. The percentage enlargement
for cross flow to the pressure potential was between 67% and 102%
and that to the SUT inlet air velocity was between 33% and 48%, for H
varying from 100 m to 3000 m and T=20

C. The enlargement
drastically decreased for T varying from 0 to 80

C for H=900 m.
The work would lay a good foundation for the accurate prediction of
potential power production from SUT power plants by considering the
effect of atmospheric cross flow.
13/00426 Investigation of an improved solar-powered open
absorption system for cooling, dehumidification and air
conditioning
Gommed, K. and Grossman, G. International Journal of Refrigeration,
2012, 35, (3), 676684.
This study is concerned with an open absorption (liquid desiccant)
system, capable of producing both cooling and dehumidification for air
conditioning, utilizing low-grade heat. The system includes a novel
solution heat and mass exchanger (HME) designed to serve as a
desiccant solution reservoir for both the absorber and desorber, enabl-
ing mass transfer between them with minimum heat transfer losses and
eliminating the need for an external recuperative heat exchanger. The
use of this new HME together with an improved solution flow arrange-
ment in the new system facilitates the use of adiabatic absorption/
desorption with minimum circulation heat losses and wetting problems.
The characteristic performance of the system was studied under
varying operating conditions. The use of the new HME has fulfilled the
objective of reducing the time constant of the system, helped correct
idling and level control problems and ensures maximum solution
concentration on the absorber side during desorber operation.
13/00427 Large scale integration of photovoltaics in cities
Strzalka, A. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 413421.
For a large-scale implementation of photovoltaics (PV) in the urban
environment, building integration is a major issue. This includes
installations on roof or facade surfaces with orientations that are not
ideal for maximum energy production. To evaluate the performance of
PV systems in urban settings and compare it with the building users
electricity consumption, three-dimensional geometry modelling was
combined with photovoltaic system simulations. As an example, the
modern residential district of Scharnhauser Park (SHP) near Stuttgart
in Germany was used to calculate the potential of photovoltaic energy
and to evaluate the local own consumption of the energy produced. For
most buildings of the district only annual electrical consumption data
were available and only selected buildings have electronic metering
equipment. The available roof area for one of these multi-family case
study buildings was used for a detailed hourly simulation of the PV
power production, which was then compared to the hourly measured
electricity consumption. The results were extrapolated to all buildings
of the analysed area by normalizing them to the annual consumption
data. The PV systems can produce 35% of the quarters total electricity
consumption and half of this generated electricity is directly used
within the buildings.
13/00428 Low cost and high efficiency of single phase
photovoltaic system based on microcontroller
Khemissi, L. et al. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (5), 11291141.
This paper presents a theoretical and practical study of a single-phase
photovoltaic (PV) conversion system. It consists of a step-down con-
verter to charge a battery with the maximum power available from
photovoltaic generator (PVG) and a single-phase voltage source inver-
ter (VSI) to produce a stable AC voltage (220 V/50 Hz) with lower total
harmonic distortion (THD). A new perturb and observe algorithm is
designed and implemented in a cheaper microcontroller PIC 16F876
where the duty cycle perturbation and the sampling period are selected
to ensure the stability of the PV system around the maximum power.
The control strategy adopted for the inverter is the selective harmonic
eliminated pulse width modulation (SHE PWM). The pulses are
calculated and transferred on the PIC 16F876 memory. With this
technique, inverter losses are decreased and the output voltage is easily
filtered with a simple low pass filter producing a perfectly sine wave
form voltage. The battery is sized to supply loads in non-sunny times.
With optimization of its various components, the conventional single
phase PV system has a low cost, high efficiency but also good power
quality which represents a good opportunity to use it in many stand-
alone photovoltaic applications such as houses lighting. An exper-
imental system has been made to demonstrate the efficiency of the
photovoltaic system and to validate simulations done by Matlab
Simulink environment.
13/00429 Modeling of a solar powered absorption cycle for
Abu Dhabi
Al-Alili, A. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 160167.
In this study, the feasibility of a solar powered absorption cycle under
Abu Dhabis weather conditions is assessed. Utilizing solar energy is
very attractive since the cooling requirements are in phase with the
solar energy availability. Using solar driven air conditioners would also
reduce the dependence on fossil fuel based energy. The proposed
system uses evacuated tube collectors to drive a 10 kW
c
ammonia
water absorption chiller. Transient systems simulation of the complete
system is carried out in order to select and size different system
components. Based on the thermal analysis, the solar air conditioner
system has a specific collector area of 6 m
2
/kW
c
and a specific tank
volume of 0.1 m
3
/kW
c
. The selected system size requires about 47% less
electrical energy than the widely spread vapour-compression cycles of
the same cooling capacity. In addition, an economic analysis is
performed for three electricity costs. The collector area is found to
be the key parameters in reducing the payback period of the initial
investment. Moreover, the proposed system is found to reduce
12 metric tons/year of CO
2
emissions due to its energy savings.
13/00430 Optimal siting and size of bioenergy facilities
using geographic information system
Sultana, A. and Kumar, A. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 192201.
Biomass is a geographically dependent renewable resource which can
be used for production of fuels and chemicals. This study develops a
methodology for determining the suitable locations, optimal sizes and
number of biomass-based facilities for a particular region through
transport cost optimization which is applied for locating pellet plants in
the province of Alberta in Canada. The methodology also includes
computation of local optimal size and cost of pellet production
considering road network and spatially varied biomass. Different
constraints and environmental factors for siting biomass-based facilities
are analysed to derive a land suitability model. Based on location
allocation model, 13 plants could be built in the Province of Alberta
with transportation costs in the range of $2133 per tonne. The locally
determined unit costs of pellet plants vary within $108121 with
optimal plant capacities of 150,000250,000 tonnes per year.
13/00431 Optimal sizing of photovoltaic distributed
generators in a distribution system with consideration of
solar radiation and harmonic distortion
Hengsritawat, V. et al. International Journal of Electrical Power &
Energy Systems, 2012, 39, (1), 3647.
This paper presents a probabilistic approach to design an optimal size
of photovoltaic distributed generator (PV-DG) in a distribution system.
A steady-state voltage stability index is applied to select PV-DG
locations. The objective of the proposed technique is to minimize
average system active power losses, while considering power quality
constraints (i.e. voltage regulation, total harmonic voltage distortion,
total demand distortion and harmonic currents). Monte Carlo
simulation is applied to acquire solar radiations, ambient temperatures,
load demands and substation voltages. The proposed technique is
tested on an actual 51-bus medium voltage distribution system in
Thailand. From simulations, there is a different solution between
selecting the optimal size of PV-DG from with and without considering
background harmonics. Also in realistic cases, PV-DGs may improve
voltage regulation and decrease losses in distribution systems; however,
increase total harmonic voltage distortion values.
13/00432 Preformance analysis of a water splitting reactor
with hybrid photochemical conversion of solar energy
Baniasadi, E. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37,
(9), 74647472.
In this paper, a new hybrid system for hydrogen production via solar
energy is developed and analysed. In order to decompose water into
hydrogen and oxygen without the net consumption of additional
reactants, a steady stream of reacting materials must be maintained in
consecutive reaction processes, to avoid reactant replenishment or
additional energy input to facilitate the reaction. The system comprises
two reactors, which are connected through a proton conducting mem-
brane. Oxidative and reductive quenching pathways are developed for
the water reduction and oxidation reactions. Supramolecular comp-
lexes [{(bpy)
2
Ru(dpp)}
2
RhBr
2
] (PF
6
)
5
are employed as the photo-
catalysts, and an external electric power supply is used to enhance the
photochemical reaction. A light driven proton pump is used to increase
the photochemical efficiency of both O
2
and H
2
production reactions.
64 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
13 Alternative energy supplies (solar energy)
The energy and exergy efficiencies at a system level are analysed and
discussed. The maximum energy conversion of the system can be
improved up to 14% by incorporating design modification that yield a
corresponding 25% improvement in the exergy efficiency.
13/00433 Sizing, techno-economic and generation
management analysis of a stand alone photovoltaic power
unit including storage devices
Jallouli, R. and Krichen, L. Energy, 2012, 40, (1), 196209.
Due to the mismatch between the load demand and the intermittent
solar energy, a stand-alone photovoltaic-hydrogen system and an
optimal control scheme are designed to maintain the high system
efficiency. Based on meteorological and the load demand data, a
system sizing technique is proposed to establish the minimum capacity
of the system components, which are a photovoltaic panel, a proton
exchange membrane fuel cell, a battery bank, an alkaline electrolyser
and a hydrogen storage tank. In terms of device cost, the optimal
system provides a simple method to evaluate the economic feasibility of
a stand-alone photovoltaic system. Energy management requires
monitoring and controlling the power storage levels by making
decisions based on the system operating mode. As a result, it leads
to the energy sustainability of the power system. The thresholds of the
storage levels in the batteries and the hydrogen storage tank are
variable but should be adapted based on the available equipment and
the users needs. The results prove that the strategy gives an optimal
solution to the general system design.
13/00434 Study of the first step of the Mn
2
O
3
/MnO
thermochemical cycle for solar hydrogen production
Marugan, J. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37,
(8), 70177025.
In this work, a complete thermodynamic study of the first step of the
Mn
2
O
3
/MnO thermochemical cycle for solar hydrogen production has
been performed. The thermal reduction of Mn
2
O
3
takes place through
a sequential mechanism of two reaction steps. The first step (reduction
of Mn
2
O
3
to Mn
3
O
4
) takes place at temperatures above 700

C,
whereas the second reaction step (reduction of Mn
3
O
4
to MnO)
requires temperatures above 1350

C to achieve satisfactory reaction

rates and conversions. Equilibrium can be displaced to lower
temperatures by increasing the inert gas/Mn
2
O
3
ratio or decreasing
the pressure. The thermodynamic calculations have been validated by
thermogravimetric experiments carried out in a high temperature
tubular furnace. Experimental results corroborate the theoretical pre-
dictions although a dramatically influence of chemical kinetics and
diffusion process has been also demonstrated, displacing the reactions
to higher temperatures than those predicted by thermodynamics.
Finally, this work demonstrates that the first step of the manganese
oxide thermochemical cycle for hydrogen production can be carried out
with total conversion at temperatures compatible with solar energy
concentration devices. The range of required temperatures is lower
than those commonly reported in literature for the manganese oxide
cycle obtained from theoretical and thermodynamic studies.
13/00435 The behaviour of solar walls in residential
buildings with different insulation levels: an experimental
and numerical study
Stazi, F. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 47, 217229.
The paper presents a study on the behaviour of solar walls in a
residential building under a Mediterranean climate, in terms of energy
performances and thermal comfort all year round. The aims of this
study are: the investigation of Trombe walls thermal behaviour; the
evaluation of solar walls influence on heating and cooling energy needs
and indoor thermal comfort; the analysis and optimization of solar
walls behaviour in an accommodation varying the envelope insulation
level. In order to do that, various activities were carried out: a series of
monitoring campaigns in different seasons; dynamic simulations with
software EnergyPlus; calibration of the model with experimental data;
parametric analyses on the interaction between solar walls (on the
southern side) and different types of building envelopes (on the other
exposures) varying the insulation level according to recent standards.
The results demonstrated that solar wall provides heating energy
savings and thermal comfort in winter and intermediate seasons. A
significant improvement of the solar walls performances can be
obtained using double glazing. In summer solar walls determine an
increase in cooling energy needs and risk of overheating. The use of
solar walls shading and ventilation reduces such drawbacks and leads
to indoor conditions within comfort range.
13/00436 The daily performance of a solar pond integrated
with solar collectors
Bozkurt, I. and Karakilcik, M. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (5), 16111620.
The present study deals with heat storage performance investigation of
integrated solar pond and collector system. In the experimental work, a
cylindrical solar pond system (CSPS) with a radius of 0.80 m and a
depth of 2.0 m and four flat plate collectors dimensions of
1.90 m0.90 m was built in Cukurova University in Adana, Turkey.
The CSPS was filled with salty water of various densities to form three
salty water zones (upper convective zone, non-convective zone and heat
storage zone). Heat energy collected by collectors was transferred to
the solar pond storage zone by using a heat exchanger system which is
connected to the solar collectors. Several temperature sensors
connected to a data acquisition system were placed vertically inside
the CSPS and at the inlet and outlet of the heat exchanger.
Experimental studies were performed using one, two, three and four
collectors integrated with the CSPS under approximately the same
condition. The integrated solar pond efficiencies were calculated
experimentally and theoretically according to the number of collectors.
As a result, the experimental efficiencies are found to be 21.30%,
23.60%, 24.28% and 26.52%; the theoretical efficiencies to be 23.42%,
25.48%, 26.55% and 27.70% for one, two, three and four collectors,
respectively. Theoretical efficiencies were compared with the exper-
imental results and hence a good agreement is found between
experimental and theoretical efficiency profiles.
13/00437 The price of policy risk empirical insights from
choice experiments with European photovoltaic project
developers
Luthi, S. and Wustenhagen, R. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 1001
1011.
Managing the transition to a renewable energy future is an important
policy priority in many countries. Solar photovoltaic (PV) technology is
expected to make an essential contribution, but due to relatively high
cost, its growth to date has been largely driven by public policy, notably
feed-in tariffs. Feed-in tariffs have been implemented in various
countries, but with widely differing outcomes in terms of installed PV
capacity. Previous research indicates that the level of policy risk may be
an important driver for differences in renewable energy policy
effectiveness. This paper suggests that project developers who make
a decision between PV investment opportunities in different countries
carefully weigh feed-in tariff-induced returns against a set of policy
risks, and choose the country with the most favourable risk-return
profile. This model is empirically tested by a stated preference survey
among European PV project developers, consisting of 1575 choice
decisions by 63 investors. The findings demonstrate that risk matters in
PV policy design, and that a price tag can be attached to specific
policy risks, such as the duration of administrative processes or
uncertainty induced by an approaching capacity cap. Governments can
build on these empirical results to design policies that will be effective
in attracting private PV investment, while at the same time maintaining
efficiency by providing an adequate compensation for policy risk.
13/00438 Three adsorbers solar cooler with composite
sorbent bed and heat pipe thermal control
Alyousef, Y. et al. Applied Thermal Engineering, 2012, 38, 124130.
A three-adsorbers solar cooler was experimentally investigated in this
study. Ammonia was chosen as a working fluid. Two adsorbers (twins)
were filled with the same complex compound (activated carbon fibre
with MnCl
2
microcrystals on the filament surface). The third low-
temperature adsorber contained a second complex compound (acti-
vated carbon fibre with BaCl
2
microcrystals on the filament surface).
The cycle of physical adsorption and chemical reactions in the sorbent
bed of adsorber was followed by condensation/evaporation of ammonia
inside the pores. This combination of adsorption/condensation and
evaporation/desorption is a novelty of cooler design, which increases
the heat and cold generation in the adsorber. The specific feature
of the third adsorber is the time of its cold generation. This time
includes the liquid evaporation and desorption/regeneration time of
ammonia in the sorbent bed. The cooler thermal management is based
on heat pipes. The solar heating is a source of energy for cooler. The
sink of the cold is the air flow.
13/00439 View factors of photovoltaic collector systems
Maor, T. and Appelbaum, J. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (6), 17011708.
The diffuse radiation is one component of the global radiation affecting
the output of photovoltaic collectors. This radiation depends on the
view factor between the collector and the sky. The view factor is 1 for a
horizontal collector, and there is a simple expression for the view factor
for a single inclined collector on a horizontal plane. However, for a
photovoltaic system with a number of rows deployed on a horizontal or
on an inclined plane, the view factor is more complicated to calculate
because one collector row may obscure part of the sky for the other
row. More complication is added when the azimuth of the collector
rows do not coincides with the azimuth of the inclined plane. The
present article deals with view factors of photovoltaic collectors
deployed on inclined planes and oriented in any direction. A general
mathematical expression for this view factor was developed and this
may be used to calculate the diffuse radiation reaching photovoltaic
systems.
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 65
13 Alternative energy supplies (solar energy)
Wind energy
13/00440 A review of energy storage technologies for wind
power applications
D az-Gonzalez, F. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
2012, 16, (4), 21542171.
Due to the stochastic nature of wind, electric power generated by wind
turbines is highly erratic and may affect both the power quality and the
planning of power systems. Energy storage systems (ESSs) may play an
important role in wind power applications by controlling wind power
plant output and providing ancillary services to the power system and
therefore, enabling an increased penetration of wind power in the
system. This article deals with the review of several energy storage
technologies for wind power applications. The main objectives of the
article are the introduction of the operating principles, as well as the
presentation of the main characteristics of energy storage technologies
suitable for stationary applications, and the definition and discussion of
potential ESS applications in wind power, according to an extensive
literature review.
13/00441 Comparative study of the power production and
noise emissions impact from two wind farms
Chourpouliadis, C. et al. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012, 60,
233242.
This paper is founded on a statistical wind data analysis for two
interconnected wind farms in Greece. Specifically, after the acquisition
of a representative set of climatology data by two meteorological masts
installed in two different mountainous regions, an annual power output
prediction is carried out in order to estimate the performance and
viability of the selected wind turbines in the parks. Two alternative
power output simulation models are used; one empirical and one
computational, the results of which are examined in a comparative
manner. Furthermore, a wake losses estimation is performed via the
application of two different wake models, while a simple noise emission
impact analysis is implemented. The study ends with a brief financial
assessment of the two wind energy projects. The main outcome of the
energy calculations is that the empirical numerical tool underestimates
the total annual energy production of the two wind farms as well as
their capacity factors. The wake models comparative overview
indicates a low percentage of wake losses for both the wind parks,
which ensures the maximum power yield achievement. Finally, the
results of the noise emission analysis prove that the turbines predicted
noise signals fall within the limits of recent regulation protocols.
13/00442 Electricity generation from the first wind farm
situated at Ras Ghareb, Egypt
Ahmed, A. S. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16, (3),
16301635.
Egypt is one of the Red Sea and Mediterranean countries having windy
enough areas, in particular along the coasts. The coastal location Ras
Ghareb on the Red Sea has been investigated in order to know the
wind power density available for electricity generation. To account for
the wind potential variations with height, a new simple estimating
procedure was introduced. This study has explicitly demonstrated the
presence of high wind power density nearly 900 kW/m
2
per year at
100 m of altitude for this region. Indeed, the seasonal wind powers
available are comparable to and sometimes higher than the power
density in many European cities for wind electricity applications like
Vindeby in Denmark and also the USA. New technical analysis for
wind turbine characteristics have been made using three types of
commercial wind turbines possessing the same rotor diameter and
rated power to choice the best wind machine suitable for Ras Ghareb
station. As per the decreasing the cut-in wind speed for the wind
turbine used, the availability factor increases for a given generator.
That it could produce more energy output throughout the year for the
location. The aim of this research, was to predict the electrical energy
production with the cost analysis of a wind farm 150 MW total power
installed at Ras Ghareb area using 100 wind turbines with a 1.5 MW
rated power. Additionally, this paper developed the methodology for
estimating the price of each kWh of electricity from the wind farms.
Results show that this wind park will produce maximum energy of
716 GWh/year. The expected specific cost equal to e0.015/kWh is still
less than and very competitive with prices from the wind farms in the
UK and Germany and at the international markets of wind power. The
important result derived from this study encourages several wind parks
with hundreds of megawatts can be constructed at Ras Ghareb region.
13/00443 Estimation of monthly wind power outputs of
WECS with limited record period using artificial neural
networks
Tu, Y.-L. et al. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012, 59, 114121.
The aim of the study is to investigate the suitable numbers/parameters
of input neurons for artificial neural networks under a short record of
measured data. Measured wind speeds, wind directions (yaw angles)
and power outputs with 10-min resolution at an existing wind power
station, located at Jhongtun, Taiwan, are integrated to form three types
of input neuron numbers and 16 cases of input neurons. The first
10 days of each month in 2006 are used for data training to simulate the
following 20-day power generation of the same month. The perform-
ance of various input neuron cases is evaluated. The simulated results
show that using the first 10-day training data with adequate input
neurons can estimate energy outputs well except the weak wind regime
(May, June, and July). Among the input neuron parameters used,
current wind speeds V(t) and previous power outputs P(t 1) are the
most important. Individually using one of them into input neurons can
only provide satisfactory estimation. However, simultaneously using
these two parameters into input neurons can give the best estimation.
Thus, choosing suitable input parameters is more important than
choosing multiple parameters.
13/00444 Integrating large shares of wind energy in macro-
economical cost-effective way
Bove, R. et al. Energy, 2012, 43, (1), 438447.
The intermittent nature of wind energy poses questions on how
electricity production can match the demand. The present paper
analyses possible ways of achieving this goal when a large share of the
energy is provided by wind. The study considers a certain share of wind
energy as a target to be reached, and analyses different avenues for
reaching such a target. The possible role of electricity energy storage,
wind curtailment and transmission grid reinforcement is highlighted
and discussed. The results show that above a certain percentage of
electricity produced by wind, electricity storage becomes an economic
option for integrating wind energy by reducing wind curtailments. Also,
the synergy of storage and grid interconnections is highlighted.
13/00445 Optimal sizing of small wind/battery systems
considering the DC bus voltage stability effect on energy
capture, wind speed variability, and load uncertainty
Lujano-Rojas, J. M. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 404412.
In this paper, a mathematical model for stochastic simulation and
optimization of small wind energy systems is presented. This model is
able to consider the operation of the charge controller, the coulombic
efficiency during charge and discharge processes, the influence of
temperature on the battery bank capacity, the wind speed variability,
and load uncertainty. The joint effect of charge controller operation,
ambient temperature, and coulombic efficiency is analysed in a system
installed in Zaragoza (Spain), concluding that if the analysis without
considering these factors is carried out, the reliability level of the
physical system could be lower than expected, and an increment of 25%
in the battery bank capacity would be required to reach a reliability
level of 90% in the analysed case. Also, the effect of the wind speed
variability and load uncertainty in the system reliability is analysed.
Finally, the uncertainty in the battery bank lifetime and its effect on the
net present cost are discussed. The results showed that, considering
uncertainty of 17.5% in the battery bank lifetime calculated using the
Ah throughput model, about 12% of uncertainty in the net present cost
is expected. The model presented in this research could be a useful
stochastic simulation and optimization tool that allows the consider-
ation of important uncertainty factors in techno-economic analysis.
13/00446 Review of windcatcher technologies
Saadatian, O. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012,
16, (3), 14771495.
Mechanical cooling systems in buildings are the main producers of
carbon dioxide emissions, which have negative impacts on environment
and amplify global warming, particularly in hot climate. Due to the lack
of energy supply, windcatchers can be utilized as a sustainable attempt
for cooling and ventilation purposes. Although incorporation of
windcatcher in the modern building industry has been neglected, the
windcatcher is still considered as one of the most important passive
techniques. Windcatchers can be categorized into three groups of
vernacular windcatchers, modern windcatcher and eventually super
modern windcatchers. The height, various materials, employment of
dehumidification and evaporative cooling for humid climates, aero-
dynamics of windcatchers, use of phase change materials, structure and
colour of windcatcher are among the engineering topics that required
to be covered in future studies. Moreover, cost and benefit studies of
windcatchers in newly built and existing renovation buildings, the
feasibility study of introducing windcatchers to existing governmental
and private buildings, analysing the cost of incorporating hybrid
windcatchers and the revenue which can be gained as a result of its
energy saving for a specific period of time are among the economic
subjects which should be studied thoroughly in future research. Finally,
the public attitude and their preference towards this passive technology
for different countries should be gauged in social science.
66 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
13 Alternative energy supplies (wind energy)
13/00447 Simulation of large-amplitude motion of floating
wind turbines using conservation of momentum
Wang, L. and Sweetman, B. Ocean Engineering, 2012, 42, 155164.
A new method is presented to directly derive the non-linear equations
of motion (EOMs) of a floating wind turbine system using the theorem
of conservation of angular momentum and Newtons second law. The
methodology considers the system as two rigid bodies: the tower and
the rotor-nacelle assembly (RNA). The large-amplitude rotation of the
tower is described by the 123 sequence Euler angles, which offer
accurate non-linear coupling between motions in six degrees of
freedom (DOFs). Two additional DOFs of the RNA relative to the
tower, nacelle yaw and rotor spin, are prescribed by mechanical control
and are also included in the EOMs of the entire system. Results from
the EOMs are transformed among different coordinate systems at
every time-step for use in the computation of hydrodynamics, aero-
dynamics and restoring forces, which preserves the non-linearity
between external excitation and structural dynamics. The new method
is verified by critical comparison of simulation results with those of the
popular wind turbine dynamics software FAST. The concept of highly
compliant floating wind turbines is introduced. The large-amplitude
motions and gyroscopic moments of one of these smaller, lighter
structures is simulated in an example.
13/00448 Supercapacitor energy storage system for fault
ride-through of a DFIG wind generation system
Rahim, A. H. M. A. and Nowicki, E. P. Energy Conversion and
Management, 2012, 59, 96102.
The doubly fed induction generators (DFIGs) are preferred over other
variable speed generators because of their advantages in terms of
economy and control. One of the problems associated with high wind
power penetration DFIG systems, however, is the inability of their
converters to work properly under extreme low voltage conditions. This
article presents a decoupled PQ control strategy of a supercapacitor
energy storage system, interfaced through a STATCOM, for low
voltage ride through as well as damping enhancement of the DFIG
system. The STATCOM meets the reactive power need under the
depressed voltage condition, while the supercapacitor caters to the real
power unbalance. An extensive dynamic model of the DFIG system
including a supercapacitor DCDC buckboost converter and the
STATCOM circuit has been developed. The fault ride-thorough
capability of the generator has been investigated for a severe
symmetrical three-phase to ground fault on the grid bus. Simulation
results suggest that the proposed decoupled control of the super-
capacitor STATCOM control strategy can help the DFIG ride through
extreme low voltage conditions for significant duration. The proposed
control strategy also damps the electromechanical transients, and thus
quickly restores normal operation of the converters.
13/00449 The concept of a smart wind turbine system
Sharma, R. N. and Madawala, U. K. Renewable Energy, 2012, 39, (1),
403410.
A smart wind turbine concept with variable length blades and an
innovative hybrid mechanicalelectrical power conversion system was
analysed. The variable length blade concept uses the idea of extending
the turbine blades when wind speeds fall below rated level, hence
increasing the swept area, and thus maintaining a relatively high power
output. It is shown for a typical site that the annual energy output of
such a wind turbine that could double its blade length, could be twice
that of a corresponding turbine with fixed length blades. From a cost
analysis, it is shown that the concept would be feasible if the cost of the
rotor could be kept less than 4.3 times the cost of a standard rotor with
fixed length blades. Given the variable length blade turbine system
exhibits a more-or-less linear maximum power curve, as opposed to a
non-linear curve for the standard turbine, an innovative hybrid
mechanicalelectrical power conversion system was proposed and
tested proving the feasibility of the concept.
13/00450 The role of pumped storage systems towards the
large scale wind integration in the Greek power supply
system
Caralis, G. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16,
(5), 25582565.
In the recent years, the debate on the necessity of pumped storage
systems in the Greek power supply system has started. In the current
decade, the Greek power system will gradually try higher renewables
penetration, mainly due to wind energy and photovoltaic (PV)
integration. Variability of wind and PV generation and the current
structure of the Greek power system introduce technical constraints,
which should be taken into consideration in the forthcoming large-scale
renewables integration. This paper examines the ability of the Greek
power system to absorb renewable power and the necessity of pumped
storage systems. The feasibility of pumped storage systems is discussed
in three different scenarios of windPV integration. Results show that
for the gradual increase of variable output renewables, pumped storage
systems are required, but the feasibility of pumped storage systems is
not proved in the intermediate scenarios of rebewables integration.
13/00451 Voltage control of a variable speed wind turbine
connected to an isolated load: experimental study
Masmoudi, M. et al. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012, 59, 19
26.
This study is interested in the development of an experimental test
bench of an autonomous wind energy conversion system (WECS)
based on a permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG). After
the description of the test bench, the elements constituting the WECS
are presented. Then, a real-time model implemented under a digital
signal processor (DSP) system is established. The first objective of this
work is to validate the functionality of the test bench leading to
experiment some principles developed in theory. The second objective
is to control the load connection voltages and the DC bus voltage. For
the first control, two resonant controllers are used and for the second
one, a dump load, connected to the DC bus, offers the possibility to
maintain a balance between production and consumption in spite of
wind fluctuations and load variations. The experimental results show
the effectiveness of the test bench trying out in real time the behaviour
of a WECS supplying an isolated load.
13/00452 Wake effect in wind farm performance:
steady-state and dynamic behavior
Gonzalez-Longatt, F. et al. Renewable Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 329338.
The aim of this paper is to evaluate the impact of the wake effect on
both the steady-state operation and dynamic performance of a wind
farm and provide conclusions that can be used as thumb rules in
generic assessments where the full details of the wind farms are
unknown. A simplified explicit model of the wake effect is presented,
which includes: the cumulative impact of multiple shadowing, the
effects of wind direction and the wind speed time delay. The model is
implemented in MATLAB
1
and then integrated into a power system
simulation package to describe the wake effect and its impact on a wind
farm, particularly in terms of the wake coefficient and overall active
power losses. Results for two wind farm layouts are presented to
illustrate the importance of wind turbine spacing and the directionality
of wind speeds when assessing the wake effect during steady-state
operation and dynamic behaviour.
13/00453 Wind hydrogen energy system and the gradual
replacement of natural gas in the State of Ceara Brazil
Patr cio, R. A. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012,
37, (9), 73557364.
The original model for the solar hydrogen energy system created in the
1970s was adapted to the State of Ceara, Brazil. The State of Ceara has
one of the greatest wind potentials in Brazil and it is estimated to be
around 35 GW. At the present year, there are 494 MW wind farms in
operation. The aforementioned state also has a natural gas grid of
pipelines serving a great number of consumers. There are studies in
literature considering the injection of hydrogen into the natural gas
pipeline up to 20% in volume without substantial modifications in the
natural gas infrastructure. The main objective of this article is to use
that model in order to evaluate long term scenarios in which the off
peak wind generated hydrogen gradually replaces natural gas in such
important State of Brazil. The system is supposed to start in the year
2015 and the economical revenue when it is fully implemented can
reach respectively US$730 million or US$1 billion in the slow or fast
scenario of hydrogen introduction into the energy matrix of that
important state of Brazil.
Others, including economics
13/00454 A finite-element study of the efficiency of arrays
of oscillating water column wave energy converters
Nader, J. R. et al. Ocean Engineering, 2012, 43, 7281.
Prior research on wave energy devices such as oscillating water column
(OWC) systems has revealed the complex nature of the interactions
between ocean waves and these systems. This is especially true when
such devices are arranged in arrays. Within these arrays, the multiple
scattered waves produced by each device interact and can lead to
unexpected fluctuations of the power captured by each individual
OWC. In the present study, a finite element model based on linear
wave theory has been developed to study scattered waves around single
and multiple oscillating water column wave energy conversion devices.
The power capture efficiency of a single cylindrical OWC deduced
from the finite element model is compared with the numerical
approximation used in an earlier work. The efficiency of the single
OWC is then compared with that of an array of OWCs of the same
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 67
13 Alternative energy supplies (others, including economics)
dimensions, as a function of array spacing, pneumatic damping and
direction of the incident waves. It is found that the presence of
neighbouring OWCs has a significant influence on the power capture
efficiency of individual devices, even for large separations, and that the
optimal pneumatic damping for OWCs in an array may differ from that
of an isolated OWC of the same dimensions.
13/00455 A methodology to determine the power
performance of wave energy converters at a particular
coastal location
Carballo, R. and Iglesias, G. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012,
61, 818.
The assessment of the power performance of a wave energy converter
(WEC) at a given site involves two tasks: (i) the characterization of the
wave resource at the site in question, and (ii) the computation of its
power performance. These tasks are generally seen as disconnected,
and tackled as such; they are, however, deeply interrelated so much
so that they should be treated as two phases of the same procedure.
Indeed, beyond the characterization of the wave resource of a certain
area lies a crucial question: how much power would a WEC installed in
that area output to the network? This work has two main objectives.
First, to develop a methodology that integrates both tasks seamlessly
and guarantees the accurate computation of the power performance of
a WEC installed at a site of interest; it involves a large dataset of
deepwater records and the implementation of a high-resolution, nested
spectral model, which is used to propagate 95% of the total offshore
wave energy to the WEC site. The second objective is to illustrate this
methodology with a case study: an oscillating water column projected
to be constructed at the breakwater of A Guarda (north-west Spain). It
is found that the approach presented allows to accurately determine
the power that the WEC will output to the network, and that this power
exhibits a significant monthly variability, so an estimate of the energy
production based on mean annual values may be misleading.
13/00456 A novel Carnot-based cycle for ocean thermal
energy conversion
Semmari, H. et al. Energy, 2012, 43, (1), 361375.
A thermodynamic engine cycle can be implemented by exploiting the
temperature difference existing between the warm surface seawater
and cold deep seawater. It employs a working fluid that evaporates by
warm seawater, produces work in an expander device, such as a gas
turbine and finally condenses by cold deep seawater. A new Carnot-
based cycle for ocean thermal energy conversion applications, called
CAPILI cycle is presented. In this new engine cycle, work is produced
by the movement of an inert liquid through a hydraulic turbine. This
inert liquid characterized by a very low saturation pressure and
immiscibility with the working fluid, acts as a liquid piston that moves
alternately between two insulated cylinders. The insulated cylinders are
connected alternately to an evaporator and a condenser, each of them
operates at different pressure and temperature levels. A performance
study which consists in a steady state energy balance is realized first to
select the most suitable working fluid for this specific application. It
was found that the best fluid is the HFC refrigerant R134a. A dynamic
modelling based on the concept of equivalent Gibbs system is carried
out to appreciate the dynamic behaviour and the performances of this
new thermal conversion process.
13/00457 Accommodating wave and tidal energy control
and decision in Scotland
Johnson, K. et al. Ocean & Coastal Management, 2012, 65, 2633.
Harvesting the energy of waves and tides is still the subject of research
and development as an increasing number of devices are invented and
subjected to test. It is unclear which, if any, of these will ultimately be
chosen for commercial deployment. The capacity for research and
testing has expanded rapidly into an active industrial sector worth
several hundreds of millions of Euros. Preparations for a commercial
phase are underway in Scotland with the allocation of seabed leases to
developers in the seas around Orkney; just in advance of Scotlands
first detailed marine spatial plan which is under preparation in the
area. Anxiety to build confidence in a new and nationally important
industrial sector conflicts with a plethora of uncertainties about
technology and impacts on the natural environment and existing uses.
marine spatial planning will help to build a new governance structure
for marine space but in the Pentland Firth and Orkney Waters
(PFOW) area it is struggling to catch up with the pace of events. This
paper identifies the political objectives driving development and the
impact on decision making in areas under clear and present pressure
from new activities. It argues that the PFOW area is of special interest
highlighting issues which will be of widespread and generic influence in
the future. A governance structure based on central authority in
decision making is emerging. Conclusions are drawn about the need for
more research into the delegation of marine stewardship powers to
local communities.
13/00458 An overview of ocean renewable energy
resources in Korea
Kim, G. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16, (4),
22782288.
Korea relies on imported fossil fuels to meet its energy consumption
demands. As such, there is a need to investigate alternative energy
resources such as renewable energy. In this paper, assessments of the
potential of various ocean renewable energy resources in the sea
around Korea; potential sources of energy including wave energy, tidal
energy, tidal current energy and ocean thermal energy. Tidal energy
and tidal current energy are likely to play an important role in meeting
the future energy needs of Korea, whereas the potentials of wave
energy and ocean thermal energy for the same are relatively low. The
level of technical development and the renewable energy market in
Korea is currently in an early stage. The government will have to be
more aggressive in the promotion of renewable energy to achieve
sustainable development in Korea.
13/00459 Analysis of off-grid hybrid wind turbine/solar PV
water pumping systems
Vick, B. D. and Neal, B. A. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (5), 11971207.
In this paper, off-grid wind turbine (WT) and solar photovoltaic (PV)
array water pumping systems were analysed individually and combined
as a hybrid system. The objectives were to determine: (1) advantages or
disadvantages of using a hybrid system over using a WT or a solar PV
array alone; (2) if the WT or solar PV array interfered with the output
of the other; and (3) which hybrid system was the most efficient for the
location. The WT used in the analysis was rated at 900 W alternating
current (AC). There were three different solar PV arrays analysed, and
they were rated at 320, 480 and 640 W direct current (DC). A rectifier
converted the three-phase variable voltage AC output from the WT to
DC before combining it with the solar PV array DC output. The
combined renewable energies powered a single helical pump. The
independent variable used in the hybrid WT/PV array analysis was in
units of W/m
2
. The peak pump efficiency of the hybrid systems at
Bushland, Texas occurred for the 900 W WT combined with the
640 W PV array. The peak pump efficiencies at a 75 m pumping depth
of the hybrid systems were: 47% (WT/320 W PV array), 51% (WT/
480 W PV array), and 55% (WT/640 W PV array). Interference
occurred between the WT and the different PV arrays (likely due to
voltage mismatch between WT and PV array), but the least
interference occurred for the WT/320 W PV array. This hybrid system
pumped 28% more water during the greatest water demand month
than the WT and PV systems would have pumped individually. An
additional controller with a buck/boost converter is discussed at end of
paper for improvement of the hybrid WT/PV array water pumping
system.
13/00460 Design and dynamic simulation of a novel
polygeneration system fed by vegetable oil and by solar
energy
Calise, F. et al. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012, 60, 204213.
In this paper the integration of vegetable oil-fed reciprocating engines
with solar thermal collector is investigated, seeking to design a novel
polygeneration system producing: electricity, space heating and cooling
and domestic hot water, for a university building located in Naples,
Italy, assumed as case study. The polygeneration system is based on the
following main components: concentrating parabolic trough solar
collector, double-stage LiBrH
2
O absorption chiller and a reciprocat-
ing engine fed by vegetable oil. The engine operates at full load
producing electrical energy which is in part consumed by the building
lights and equipment, in part used by the system passive loads and the
rest is eventually sold to the grid. In fact, the engine is grid connected
in order to perform a convenient net metering. The system was
designed and then simulated by means of a zero-dimensional transient
simulation model, developed using the TRNSYS software. The
simulation tool developed by the authors allows one to analyse the
results for different time basis (minutes, days, weeks, months and
years), from both energetic and economic points of view. The economic
results show that the system under investigation is profitable, especially
if properly funded.
13/00461 Effects of variable renewable power on a country-
scale electricity system: high penetration of hydro power
plants and wind farms in electricity generation
Purvins, A. et al. Energy, 2012, 43, (1), 225236.
The present article analyses the effects caused by variable power. The
analysis concerns a country-scale electricity system with a relatively
high penetration of seasonally variable hydropower plants and wind
farms in the total electricity generation in 2030. For this purpose, the
Latvian electricity system was chosen as an appropriate case study, as
around half of its electricity is already generated from hydropower and
numerous wind farm installations are planned for 2030. Results
indicate that in such systems high renewable power variations occur
between seasons causing a high probability of power deficit in the
68 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
13 Alternative energy supplies (others, including economics)
winter and power surplus in the spring. Based on the results, the wind
farms influence on the power deficit and surplus occurrences are
discussed in detail. Wind farm generation decreases the probability of
the electricity system being in power deficit, but increases the
probability of the system being in power surplus. In the latter situation,
the maximum value of power surplus increases since it is enhanced by
the wind farm generation. Probability equations to express these
changes are provided.
13/00462 Estimation of annual energy output from a tidal
barrage using two different methods
Xia, J. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 327336.
In recent years, there have been growing international challenges
relating to climate change and global warming, with a conflict
developing between the need to create a low-carbon economy and
rapid depleting reserves of fossil fuels. In addition to these challenges
there continues to be the added complexity of a significant global
increase in energy demand. Marine renewable energy from tidal
barrages is carbon-free and has the potential to make a significant
contribution to energy supplies now and in the future. Therefore, it is
appropriate to evaluate the total energy that can be extracted from
such barrages. In this study two different methods are proposed to
estimate the total annual energy output from a barrage, including a
theoretical estimation based on the principle associated with tidal
hydrodynamics, and a numerical estimation based on the solutions
obtained from a 2D hydrodynamic model. The proposed Severn
Barrage in the UK was taken as a case study, and these two methods
were applied to estimate the potential annual energy output from the
barrage. The predicted results obtained using the two methods indicate
that the magnitude of the annual energy output would range from 13 to
16 TWh, which is similar to the value of 15.6 TWh reported by the
Department of Energy and Climate Change, in the UK. Further
investigations show that the total annual energy output would increase
by about 15% if a higher discharge coefficient were to be adopted for
the sluice gates, or if the turbine performance were to be improved.
However, the estimated annual energy output could exceed the value of
16 TWh if future technological advances in both sluice gate construc-
tion and turbine performance are included.
13/00463 Financial analysis of the cultivation of poplar and
willow for bioenergy
El Kasmioui, O. and Ceulemans, R. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 43,
5264.
This paper reviews 23 studies on the financial feasibility and on the
production/cultivation costs of bioenergy plantations of fast-growing
poplars and willows (short rotation woody crops, SRWCs), published
between 1996 and 2010. The authors summarized and compared
methods used thus far to assess the economics of SRWCs, identified
the shortcomings and/or gaps of these studies, and discussed the impact
of government incentives on the financial feasibility of SRWCs. The
analysis showed that a reliable comparison across studies was not
possible, due to the different assumptions and methods used in
combination with the lack of transparency in many studies. As a
consequence, reported production costs values ranged between
e0.8 GJ
1
and e5 GJ
1
. Moreover, the knowledge of the economics of
SRWCs was limited by the low number of realized SRWC plantations.
Although specific numerical results differed, it became clear that
SRWCs are only financially feasible if a number of additional
conditions regarding biomass price, yield and/or government support
were fulfilled. In order to reduce the variability in results and to
improve the comparability across studies (and countries), the authors
suggest the use of standard calculation techniques, such as the net
present value, equivalent annual value and levelized cost methods, for
the assessment of the financial viability of these woody bioenergy crops.
13/00464 Hydrofoil optimization and experimental
validation in helical vertical axis turbine for power
generation from marine current
Yang, B. and Shu, X. W. Ocean Engineering, 2012, 42, 3546.
A kind of hydrofoil, which is especially for use by helical vertical axis
turbine for power generation from marine current, has been optimized
by means of traditional genetic algorithms combined with hierarchical
fair competition model. Bezier curve is used to parameterize the
hydrofoils and numerical analysis is also introduced to evaluate hydro-
dynamic performance. Special fitness function as well as modified total
liftdrag ratio are is discussed in detail. Turbine performance tests and
flow visualization experiments by PIV are conducted in order to draw a
comparison between the optimized and two other competitive hydro-
foils. The experimental results demonstrate that the optimized is more
suitable to marine condition and beneficial to turbine efficiency
improvement, and can be expected to act as a prospective hydrofoil
for helical vertical axis turbine.
13/00465 II. Economic assessment for first generation
green biorefinery (GBR): scenarios for an Irish GBR
blueprint
OKeeffe, S. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 41, 113.
Green biorefinery (GBR) is an alternative use of grassland biomass.
GBR involves applying technology to chemically and physically
fractionate (split) biomass such as grass and grass silage to produce
marketable products. Three GBR system models were developed in a
companion paper to determine, using scenario analysis, the most
technically feasible scenario for the development of a blueprint Irish
GBR system. The three GBR system models were a combination of
feedstock system and biorefinery technology: grass/silage basic
technology (GS), silage basic technology (S) and silage advanced
technology (AT). The models were then assessed at different input
volumes. The focus of this paper is on the development of the
economic modelling component of the three GBR system models in
order to identify which of the previously selected GBR scenarios is the
most technically and economically viable to develop a blueprint for a
first-generation GBR. Six scenarios were assessed in this paper. The
GS, S and AT GBR systems, at two input volume rates: medium
volume and low volume. Additional scenario analyses were also carried
out to investigate two possible production scenarios no prot (fibre
product only), and prot (includes proteinaceous secondary product).
Both the economic and technical scenario analyses of this paper and its
companion paper suggest the most appropriate GBR systems for a first
generation Irish blueprint are the combination of silage feedstock
basic biorefinery technology (S), at the medium input volume and both
prot and no prot systems.
13/00466 Numerical analysis and optimization of a
spectrum splitting concentration photovoltaic
thermoelectric hybrid system
Ju, X. et al. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (6), 19411954.
This paper presents the numerical modelling and optimization of a
spectrum splitting photovoltaicthermoelectric (PVTE) hybrid sys-
tem. In this work, a simulation model is established in consideration of
solar concentration levels and several heat dissipation rates. Exempla-
rily, the performance of a hybrid system composed of a GaAs solar cell
and a skutterudites CoSb
3
solar thermoelectric generator (TEG) is
simulated. Analysis under different conditions has been carried out to
evaluate the electrical and thermal performance of the hybrid system.
Results show that the cutoff-wavelength of the GaAsCoSb
3
hybrid
system is mainly determined by the band gap of solar cell, when the
solar concentration ratio is ranged between 550 to 770 and heat
transfer coefficient h =30004500 W/m
2
K, the hybrid system has good
electrical performance and low operating temperatures. Based on the
analysis of the GaAsCoSb
3
hybrid system, guidelines for the PVTE
system design are proposed. It is also compared with a PV-only system
working under the same cooling condition; results show that the PV
TE hybrid system is more suitable for working under high concen-
trations.
13/00467 Performance prediction of a hybrid solar
ground-source heat pump system
Wang, E. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 47, 600611.
This paper presented a novel hybrid solar GSHPS (HSGSHPS)
composed of a GSHPS and a solar assisted GSHPS (SAGSHPS) used
in an office building for heating and cooling. The key issues of
designing the HSGSHPS were introduced and a simulation model was
developed in TRNSYS to predict the multi-year performance of this
system. The simulated results showed that the proposed HSGSHPS was
reasonably designed to resolve the ground temperature imbalance
problem on an annual basis. The suitable control strategy for the solar
collection and storage was found according to the coefficient of
performance (COP) of SAGSHPS. The first-operation time has impact
on the operation of SAGSHP and GSHPS. Injection of thermal energy
into the borehole heat exchanger (BHE) or borehole thermal energy
storage (BTES) before the heat extraction from BHE/BTES was
favourable to the overall COP of system. It is very important to
SAGSHPS to store sufficient solar thermal energy in the BTES because
of its small spacing between boreholes. Thirty-two per cent of the
electrical energy consumption in the HSGSHPS could be saved if the
load circulation pump was turned off when no fan-coil was running,
rather than always keeping it running at all times.
13/00468 Performance study about biodiesel impact on
buses engines using dynamometer tests and fleet
consumption data
Serrano, L. M. V. et al. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012, 60,
29.
The problem of reducing harmful emissions, mainly particulate matter
(PM) and nitrogen oxides (NO
x
s) originated in compression ignition
combustion engines, and also the mandatory intention of lowering the
CO
2
impacts of road transportation define the need to improve
knowledge on biodiesel use in engines. An in-line six-cylinder Volvo
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 69
13 Alternative energy supplies (others, including economics)
engine was submitted to a 100 min cycle with 27 stabilized steps for
seven different fuel blends from pure fossil diesel (B0) to pure
biodiesel (B100), considering also B10, B15, B20, B30, B50 fuel blends.
The cycle imposed tries to simulate a normal use of a bus in an urban
and extra-urban circuit, considering different engine rotation and loads
applied. An analysis on consumption data obtained of a fleet was made.
The fleet had near 200 buses, used different fuel blends, and operated
in the north of Portugal. Results reveal that the cycle imposed reflects
very well the tendency of consumption, allowing to confirm the
methodology and also to check influences on consumption, mainly
associated with possibilities to decrease CO
2
emissions by using some
biodiesel blends on buses. This allows increasing the quality of data in
vehicle real use and tightening the uncertainties on the actual effects of
using biodiesel.
13/00469 Probabilistic forecasting of the wave energy flux
Pinson, P. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 364370.
Wave energy will certainly have a significant role to play in the
deployment of renewable energy generation capacities. As with wind
and solar, probabilistic forecasts of wave power over horizons of a few
hours to a few days are required for power system operation as well as
trading in electricity markets. A methodology for the probabilistic
forecasting of the wave energy flux is introduced, based on a log-
normal assumption for the shape of predictive densities. It uses
meteorological forecasts (from the European Centre for Medium-
range Weather Forecasts) and local wave measurements as input. The
parameters of the models involved are adaptively and recursively
estimated. The methodology is evaluated for 13 locations around North
America over a period of 15 months. The issued probabilistic forecasts
substantially outperform the various benchmarks considered, with
improvements between 6% and 70% in terms of continuous rank
probability score (CRPS), depending on the test case and the lead time.
It is finally shown that the log-normal assumption can be seen as
acceptable, even though it may be refined in the future.
13/00470 Producing energy in a stochastic environment:
switching from non-renewable to renewable resources
Mosino, A. Resource and Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 413430.
This paper studies the determinants of switching from non-renewable
natural resource inputs to renewable resource inputs in energy
production. The authors assume that the stocks of both natural
resources are stochastic, and that the adoption of renewable resources
is costly and irreversible. The formulation raises an optimal stopping/
switching problem that cannot be solved analytically; the authors then
turned to numerical simulations. The results suggest that the optimal
switching time depends not only on the uncertainty parameters, but
also on energy demand, costs, and the relative productivity of the
resources.
13/00471 Prospects for solar cooling an economic and
environmental assessment
Otanicar, T. et al. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (5), 12871299.
Producing refrigeration and/or air conditioning from solar energy
remains an inviting prospect, given that a typical buildings cooling load
peaks within 2 or 3 h of the time of maximum solar irradiation. The
attractiveness of free cooling obtained from the sun has spawned a
wealth of research over the last several decades, as summarized in a
number of review articles. Obstacles especially high initial costs
remain to the widespread commercialization of solar cooling technol-
ogies. It is not clear at the present time if thermally driven systems will
prove to be more competitive than electrically driven systems. The
authors therefore describe a technical and economic comparison of
existing solar cooling approaches, including both thermally and
electrically driven. They compare the initial costs of each technology,
including projections about future costs of solar electric and solar
thermal systems. Additionally the authors include estimates of the
environmental impacts of the key components in each solar cooling
system presented. One measure of particular importance for social
acceptance of solar cooling technologies is the required footprint, or
collector area, necessary for a given cooling capacity. The authors
conclude with recommendations for future research and development
to stimulate broader acceptance of solar cooling. The projections made
show that solar electric cooling will require the lowest capital
investment in 2030 due to the high COPs of vapour compression
refrigeration and strong cost reduction targets for PV technology.
13/00472 Prospects of renewable energy a feasibility
study in the Australian context
Shafiullah, G. M. et al. Renewable Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 183197.
This paper describes a feasibility study undertaken to investigate the
potentialities of renewable energy including the prospective locations
in Australia for renewable energy generation, in particular solar and
wind energy. Initially, a hybrid model has been developed to investigate
the prospects of wind energy for typical Australian region considering
production cost, cost of energy, emission production and contribution
from renewable energy using the hybrid optimization model for electric
renewable (HOMER), a computer model developed by the USAs
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). This model also
explores suitable places around Australia for wind energy generation
using statistical analysis. Subsequently, the usefulness of solar energy in
the Australian context and suitable locations for solar energy
generation are also investigated using a similar hybrid model. Finally,
the model has been developed to investigate the prospects of renewable
energy in particular wind and solar energy including specific locations
in Australia that would be suitable for both wind and solar energy
generation. From simulation analysis it is clearly observed that
Australia has enormous potentialities for substantially increased use
of renewable energy; a large penetration of renewable energy sources
into the national power system would reduce CO
2
emissions
significantly, contributing to the reduction of global warming.
13/00473 Ranking of biomass pellets by integration of
economic, environmental and technical factors
Sultana, A. and Kumar, A. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 39, 344355.
Interest in biomass as a renewable energy source has increased recently
in response to a need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The
objective of this study is to develop a multi-criteria assessment model
and rank different biomass feedstock-based pellets, in terms of their
suitability for use in large heat and power generation plants and show
the importance of environmental, economic and technical factors in
making decision about different pellets. Five pellet alternatives, each
produced from a different sustainable biomass feedstock, i.e. wood,
straw, switchgrass, alfalfa and poultry litter, are ranked according to 11
criteria, using the preference ranking organization method for
enrichment and evaluation (PROMETHEE). Both quantitative and
qualitative criteria are considered, including environmental, technical
and economic factors. Three scenarios, namely base case, environmen-
tal and economic, are developed by changing the weight assigned to
different criteria. In the base case scenario, equal weights are assigned
to each criterion. In the economic and environmental scenarios, more
weight is given to the economic and environmental factors, respect-
ively. Based on the PROMETHEE rankings, wood pellets are the best
source of energy for all scenarios followed by switchgrass, straw,
poultry litter and alfalfa pellets except economic scenario, where straw
pellets held higher position than switchgrass pellets. Sensitivity analysis
on weights, threshold values, preference function and production cost
indicate that the ranking was stable. The ranking in all scenarios
remained same when qualitative criteria were omitted from the model;
this indicates the stronger influence of quantitative criteria.
13/00474 Role of hydrogen storage in renewable energy
management for Ontario
Ozbilen, A. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37,
(9), 73437354.
Effective energy storage and management is needed to manage
intermittent renewable energy systems. Several jurisdictions around
the world are planning to reduce or close their coal power plants to
allow for renewable energy expansion, such as Ontario, Canada.
Hydrogen storage, which is a promising energy storage option, is
capable of meeting energy requirements that will arise from the
shutdown of coal plants. In this paper, both economic and environ-
mental feasibility of a hydrogen system linked with wind and
hydroelectric plants in Ontario will be investigated. The Princefarm
wind power plant and Beck1 hydro plant with production capacities of
189 and 490 MW, respectively, are analysed in a case study for
comparison purposes. The environmental analysis demonstrates the
advantageous role of hydrogen storage and energy conversion. The
overall system life-cycle yields 31.02 g CO
2
eq per 1 kWh power output
of the system when hydrogen energy storage is adopted. The payback
periods of the systems linked with the Princefarm and Beck1 are also
analysed and found to be about 17 years.
13/00475 Seawater lubricated polymer journal bearings for
use in wave energy converters
Meicke, S. and Paasch, R. Renewable Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 463470.
This study investigates the wear characteristics of polymeric journal
bearings while immersed in seawater, and their applicability towards
wave energy conversion. A block on ring wear machine was used to test
four commercially available bearing materials under unidirectional and
oscillatory sliding conditions at low pressure. It was observed that wear
generally increases with counterface roughness; however, major
deviations to this trend exist, depending on the bearings composition.
Stable wear rates were shown to vary widely depending on velocity
profile, though a general trend could not be established for the sample
group as a whole. It was shown that polymer wear rates cannot be
attributed to any one parameter, and that detailed testing at several
characteristic pressures and velocities is needed to determine a
materials applicability towards wave energy converters operating in
real seas.
70 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
13 Alternative energy supplies (others, including economics)
13/00476 Study of silt erosion mechanism in Pelton turbine
buckets
Padhy, M. K. and Saini, R. P. Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 286293.
In the present study, an experiment was carried out to investigate the
mechanism of erosion of a small scale Pelton turbine, under actual flow
conditions. Samples of silt were collected from the head work of one of
the most silt affected hydro power station in India. Silt parameters (silt
particle size and silt concentration) were considered to investigate the
mechanism of silt erosion on Pelton turbine buckets for different silt
sizes. In the first part of the experimentation, hot spots (spots which
are more prone to erosion) were identified under a high silt
concentration. Second part of the experimentation was carried out to
study the erosion mechanism for small specimens of metal which were
fixed at the marked hot spots. Based on the investigation, it has been
found that silt size is a strong parameter to produce erosion and the
material removal from the surface is due to plastic deformation and
ploughing of surface.
13/00477 Sustainable synthesis of biogas processes using
a novel concept of eco-profit
C

uc ek, L. et al. Computers & Chemical Engineering, 2012, 42, 87100.

The objective of this contribution is to perform the sustainable mixed-
integer linear programming synthesis of biogas processes based on life
cycle assessment (LCA). An aggregated model previously developed by
authors for the efficient optimization of biogas processes has been
upgraded with LCA, using the novel concept of eco-profit. Eco-profit is
defined as the difference between burdening (eco-cost) and unburden-
ing (eco-benefit) the environment, where eco-cost and eco-benefit
calculations are based on LCA. The advantage of eco-profit is that it is
expressed as a monetary value. Therefore, eco-profit and economic
profit can be merged together and the preferred solutions are those
with maximal total profit. The single-and multi-objective optimizations
were performed on a model of the biogas production processes. Within
the former, economic, eco- and total profit were maximized separately
and, within the latter, maximization of economic profit vs eco-profit
was introduced. All the results obtained from single- and multi-criteria
optimization show that biogas production is a sustainable alternative
that provides an important eco-profit.
13/00478 Swedish biomass strategies to reduce CO
2
emission and oil use in an EU context
Joelsson, J. and Gustavsson, L. Energy, 2012, 43, (1), 448468.
Swedish energy strategies for transportation, space heating and pulp
industries were evaluated with a focus on bioenergy use. The aims were
to (1) study trade-offs between reductions in CO
2
emission and oil use
and between Swedish reductions and European Union (EU) re-
ductions, (2) compare the potential contributions of individual
reduction measures, (3) quantify the total CO
2
emission and oil use
reduction potentials. Swedish energy efficiency measures reduced EU
CO
2
emission by 4559 Mt CO
2
/a, at current biomass use and constant
oil use. Doubling Swedish bioenergy use yielded an additional 40 Mt
CO
2
/a reduction. Oil use could be reduced, but 3681 kt of reductions
in CO
2
emission would be lost per PJ of oil use reduction. Swedish
fossil fuel use within the studied sectors could be nearly eliminated.
The expansion of district heating and cogeneration of heat with a high
electricity yield were important measures. Plug-in hybrid electric cars
reduced CO
2
emission compared with conventional cars, and the
difference was larger with increasing oil scarcity. The introduction of
black liquor gasification in pulp mills also gave large CO
2
emission
reduction. Motor fuel from biomass was found to be a feasible option
when coal is the marginal fuel for fossil motor fuel production.
13/00479 Wave energy potential along the south-east
coasts of the Black Sea
Akpinar, A. and Komurcu, M. I. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 289302.
This study aims to assess and characterize wave energy resource along
the southeastern coasts of the Black Sea. For this purpose, wave energy
potential was investigated at a total of seven study points in this area.
The potential for energy generation was assessed based on 6-hourly
data from a third-generation wave model (SWAN) covering the period
19952009. The results were validated with buoy measurements and
wave energy and power was calculated with the numerical hindcast
data. For characterization of wave energy potential, average annual
and seasonal variations of the wave power in this area was firstly
investigated. Second, wave energy development indexes and the
probabilities of exceedance of wave power at the study points were
determined. Third, wave energy resource in different ranges of
significant wave heights and zero-crossing periods were characterized.
Finally, it was found that the annual wave energy of all points except
Sinop point, whose annual wave energy is 10 MWh/m, is approximately
6 MWh/m and the bulk of annual wave energy occurs for significant
wave heights between 0.5 and 2 m and periods between 2 and 5 s.
13/00480 Why do some emerging economies proactively
accelerate the adoption of renewable energy?
Salim, R. A. and Rafiq, S. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 10511057.
This article analyses the determinants of renewable energy consump-
tion in a panel of six major emerging economies, namely Brazil, China,
India, Indonesia, Philippines and Turkey that are proactively accel-
erating the adoption of renewable energy. Using fully modified
ordinary least square, dynamic ordinary least square and Granger
causality methods this paper finds that in the long-run, renewable
energy consumption is significantly determined by income and
pollutant emission in Brazil, China, India and Indonesia while mainly
by income in Philippines and Turkey. Causal link between renewable
energy and income; and between renewable energy and pollutant
emission are found to be bidirectional in the short-run. These results
suggest that the appropriateness of the efforts undertaken by emerging
countries to reduce the carbon intensity by increasing the energy
efficiency and substantially increasing the share of renewable in the
overall energy mix.
14 FUEL SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
Fundamental science, analysis,
instrumentation
13/00481 A memory colour quality metric for white light
sources
Smet, K. A. G. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 49, 216225.
Over the past few years there has been tremendous progress in solid-
state lighting (SSL) technology, especially in terms of energy-efficiency.
This has increased the interest in SSL as an alternative to conventional
sources in general lighting applications. Colour quality is one of the key
challenges for SSL, as lighting with a poor colour quality is often
unacceptable in general lighting. For many lighting designers and
architects, the CIE colour rendering index is the current standard to
assess colour quality of a light source. Unfortunately, it correlates
poorly with the visual appreciation of many SSL sources. In this paper
a colour-quality metric is presented that references to the memory
colours of familiar objects. The basic idea is simple: the closer a light
source renders colours to what is expected, the better will be the colour
quality. A correlation analysis, based on data from several psycho-
physical studies described in literature, has shown that the metric
correlates highly with the visual appreciation of white light sources.
Some of the key differences between the memory colour quality metric
and the CIE colour rendering index are shortly illustrated, as well as its
potential for the design of more energy-efficient light source spectra
showing good colour quality.
13/00482 An analytical model of liquid drop evaporation in
gaseous environment
Tonini, S. and Cossali, G. E. International Journal of Thermal Sciences,
2012, 57, 4553.
A new analytical model of liquid drop evaporation in gaseous
environment is developed based on the solution of species, momentum
and energy conservation equations in a radial coordinate system. The
model relieves some inconsistencies of previous simplified models and
it yields solutions also for the non-isothermal case. The flow field
characteristics under isothermal and non-isothermal steady-state
conditions are investigated for different evaporating fluids. The
unsteady drop evaporation process is predicted and comparison with
the existing simplified Maxwell equation and the well-known Stefan
Fuchs model is reported and discussed.
13/00483 Constructing HVAC energy efficiency indicators
Perez-Lombard, L. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 47, 619629.
Energy efficiency is a central target for energy policy and a keystone for
sustainable development. However, the lack of a valid set of energy
efficiency indicators (EEI) sufficiently accurate, robust and repeatable
is significantly affecting the success of such policies and causing no
little confusion and speculation on this field. Therefore, it appears to
be essential to identify suitable methods to measure energy efficiency
and to achieve consensus over the use of a valid set of EEI. This paper
reviews the definition of efficiency and its quantification. First, a
methodology is introduced in order to construct EEI. This method-
ology is applied to heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 71
14 Fuel science and technology (fundamental science, analysis, instrumentation)
systems and an exhaustive classification of EEI is proposed at four
levels: global, service, subsystem and equipment. A new subsystems
approach is introduced for the energy analysis of HVAC systems based
on generation efficiency, transportation specific consumption and the
demand ratio, a new measure of HVAC thermal energy efficiency.
Finally, a case study is presented to illustrate the application of the
proposed EEI to HVAC systems and to show the main advantages of
the subsystems approach.
13/00484 Counter-current flow limitation in a model of the
hot leg of a PWR comparison between air/water and steam/
water experiments
Vallee, C. et al. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2012, 245, 113124.
In order to investigate the two-phase flow behaviour in a complex
reactor-typical geometry and to supply suitable data for computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) code validation, a model of the hot leg of a
pressurized water reactor (PWR) was built at Helmholtz-Zentrum
Dresden Rossendorf (HZDR) in Germany. The hot leg model is
devoted to optical measurement techniques, therefore, a flat test
section design was chosen and equipped with large windows. In order
to enable the operation at high pressures, the test section is installed in
the pressure chamber of the TOPFLOW (transient two-phase flow)
test facility of HZDR, which is used to perform the experiments under
pressure equilibrium with the inside atmosphere. Counter-current flow
limitation (CCFL) experiments were performed, simulating the reflux-
condenser cooling mode appearing in small break loss-of-coolant-
accident scenarios. The fluids used were air and water at room
temperature and pressures of up to 3.0 bar, as well as steam and water
at pressures of up to 50 bar and the corresponding saturation
temperature of 264

C. One selected 50 bar experiment is presented

in detail: the observed behaviour is analysed and illustrated by typical
high-speed camera images of the flow. Furthermore, the flooding
characteristics obtained from the different experimental runs are
presented in terms of the Wallis parameter and Kutateladze number,
which are commonly used in the literature. However, a discrepancy was
first observed between the air/water and steam/water series. Further
investigations show that the steam was probably wet due to heat losses
and liquid entrainment from the heater circuit. Consequently, a
correction of the steam measurements was required. The amount of
parasitic water was evaluated indirectly over the shift of the zero liquid
penetration noticed in the CCFL diagram. Finally, the experimental
results confirm that the Wallis similarity is appropriate to scale
flooding in the hot leg of a PWR over a wide range of pressure and
temperature conditions.
13/00485 Energy towers the effect of droplet coalescence
on power and the environment
Hassid, S. et al. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (5), 14431453.
The energy tower concept is a renewable energy source suitable for dry
and hot climates. It consists in cooling air by spraying water at the top
of a tower approximately 1000-m high and thus creating a downdraft
with a velocity of approximately 15 m/s. At the bottom of the tower the
air goes through turbines and is subsequently exhausted through
diffusers to the environment. In this work the influence of heat transfer
from the droplets to the air is analysed, the effect of coalescence being
described using the ORourque model. It is shown that coalescence is
substantial inside the tower and results in the droplets being an order
of magnitude larger at the tower bottom and that there is a slight
adverse effect on the energy performance, since evaporation from
larger droplets is substantially less than from smaller droplets. In the
case however that the water spray is a saline solution which is the only
possibility in view of unsalted water being as scarce a resource as
energy it makes it possible to keep the deposited salt inside the tower
and the diffuser and in the immediate vicinity of the construction.
13/00486 Exergy of partially coherent thermal radiation
Wijewardane, S. and Goswami, Y. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 497502.
Exergy of electromagnetic radiation has been studied by a number of
researchers for well over four decades in order to estimate the
maximum conversion efficiencies of thermal radiation. As these
researchers primarily dealt with solar and blackbody radiation, which
have a low degree of coherence, they did not consider the partial
coherence properties of thermal radiation. With the recent develop-
ment of surface structures, which can emit radiation with high degree
of coherence, the importance of considering the partial coherent
properties in exergy calculation has become a necessity as the
coherence properties directly influence the entropy of the wave field.
The authors derive an expression for the exergy of quasi-monochro-
matic radiation using statistical thermodynamics and show that it is
identical with the expressions derived using classical thermodynamics.
They also present a method to calculate the entropy, thereby the exergy
of partially coherent radiation using statistical thermodynamics and a
method called matrix treatment of wave field.
13/00487 Human powered MEMS-based energy harvest
devices
Sue, C.-Y. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 390403.
The lifespan and stability of power supply are the most critical issues
for implantable biomedical devices (IMDs). Extracting energy from the
ambient sources or human body therefore attracts a lot of attentions
for in vivo therapies. Micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS)-based
energy harvesters are expected to be one of the potential solutions to
supply electrical power to IMDs owing to its tiny size, low weight and
recharge-free attributes. However, the performance of the micro-
energy harvester for implantable biomedical applications is limited by
many inherent congenital factors. In this paper, three main topics are
comprehensively studied and discussed. At first, the energy sources to
be scavenged from human body are particularly investigated and
characterized. Secondly, the operation principle and key bottlenecks of
the currently available MEMS-based energy harvesters are reviewed
and presented. Finally, the performance, frequency tuning methods
and biocompatibility of micro-energy harvester are evaluated and
summarized.
13/00488 Methods of determination of liquid transfer
coefficient in building materials
Nikitsin, V. I. and Backiel-Brzozowska, B. International Journal of Heat
and Mass Transfer, 2012, 55, (1516), 43184322.
At present there is no unified, widely recognized method of estimation
of the dependency between the liquid transfer coefficient and the
moisture content in material. It is possible to determine such relation
by several methods requiring long-term and laborious experimental
research, expensive apparatus and complex calculating procedures. The
original method of determination of the liquid transfer coefficient in
building materials is presented in this work. This method is limited to
obtaining experimental data of the kinetics of one-way capillary water
uptake by specimens and calculations based on the suggested model.
Accuracy of the given method was confirmed using experimental
results of capillary absorption process of lightweight concrete and
ceramic material. Since the suggested method is theoretically grounded
and its accuracy is comparable with other known methods and at the
same time it is less laborious and cost-consuming, it can be
recommended for practical application.
13/00489 Non-technical barriers to energy model sharing
and reuse
Samuelson, H. W. et al. Building and Environment, 2012, 54, 7176.
An energy model generated during the design phase of a building could
in principal be converted into a calibrated energy model and used to
improve the buildings operational performance. However, this rarely
happens in practice. Through a survey of 306 building professionals,
this research investigates whether this model reuse is technically
feasible, based on todays design-phase models, and what non-technical
barriers might stand in the way of its implementation. An important
finding is that 75% of the engineers/energy modellers surveyed believed
that their models could be used by a third party in building com-
missioning and operation. At the same time, many modellers voiced
various reservations that might prevent them from sharing their energy
models with the owner or design team. These reservations varied from
a desire to protect their intellectual property, to liability concerns, to
the fear of incurring additional unpaid work. In response to these
findings, this paper provides suggestions for overcoming these non-
technical challenges and includes references for contract precedents.
13/00490 Numerical and experimental analysis of transient
supercooling effect of voltage pulse on thermoelectric
element
Shen, L. M. et al. International Journal of Refrigeration, 2012, 35, (4),
11561165.
This paper presents a mathematical model and its solution algorithm
for analysing the transient supercooling effect of voltage pulse on a
thermoelectric element. Realistic boundary conditions, including the
hot-end convection heat transfer coefficient (h) and cold-end cooling
load, are considered in solving the model. The numerical simulation
results show that the transient supercooling occurs when the steady
input voltage experiences a step change. However, the minimum
supercooling temperature (T
mts
) cannot approach absolute zero as
reported in previous research due to the co-existence of Joule heat and
Peltier effect. There is a cost-effective h to achieve T
mts
and maximum
hold time of the supercooling temperature. However, the cold-end
cooling load only affects T
mts
. Experiments are conducted to test the
transient supercooling effect of voltage pulse. The trends of the cold-
end temperature responding to voltage pulses obtained in numerical
simulation and experiment tests match well.
13/00491 Numerical estimation of the effective electrical
conductivity in carbon paper diffusion media
Zamel, N. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 3944.
72 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
14 Fuel science and technology (fundamental science, analysis, instrumentation)
The transport of electrons through the gas diffusion layer (GDL) of
polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells has a significant
impact on the optimal design and operation of PEM fuel cells and is
directly affected by the anisotropic nature of the carbon paper
material. In this study, a three-dimensional reconstruction of the
GDL is used to numerically estimate the directional dependent
effective electrical conductivity of the layer for various porosity values.
The distribution of the fibres in the through-plane direction results in
high electrical resistivity; hence, decreasing the overall effective
electrical conductivity in this direction. This finding is in agreement
with measured experimental data. Further, using the numerical results
of this study, two mathematical expressions were proposed for the
calculation of the effective electrical conductivity of the carbon paper
GDL. Finally, the tortuosity factor was evaluated as 1.7 and 3.4 in the
in- and through-plane directions, respectively.
13/00492 On an improved direct discrete method and its
application in two dimensional multi-group neutron
diffusion equation
Ayyoubzadeh, S. M. et al. Annals of Nuclear Energy, 2012, 44, 17.
An improvement to the direct discrete method (DDM), also known as
the cell method, has been discussed. The improvement is based on a
duality theorem between the primal and dual complexes. Also, the
analogue counterpart of the integral operator has been derived in this
paper. The multi-group neutron diffusion is then derived, directly in a
discrete algebraic form, according to this procedure. A numerical
example has shown that this method would yield a high order of
convergence (approximately 4.6) if its parameters are adjusted suitably.
Finally, the method is applied to the 2D IAEA benchmark problem,
and has shown to yield accurate solutions with a reasonably low
number of unknowns.
13/00493 Optimization of energy extraction for closed
shallow geothermal systems using linear programming
de Paly, M. et al. Geothermics, 2012, 43, 5765.
The objective of the study is to optimize the performance and thereby
to mitigate the environmental impact of ground source heat pump
(GSHP) systems using multiple borehole heat exchangers (BHEs) by
including variable energy loads. Hence, an optimization procedure is
developed that is able to predict temperature distributions in the
subsurface. Optimized BHE fields are able to keep the maximum
temperature change in the subsurface about 18% lower than BHE
fields which feature equal flow rates for all BHEs. The long-term
temperature anomaly can be mitigated and the possibility of extracting
a higher amount of energy, while keeping temperature thresholds or
environmental constraints, arises.
13/00494 Photovoltaic dynamic MPPT on a moving vehicle
Ko, S.-H. and Chao, R.-M. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (6), 17501760.
In addition to the conversion efficiency of a photovoltaic panel, the
maximum power point tracking (MPPT) method also plays a central
role to harvest most energy out of sun. The MPPT unit on a moving
vehicle must keep tracking accuracy high in order to compensate rapid
change of insolation due to dynamic motion of the vehicle. In this
paper, some problems of a PV system associated with a moving vehicle
are addressed, and a modified quadratic maximization MPPT
algorithm is proposed. Theoretical PV performance is linked to the
experimental test followed by the Sandia dynamic test protocol to verify
the proposed MPPT method. Finally, experimental result on a model
ship is discussed.
13/00495 Prediction of three-dimensional residual stresses
at localised indentations in pipes
Hyde, T. H. et al. International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping,
2012, 9394, 111.
Residual stresses are investigated using finite element (FE) analyses at
localized indentations in pipes with and without internal pressures due
to reverse plasticity caused by springback of the surrounding material
after removal of the indenter. The indentation loading is applied via
rigid 3D short indenters. The effects of the residual indentation depth,
internal pressure, indenter size and different material properties on the
residual stresses for different pipes have been investigated by carrying
out parametric sensitivity studies. In order to predict the residual
stresses, empirical formulations have been developed, which show a
good correlation with the FE for residual stresses for pipes with
diameter to thickness ratios of 3572.
13/00496 Problems estimating the carbon Kuznets curve
Itkonen, J. V. A. Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 274280.
This study discovered flaws in the foundations of a recent strand of
literature estimating the carbon Kuznets curve (CKC). The CKC
hypothesizes that carbon dioxide emissions initially increase with
economic growth but that the relationship is eventually reversed. The
recent literature attempts to estimate the CKC by adding energy
consumption as a control variable. Due to model misspecifications
related to the econometric methodology and database definitions, the
results are biased to support the existence of a CKC. Consequently the
literature underestimates the need for climate policies.
13/00497 Second-law analysis of molten-salt thermal
energy storage in thermoclines
Flueckiger, S. M. and Garimella, S. V. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (5),
16211631.
The cyclic operation of a molten-salt thermocline tank is simulated to
investigate the influence of internal granule diameter and external
convection losses on tank performance. Practical constraints limiting
thermocline tank height are taken into account. The authors two-
temperature model, developed in earlier work for the analysis of heat
transfer and fluid flow in the thermocline tank, is extended to monitor
entropy generation and exergy transport. Storage performance is
measured in terms of first- and second-law efficiency definitions, as
well as a first-law efficiency used in conjunction with an outflow
temperature criterion. Reducing the diameter of the filler-bed granules
improves the thermocline tank performance by sustaining higher
molten-salt outflow temperatures throughout the discharge phase of
the cycle, which results in greater operational efficiency. External
convection losses strongly influence entropy generation inside the tank
filler-bed due to the development of radial temperature gradients and
increased irreversible thermal diffusion. Convection losses also result
in lower tank efficiencies due to the reduction of hot molten salt
available inside the tank. A comparison of the different efficiency
definitions employed in this work reveal that the ad hoc outflow
temperature criterion used in past studies provides an overly
conservative assessment of thermocline performance.
13/00498 Self-consistent photopyroelectric calorimetry for
liquids
Dadarlat, D. and Pop, M. N. International Journal of Thermal Sciences,
2012, 56, 1922.
The front photopyroelectric (FPPE) configuration, together with the
thermal-wave resonator cavity (TWRC) method was applied in order to
measure both thermal effusivity and diffusivity of liquids. The
methodology is based on a four-layer detection cell (pyroelectric
sensor, coupling fluid, solid separator and liquid backing) in which the
investigated liquid is inserted successively in backing and in coupling
fluids position, respectively. When inserted in the backing position a
scan of the phase of the FPPE signal as a function of (a known)
coupling fluids thickness (TWRC method) leads to the direct
measurement of liquids thermal effusivity. Inserting then the
investigated liquid in coupling fluids position (with a known backing
liquid), a similar thickness scan leads to the measurement of its thermal
diffusivity. In such a way the FPPE-TWRC method becomes self-
consistent; all static and dynamic thermal parameters can be derived
with the same technique (two of them are directly measured and the
remaining two, calculated). The suitability of the method was demon-
strated with investigations on several liquids as water, ethylene glycol,
glycerine, various oils.
13/00499 Simulations of economical and technical
feasibility of battery and flywheel hybrid energy storage
systems in autonomous projects
Prodromidis, G. N. and Coutelieris, F. A. Renewable Energy, 2012, 39,
(1), 149153.
This paper deals with the feasibility of a renewable energy sources
(RES)-based stand-alone system for electricity supply based on a
flywheel energy storage system (FESS) located on the Greek island of
Naxos. The innovative use of flywheels in parallel connection with
electrochemical batteries, as an integrated storage device in the same
power plant, was selected to be simulated as it is a necessary buffer
covering the load of a typical house. The optimal configuration for the
electromechanical connection between the electrochemical batteries
and flywheels is also considered in this study. Operational character-
istics of the new storage systems were estimated and used in the
simulations, while the financial aspects of the projects finalized using
hand-made calculations and the HOMER software was used only for
the energy calculations. It was found that an off-grid project using
advanced and totally green technologies is possible and comparable to
more conventional RES-based systems, in terms of energy and econo-
mic feasibility. Finally, it can be concluded that systems with low price
flywheels are equivalent to those with electrochemical batteries.
13/00500 Soft-linking of a power systems model to an
energy systems model
Deane, J. P. et al. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 303312.
This paper presents a soft-linking methodology that employs detailed
simulation outputs from a dedicated power systems model to gain
insights and understanding of the generation electricity plant portfolio
results for the electricity sector from a separate energy systems model.
The authors apply the methodology and present and discuss the results.
The motivation for this soft-linking is to provide a transfer of
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 73
14 Fuel science and technology (fundamental science, analysis, instrumentation)
information from the power systems model strong points to the energy
systems model and use this information to improve and develop
understanding of energy systems model results. Part of this motivation
is derived from a view that one specific energy modelling tool cannot
address all aspects of the full energy system in great detail and greater
insights and progress can be gained by drawing on the strengths of
multiple modelling tools rather than trying to incorporate them all into
one comprehensive model. The methodology takes an optimized
generation portfolio for a specific year from an energy systems model
and undertakes a detailed high resolution chronological simulation of
the same portfolio in the power systems model with added degrees of
technical detail. Results presented here show that in the absence of key
technical constraints, an energy systems model can potentially under-
value flexible resources, underestimate wind curtailment and over-
estimate the use of baseload plant.
13/00501 Thermo-economic modeling and optimization of
underfloor heating using evolutionary algorithms
Hajabdollahi, F. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 47, 9197.
Thermal modelling and optimal design of an underfloor heating system
are presented in this paper. Analytical modelling is coupled with some
experimental data is used to obtain the rate of heat transfer and
temperature distribution in the presented system. After thermal
modelling, tube length, tube radius, water mass flow rate and number
of panels are considered as four design parameters. Both the genetic
algorithm and the particle swarm optimization algorithm are applied to
obtain the minimum total annual cost (sum of investment and
operational costs) as objective function with discrete and continues
variables. Both algorithms are converged with 0.2% differences. The
optimization results show that the underfloor heating optimum
configuration has 13 panels, each of them with 80 m length, 7 mm tube
inside radius where water passes through the tubes with the rate of
0.503 kg/s. The sensitivity analysis of change in the optimum total
annual cost, rate of heat transfer and panel temperature with change in
design parameters of the underfloor heating are also performed. The
results show that by increase of design parameters, both the total
annual cost and the rate of heat transfer increase. In addition, the tube
length and water mass flow rate were found as the most important
parameters in the design and optimization of underfloor heating
system. Finally, a closed form equation is presented between the rate of
heat transfer and five important variables with acceptable precision by
using an artificial neural network.
13/00502 Time-resolved ESR investigation on energy
transfer processes in Nafion photochemistry
Conti, F. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37, (7),
63176325.
A solid film of Nafion has been prepared on the inner wall of a quartz
tube. After pulsed photoexcitation, time-resolved electron spin
resonance (TR-ESR) spectra have been recorded in the temperature
range of 29015 K. The spectra exhibit strongly electron-spin polarized
signals in full absorption arising from the excited triplet state of
Nafion. The absence of any resolved spectral features and the unusual
narrowing of the TR-ESR signal linewidth with decreasing temperature
are discussed in terms of the spin Hamiltonian of an excited triplet
state with dynamic dipoledipole interactions between the two
unpaired electron spins. The existence of a triplettriplet energy
transfer process is considered, and a prominent role of hydrogen bonds
of the surrounding water network is suggested. Finally, the time
evolutions of the TR-ESR signals have been analysed, and the
corresponding decay parameters have been obtained at low tempera-
tures. The results provide insight on the role of water as a medium for
the conductivity mechanism in Nafion membranes.
Fuel cell technology
13/00503 A numerical investigation of the effects of GDL
compression and intrusion in polymer electrolyte fuel cells
(PEFCs)
Chippar, P. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37,
(7), 63266338.
The purpose of this work is to numerically investigate the effects of
non-uniform compression of the gas diffusion layer (GDL) and GDL
intrusion into a channel due to the channel/rib structure of the flow-
field plate. The focus is placed on accurately predicting two-phase
transport between the compressed GDL near the ribs and uncom-
pressed GDL near the channels, and its associated effects on cell
performance. In this paper, a GDL compression model is newly
developed and incorporated into a comprehensive three-dimensional,
two-phase polymer electrolyte fuel cell (PEFC) model developed
earlier. To assess solely the effects of GDL compression and intrusion,
the new fuel cell model is applied to a simple single-straight channel
fuel cell geometry. Numerical simulations with different levels of GDL
compression and intrusion are carried out and simulation results reveal
that the effects of GDL compression and intrusion considerably
increase the non-uniformity, particularly, the in-plane gradient in
liquid saturation, oxygen concentration, membrane water content, and
current density profiles that in turn results in significant ohmic and
concentration polarizations. The present three-dimensional GDL
compression model yields realistic species profiles and cell perform-
ance that help to identify the optimal MEA, gasket, and flow channel
designs in PEFCs.
13/00504 Accelerated durability testing via reactants
relative humidity cycling on PEM fuel cells
Panha, K. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 9097.
Cycling of relative humidity (RH) levels in polymer electrolyte
membrane (PEM) fuel cells reactant streams have been reported to
decay fuel cell performance. This study focuses on accelerated
durability testing to examine different modes of membrane failure via
relative humidity cycling. A single fuel cell with an active area of
42.25 cm
2
was tested. A Hydrogenics G50 test station was used to
establish baseline cell with 840 h of degradation under high humidity
idle conditions at a constant current density of 10 mAcm
2
. The
membrane electrode assembly (MEA) contained a Gore
TM
57 catalyst
coated membrane (CCM) and 35 BC SGL gas diffusion layers (GDLs).
During the test, in situ diagnostic methods, including polarization
curves and linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) were employed. Also, ex
situ tests such as ion chromatography, infrared imaging, and scanning
electron microscopy were used to identify degradation mechanisms.
For RH cycling cell, H
2
air inlet gases were alternated under dry and
100% humidified conditions every 10 and 40 min, respectively. Under
idle conditions, operated at very low current density, a low chemical
degradation rate and minimal electrical load stress were anticipated.
However, the membrane was expected to degrade due to additional
stress from the membrane swelling/contraction cycle controlled by RH.
The degradation rate for steady state conditions (0.18 mVh
1
) was
found to be lower than under RH cycling conditions (0.24 mVh
1
).
Change in RH led to an overall PEM fuel cell degradation due to the
increase in hydrogen crossover current and fluoride ion release
concentration. This study advanced the development of diagnostics
for PEM fuel cells in that failure modes have been correlated with in
situ performance observations.
13/00505 Alkaline fuel cells running at elevated
temperature for regenerative fuel cell system applications in
spacecrafts
Markgraf, S. et al. Journal of Power Sources, 2012, 201, 236242.
The energy supply is one of the most important subsystems of
spacecraft. Its layout depends on factors like size or mission profile
and contributes strongly to the spacecraft mass. Nowadays, secondary
batteries are the common energy storage for space missions. However
for certain applications regenerative fuel cell systems (RFCS) offer
mass savings due to their higher energy density. A RFCS is composed
of an electrolyser and a fuel cell. In a first step water is electrolysed by
electrical energy. Hydrogen and oxygen are stored in tanks. Later they
are supplied to the fuel cell. There they recombine to water providing
electrical energy. The total efficiency of the process and the mass of the
complete RFCS are strongly affected by the fuel cell efficiency. It can
be increased by elevating the fuel cell operation temperature. This
leads to a higher energy density and enables mass reductions of the
radiator which is necessary in space to get rid of the waste heat. In this
article the effect of the temperature on the radiator area is calculated.
The impact on efficiency and fuel cell mass is outlined. Tests results of
the operation of an alkaline fuel cell between 60 and 140

C are
presented.
13/00506 Coupling between finite volume method and
lattice Boltzmann method and its application to fluid flow
and mass transport in proton exchange membrane fuel cell
Chen, L. et al. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2012,
55, (1314), 38343848.
In this paper, a concentration distribution function reconstruction
operator is derived to lift macroscopic parameter concentration to
concentration distribution function in lattice Boltzmann method
(LBM). Combined with a densityvelocity distribution function
reconstruction operator previously derived by the authors group, the
coupled finite volume method and LBM scheme (CFVLBM),
previously proposed by the authors group is extended to simulate
both fluid flow and mass transport processes. The accuracy of
concentration distribution function reconstruction operator and the
feasibility of CFVLBM are validated by two numerical examples,
diffusionconvectionreaction problem and natural convection in a
square cavity induced by concentration gradient. Finally, the CFVLBM
is further adopted to simulate fluid flow and mass transport in the gas
channel and gas diffusion layer (GDL) of a proton exchange membrane
74 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
14 Fuel science and technology (fuel cell technology)
fuel cell. It is found that the CFVLBM can capture the pore-scale
information of fluid flow and species transport in porous GDL and can
save the computational resources.
13/00507 Effects of operating conditions on internal
resistances in enzyme fuel cells studied via electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy
Aaron, D. et al. Journal of Power Sources, 2012, 201, 5965.
Enzyme fuel cells (EFCs) offer some advantages over traditional
precious-metal-catalysed fuel cells, such as polymer electrolyte
membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). However, EFCs exhibit far less power
output than PEMFCs and have relatively short life spans before
materials must be replaced. In this work, electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy (EIS) is used to analyse the internal resistances
throughout the EFC at a variety of operating conditions. EIS analysis
is focused primarily on the resistances of the anode, solution/
membrane, and cathode. Increased enzyme loading results in improved
power output and reductions in internal resistance. Conditions are
identified for which enzyme loading does not limit the EFC
performance. EIS experiments are also reported for EFCs operated
continuously for 2 days; power output declines sharply over time, while
all internal resistances increase. Drying of the cathode and enzyme/
mediator degradation are believed to have contributed to this
behaviour. Finally, experiments are performed at varying air-humidi-
fication temperatures. Little effect on internal resistances or power
output is observed. However, it is anticipated that increased air
humidification can improve longevity by delivering more water to the
cathode. Improvements to the enzymatic cathode are needed for EFC
development. These improvements need to focus on improving
transport rather than increasing enzyme loading.
13/00508 Effects of process integration in an active direct
methanol fuel-cell system
Zenith, F. et al. Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process
Intensification, 2012, 59, 4351.
This article investigates process integration in a direct methanol fuel-
cell system from the points of view of controllability, efficiency, and
safety. The two cooling and separation lines of anodic and cathodic
effluent from the cell stack of a reference system are integrated into a
single one. The potential for process integration is measured
quantitatively, determining how much the heat exchangers need to be
oversized in the reference system, and qualitatively, considering the
expected benefits of a more integrated system. The control layout of
the reference system is redesigned for the integrated system, without
significant loss in dynamic and steady-state performance. A significant
disadvantage of the integrated layout is the increased loss of unreacted
methanol from its exhaust, which reduces efficiency and has safety
implications. The integrated system is found most appropriate for
small, portable systems for which small size and high energy density are
particularly important.
13/00509 Enhanced biodegradation of hydrocarbon-
contaminated sediments using microbial fuel cells
Morris, J. M. and Jin, S. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2012, 213
214, 474477.
A sediment microbial fuel cell (MFC) was tested to determine if
electron transfer from the anaerobic zone of contaminated sediments
to the overlying aerobic water could facilitate an enhanced and aerobic
equivalent degradation of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH).
Results indicate that voltages as high as 190 mV (2162 mW/m
3
) were
achieved in a sediment MFC with an anode buried in sediments
containing TPH concentrations at approximately 16,000 mg kg
1
.
Additionally, after approximately 66 days, the TPH degradation rates
were 2% and 24% in the open-circuit control sediment MFC and active
sediment MFC, respectively. Therefore, it appears that applying MFC
technology to contaminated sediments enhances natural biodegrada-
tion by nearly 12-fold. Additionally, a novel sediment MFC was
designed to provide a cost-effective method of passive oxidation or
indirect aerobic degradation of contaminants in an otherwise anaerobic
environment. In addition, the use of a wicking air cathode in this study
maintained dissolved oxygen concentrations 12 mg l
1
higher than
submerged cathodes, demonstrating that this technology can be applied
to environments with either aerobic or anaerobic overlying water and
an anaerobic matrix, such as shallow lagoon, ponds, and marshes, and
groundwater.
13/00510 Facile synthesis of poly(amidoamine)-modified
carbon nanospheres supported Pt nanoparticles for direct
methanol fuel cells
Huang, Y. et al. Journal of Power Sources, 2012, 201, 8187.
In this work, the synthesis and characterization of a catalyst material
consisted of Pt, poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) and carbon nanospheres
are investigated. Firstly, carbon nanospheres are hydrothermally
synthesized, followed by a high temperature of calcination to achieve
a high amount of oxygen-containing groups. Subsequently, these
carbon nanospheres are modified with multifunctional PAMAM
dendrimers to form coordinate complex with H
2
PtCl
6
, followed by
the reduction with sodium borohydride to obtain metallic Pt. The
resulting composites are characterized by transmission electron
microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and infrared spec-
troscopy. This new nanomaterial is used as catalysts for methanol
electro-oxidation and their electrochemical features are investigated in
detail by cyclic voltammetry, chronoamperometry and CO-stripping
analysis. The results of this study suggest that, through modification
with multifunctional dendrimers, complex carbon nanospheres-based
materials can be fabricated, where Pt nanoparticles are smaller, more
abundant and more uniformly distributed, thereby providing higher
electrocatalytic ability in direct methanol fuel cell and many possibi-
lities for various applications in biosensors and biomedical diagnosis.
13/00511 Investigating the effects of operational factors on
PEMFC performance based on CFD simulations using a
three-level full-factorial design
Cheng, S.-J. et al. Renewable Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 250260.
This study uses the 3
3
full-factorial design, a factorial arrangement with
three factors at three levels, to investigate the main and interaction
effects of design parameters on the performance of a single 25 cm
2
proton exchange membrane fuel cell. The factors considered in this
study include the flow channel design, the operational temperature,
and the relative humidity of the cathode gas mixture. The gas flow
channel patterns for both the anode side and the cathode side are the
same as a straight parallel channel design and two modified parallel
channel designs. The operational temperatures are selected as 333, 343
and 353 K. The relative humidity of the cathode gas mixture varies from
50 to 100% at 25% intervals, while the relative humidity of the anode
gas mixture remains fixed at 100%. All runs are conducted with a three-
dimensional, non-isothermal steady-state fuel cell computational fluid
dynamic model (FCFD) with specified boundary conditions. The
FCFD model can not only output the polarization curve, but also
predict complex multi-physics flow, thermal, mass and ion transport
phenomena inside the tiny fuel cell multi-layer structures. This full-
factorial design of experimental method reveals that it is possible to not
only explore the main effects of this complex multi-physics problem,
but also investigate the effects of two-factor interactions for generating
maximum power density. Results show that the flow channel design has
the most significant effect on the polarization curve; the next is the cell
temperature, while the relative humidity of the cathode gas mixture
plays only a minor role.
13/00512 Investigations of the temperature distribution in
proton exchange membrane fuel cells
Jung, C.-Y. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 733741.
A two-dimensional, non-isothermal model of a proton exchange
membrane fuel cell was implemented to elucidate heat balance through
the membrane electrode assembly (MEA). To take local utilization of
platinum catalyst into account, the model was presented by considering
the formation of agglomerated catalyst structure in the electrodes. To
estimate energy balance through the MEA, various modes of heat
generation and depletion by reversible/irreversible heat release, ohmic
heating and phase change of water were included in the present model.
In addition, dual-pathway kinetics, that is a combination of Heyrovsky
Volmer and TafelVolmer kinetics, were employed to precisely
describe the hydrogen oxidation reaction. The proposed model was
validated with experimental cell polarization, resulting in excellent fit.
The temperature distribution inside the MEA was analysed by the
model. Consequently, a thorough investigation was made of the
relation between membrane thickness and the temperature distribution
inside the MEA.
13/00513 Modeling of the photovoltaic cell circuit
parameters for optimum connection model and real-time
emulator with partial shadow conditions
Kadri, R. et al. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 5767.
Photovoltaic (PV) power has been successfully used for over five
decades. The output characteristics of a PV array vary non-linearly
when temperature or irradiance conditions change. At the beginning of
this paper, the performance of PV panel is analysed, for parallel and
series connections of solar cell elements exposed to the same light
conditions and temperature by using the Brunes conditions of
interconnection. Therefore the parameters of the equivalent circuits
for each typical PV cell connections are characterized by a new set of
matrix equations. A lab view application is implemented to prove the
theoretical models. Moreover, the grid connected PV systems have
become more popular because they do not need battery back-ups to
ensure maximum power point tracking (MPPT). However, partial
shading is one of the main causes that reduces energy yield of PV array.
In this respect, the second part of the paper refers to the influences of
different irradiance conditions on the PV array performance in order
to achieve MPPT under shaded array conditions. Consequently, PV
array emulator is crucial for the operational evaluation of system
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 75
14 Fuel science and technology (fuel cell technology)
components. The purpose of this study extension is to design and
develop a new real-time emulator of PV array output characteristics
based on closed-loop reference model.
13/00514 Optimization of the strength of SOFC anode
supports
Frandsen, H. L. et al. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, 2012,
32, (5), 10411052.
During operation solid oxide fuel cells are stressed by temperature
gradients and various internal and external mechanical loads, which
must be withstood. This work deals with the optimization of the
strength of as-sintered anode supported half-cells by imposing changes
to production parameters, such as powder milling and sintering
temperature. The strength was measured with the ball-on-ring method,
and analysed with a large displacement finite element model. Weibull
statistics were used to describe the distribution of strengths. The
influence on the Weibull strength of the many different processing
parameters was found to be quantifiable in terms of cell porosity to a
large extent. The results were validated with an independent set of
measurements of strength and stiffness by uniaxial tension and the
impulse excitation technique, respectively. For application of the
finding in relation to the SOFC technology a mathematical frame to
determine the optimal porosity of a SOFC system is presented.
13/00515 Performance comparison of the mass transfer
models with internal reforming for solid oxide fuel cell
anodes
Wang, S. et al. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2012,
55, (1516), 39333945.
In this work, models describing multicomponent gas diffusion process
in an electrode of a porous solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) anode coupled
with internal reforming reactions were developed. The performances of
three different types of models, the dusty-gas model (DGM), the
binary-friction model (BFM) and the cylindrical pore interpolation
model (CPIM), were compared in one dimension. All these models
take into account Knudsen diffusion and moleculemolecule diffusion
can be used in transition region which is generally the case in a SOFC
electrode. The developed models are able to predict the fuel
components molar fraction distributions in the anode electrode, and
the concentration overpotential. They are capable of simulating the
internal reforming process for hydrocarbon fuel, such as natural gas,
with kinetic models considering both methane-steam reforming
(MSR), and watergas shift reaction (WSR). The effects of pressure
gradient, pore size, current density, are studied. It was found that three
models give similar results in difference cases using the same tuned
tortuosity factor (t
2
). The difference caused using the isobaric
assumption is negligible for the H
2
H
2
OAr and COCO
2
system,
expect at small pore sizes (under 1 mm) and high current density (above
1 A/cm
2
). For a system fed with hydrocarbon fuel, the isobaric
assumption will change the molar fraction distribution by up to 10%
for different gas mixture components for the CPIM and the BFM, and
up to 25% for the DGM at small pore sizes. However, the reaction
rates for both MSR and WSR remain the same when the pressure
variation is neglected.
13/00516 Process integration and optimization of a solid
oxide fuel cell gas turbine hybrid cycle fueled with
hydrothermally gasified waste biomass
Facchinetti, E. et al. Energy, 2012, 41, (1), 408419.
Due to its suitability for using wet biomass, hydrothermal gasification is
a promising process for the valorization of otherwise unused waste
biomass to synthesis gas and biofuels. Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC)
based hybrid cycles are considered as the best candidate for a more
efficient and clean conversion of (bio) fuels. A significant potential for
the integration of the two technologies is expected since hydrothermal
gasification requires heat at 673773 K, whereas SOFC is characterized
by heat excess at high temperature due to the limited electrochemical
fuel conversion. This work presents a systematic process integration
and optimization of a SOFC-gas turbine (GT) hybrid cycle fuelled with
hydrothermally gasified waste biomass. Several design options are
systematically developed and compared through a thermodynamic
optimization approach based on first law and exergy analysis. The work
demonstrates the considerable potential of the system that allows for
converting wet waste biomass into electricity at a first law efficiency of
up to 63%, while simultaneously enabling the separation of biogenic
carbon dioxide for further use or sequestration.
13/00517 Sensitivity analysis applied to the multi-objective
optimization of a MCFC hybrid plant
Sciacovelli, A. and Verda, V. Energy Conversion and Management,
2012, 60, 180187.
In this paper the multi-objective optimization of a landfill-gas-fuelled
hybrid molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) system for electricity
generation and hydrogen production is performed. The plant lifetime
is considered in the optimization procedure in order to account for the
effects due to the degradation in the fuel cell performance and
variations in the landfill gas composition. The results show that it is
particularly important to include considerations related with plant
lifetime in the evaluation of the plant efficiency and on the average unit
cost of electricity. In fact, there are system designs that allow one to
achieve high performances when the plant is new but are less robust,
which causes large unit costs. The effects of uncertainties on various
operating and design variables have been also evaluated. It is shown
that introducing such considerations produce significant reduction in
the expected plant efficiency and increase in the unit cost of electricity.
In particular, the most important effects are produced by uncertainties
on ambient temperature, landfill gas composition and the methane
conversion in the steam reformer.
13/00518 Thermodynamic analysis of hydrogen production
for fuel cells from oxidative steam reforming of methanol
Wang, J. et al. Fuel, 2012, 97, 805811.
A thermodynamic analysis of hydrogen production from oxidative
steam reforming (OSR) of methanol has been carried out by a Gibbs
free energy minimization method. The equilibrium yields of hydrogen,
carbon monoxide, methane and coke as a function of H
2
O/MeOH ratio
(0.010.0), O
2
/MeOH ratio (0.01.0), and temperature (200, 400, 600,
800

C) at 0.1 MPa are investigated. Methanol can be fully converted at

any H
2
O/MeOH and O
2
/MeOH ratio in the condition range evaluated.
Methane is the main product at low temperatures (200, 400

C), while
hydrogen and carbon monoxide become dominant products with the
increase of the temperature. The temperature 600

C is favourable for
hydrogen production at which the highest hydrogen yield appears.
Carbon monoxide yield increases monotonically with the increase of
the temperature and shows its maximum at 800

C. An increase of the
H
2
O/MeOH ratio leads to a preference for hydrogen production as
well as an inhibition of the formation of carbon monoxide, methane
and coke. The major contribution of adding oxygen is lowering the
energy supply and suppressing the potential of coke formation at low
H
2
O/MeOH ratio. However, the total oxidation of methanol tends to
dominant in this case. For the purpose of producing hydrogen-rich gas,
no oxygen addition is preferred. The favourable operation window is
obtained as 600

C, H
2
O/MeOH ratio =6.08.0 and O
2
/MeOH
ratio =0. Under this optimal condition, 2.772.84 mol/mol methanol
hydrogen yield and 0.130.17 mol/mol methanol carbon monoxide yield
with trace amount methane (0.00700.017 mol/mol methanol) can be
achieved without the risk of carbon deposition.
15 ENVIRONMENT
Pollution, health protection,
applications
13/00519 A study towards greener construction
Bassioni, G. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 132137.
The manufacture of cements with several main constituents is of
particular importance with regard to reducing climatically relevant CO
2
emissions in the cement industry. This ecological aspect is not the only
argument in favour of Portland composite cements; they are also viable
alternatives to Portland cement from the technical point of view.
Substitution of ordinary Portland cement (CEM I) by Portland
composite cements (CEM II) and (CEM III), which clearly possess
different chemical and mineralogical compositions, results in changes
of their reaction behaviour with additives like superplasticizers. A
common admixture to CEM I in that sense is limestone (industrial
CaCO
3
); its interaction with polycarboxylates is ignored and its
inertness is taken for granted. This study provides a systematic
approach in order to better understand the interaction of these
polymeric superplasticizers with CaCO
3
by adsorption and zeta
potential measurements. The results give some fundamental under-
standing in how far the cement industry can reduce the production of
cement clinker by replacing it with limestone as admixture and
consequently the CO
2
emission is reduced, which is of high political
and environmental interest.
13/00520 A sustainability assessment of electric vehicles
as a personal mobility system
Faria, R. et al. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012, 61, 1930.
This paper presents a study of the economic and environmental
balances for electric vehicles (EVs) versus internal combustion engine
vehicle (ICEV). The analyses were based on the well-to-wheel (WTW)
76 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
15 Environment (pollution, health protection, applications)
methodology, a specific type of life cycle assessment (LCA). WTW
balances were carried out taking into account different scenarios for
the primary energy supply and different vehicle technologies. The
primary energy supply includes non-renewable sources (fossil fuels and
nuclear) and renewable energy source (RES). Vehicle technologies
include battery electric vehicle (BEV), hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)
and plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV). The generation scenarios
considered in the study include the present European Union (EU)
average mix and a planned increasing contribution from RESs. For the
BEV, several real world driving cycle scenarios were investigated, using
a custom built data acquisition system, in order to characterize the
main factors that contribute to the overall energy consumption,
associated cost and emissions. In terms of environmental impact, for
the average EU electricity mix, BEVs have less than a half of the
emissions than an ICEV. However, the ownership costs during its life
cycle (about 10 years) are similar to an equivalent ICEV, despite the
lower operational costs for BEVs. The likely battery price reduction,
leading to a lower investment cost, will gradually tip the balance in
favour of EVs.
13/00521 An economic analysis of the packaging waste
recovery note system in the UK
Matsueda, N. and Nagase, Y. Resource and Energy Economics, 2012,
34, (4), 669679.
In order to cope with the increasing scarcity of final dump sites for
household wastes, the UK recently introduced an environmental policy
targeted at the firms that produce and sell products that generate
packaging wastes. This policy requires such businesses to hold
predetermined numbers of tradable credits called packaging waste
recovery notes (PRNs). This article provides insights into the
economic implications of such a policy through a simple analytical
model of a recyclable product and the PRN markets. This analysis
yields two particularly interesting results. First, an increase in the
required recycling rate dampens the output and landfill waste levels,
while the effect on the level of recycling activities is ambiguous.
Second, an increase in the landfill tax always leads to an increase in the
landfill waste. The authors also discuss how the socially optimal landfill
tax in the presence of the PRN market should be chosen.
13/00522 Analysis of injury events with fuzzy cognitive
maps
Bevilacqua, M. et al. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process
Industries, 2012, 25, (4), 677685.
Issues related to health and safety at work, such as accidents at work,
are one of the most important areas of action for global social policy.
This paper presents a fuzzy cognitive map (FCM) approach to explore
the importance of the relevant factors in industrial plants. For this
purpose, industrial plants are described in terms of factors that affect
injury risk and the causal relationships involved. In this work, the
injuries in an Italian refinery have been studied. The company in this
account has a system for monitoring and controlling the machinery but
has a large number of minor injuries at work. The causes of these
injuries have been found in human behaviours. To analyse the injuries,
it is necessary to investigate what individual-level concerns are involved
in the perception of risk. For this investigation, an FCM permits us to
build a schema of the perception of risk. The resulting analysis of all of
these schemas has allowed us to define a method that generically
permits a determination of the causes for each type of injury. In fact, it
has been possible to determine that factors such as poor attention and
concentration or fatigue are the main causes of injuries at work. In
light of the results obtained, managers can define appropriate control
procedures to diminish the occurrences of the injuries.
13/00523 Do technology externalities justify restrictions on
emission permit trading?
De Cian, E. and Tavoni, M. Resource and Energy Economics, 2012, 34,
(4), 624646.
International emission trading is an important flexibility mechanism,
but its use has been often restricted on the ground that access to
international carbon credits can undermine the domestic abatement
effort reducing the incentive to innovate and, eventually, lowering the
pace of climate policy-induced technological change. This paper
examines the economics that is behind these concerns by studying
how a cap to the trade of carbon offsets influences innovation,
technological change, and welfare. By using a standard game of
abatement and R&D, the authors investigate the main mechanisms
that shape these relationships. They also use a numerical integrated
assessment model that features environmental and technology extern-
alities to quantify how limits to the volume, the timing, and the regional
allocation of carbon offsets affect climate policy costs and the incentive
to invest in innovation and low-carbon technologies. Results indicate
that, for moderate caps on the amount tradable emissions permits and
sufficiently high technology spillovers, global innovation and technical
change would increase and that this additional innovative effort could
lead to economic efficiency gains. The numerical analysis confirms that
when constraints are close to 15% of domestic abatement, efficiency
losses are small because they are partly compensated by more
technological spillovers and lower energy prices. Under a broad range
of parameters, restrictions are costly for the constrained countries, but
always beneficial for unconstrained ones.
13/00524 Economic growth, industrialization, and the
environment
Cherniwchan, J. Resource and Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 442
467.
In this paper, the author argues that the compositional shift from
agricultural to industrial production industrialization is a central
determinant of changes in environmental quality as economies develop.
A simple two-sector model of neoclassical growth and the environment
in a small open economy is developed to examine how industrialization
affects the environment. The model is estimated using sulfur emissions
data for 157 countries over the period 19702000. The results show the
process of industrialization is a significant determinant of observed
changes in emissions: a 1% increase in industrys share of total output
is associated with an 11.8% increase in the level of emissions per
capita.
13/00525 Exhaust emissions control and engine
parameters optimization using artificial neural network
virtual sensors for a hydrogen-powered vehicle
Yap, W. K. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37,
(10), 87048715.
This paper presents an alternative tool for vehicle tuning applications
by incorporating the use of artificial neural network (ANN) virtual
sensors for a hydrogen-powered car. The objective of this study is to
optimize simple engine process parameters to regulate the exhaust
emissions. The engine process parameters (throttle position, lambda,
ignition advance and injection angle) and the exhaust emission
variables (CO, CO
2
, HC and NO
x
) form the basis of the virtual
sensors. Experimental data were first obtained through a comprehen-
sive experimental and tuning procedure for neural network training
and validation. The optimization layer-by-layer neural network was
used to construct two ANN virtual sensors; the engine and emissions
models. The performance and accuracy of the proposed virtual sensors
were found to be acceptable with the maximum predictive mean
relative errors of 0.65%. With its accurate predictive capability, the
virtual sensors were then employed and simulated as a measurement
tool for vehicle tuning and optimization. Simulation results showed
that the exhaust emissions can be regulated by optimizing simple
engine process parameters. This study presents an alternative tool for
vehicle tuning applications for a hydrogen-powered vehicle. In
addition, this work also provided a tool to better understand the
effects of various engine conditions on the exhaust emissions without
the need for any vehicle modifications.
13/00526 From ecodesign products guidelines to materials
guidelines for a sustainable product. Qualitative and
quantitative multicriteria environmental profile of a material
Allione, C. et al. Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 9099.
This paper deals with the development of MATto, a virtual and
physical library including more than 500 innovative material samples.
The most important feature of this material library is to provide a deep
analysis of the perceptual performances and eco-properties of the
materials in the database. As far as the material eco-properties are
concerned, a study has been carried out and it is aimed at developing a
list of ecodesign guidelines to help the material selection; those are
derived from the well-known eco-guidelines concept and should be
adopted to improve the product life cycle performances. The material
selection guidelines described here have been derived from three main
eco-strategies: use of resources with a low environmental impact,
materials life extension, and environmental ethics and policies. For
each material guideline, different quantitative and qualitative par-
ameters/eco-properties have been identified in order to define an
environmental multicriteria profile, to describe the material properties
and facilitate the choice of the most suitable materials for a green
product. The results collected so far in the process of defining the
environmental properties of the MATto materials are described in this
paper.
13/00527 Home energy consumption feedback: a user
survey
Bonino, D. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 47, 383393.
Buildings account for a relevant fraction of the energy consumed by a
country, up to 2040% of the yearly energy consumption. If only
electricity is considered, the fraction is even bigger, reaching around
73% of the total electricity consumption, equally divided into
residential and commercial dwellings. Building and home automation
have a potential to profoundly impact current and future buildings
energy efficiency by informing users about their current consumption
patterns, by suggesting more efficient behaviours, and by pro-actively
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 77
15 Environment (pollution, health protection, applications)
changing/modifying user actions for reducing the associated energy
wastes. This paper investigates the capability of an automated home to
automatically, and timely, inform users about energy consumption, by
harvesting opinions of residential inhabitants on energy feedback
interfaces. The authors report here the results of an on-line survey,
involving nearly 1000 participants, about feedback mechanisms
suggested by the research community, with the goal of understanding
what feedback is felt by home inhabitants easier to understand, more
likely to be used, and more effective in promoting behaviour changes.
Contextually, they also collect and distil users attitude towards in-
home energy displays and their preferred locations, gathering useful
insights on user-driven design of more effective in-home energy
displays.
13/00528 Impact of climate change on energy use in the
built environment in different climate zones a review
Li, D. W. H. et al. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 103112.
Studies on the impact of climate change on energy use in buildings in
the different parts of the world were reviewed. Potential mitigation and
adaptation measures were discussed and further research work
suggested. In severe cold climates reduction in heating requirement
would outweigh the modest increase in summer cooling. In the hot
summer and cold winter climate zones where both winter heating and
summer cooling requirements are important, the magnitude of
reduction in heating and the magnitude of increase in cooling could
be comparable. The most significant impact on energy use in the built
environment would occur in the hot summer and warm winter climates
where building energy use is dominated by cooling requirement.
Raising the summer set point temperature and reducing the lighting
load density would have great energy savings and hence mitigation
potential. Space heating is provided largely by oil- or gas-fired boiler
plants whereas space cooling mainly relies on electricity. This would
result in a shift towards more electrical demand and could have
important implications for the nationwide energy and environmental
policy for the built environment.
13/00529 Implementing the EU renewable target through
green certificate markets
Aune, F. R. et al. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 9921000.
The European Parliament has agreed on a target of a 20% share of
renewables in the European Unions (EU) total energy consumption by
2020. To achieve the target, the European Council has adopted
mandatory differentiated national targets for each of the member
states. This study considers the use of green certificates to reach the
renewable targets and analyses the potential for cost reductions by
allowing for trade in green certificates across member states. The
authors show that differentiated national targets cannot ensure a cost-
effective implementation of the overall target for the EUs renewable
energy consumption. Trade in green certificates can ensure a cost-
effective distribution of renewable energy production, but the national
targets prevent a cost-effective distribution of energy consumption.
Nevertheless, this numerical model indicates that EU-wide trade in
green certificates may cut the EUs total cost of fulfilling the renewable
target by as much as 70% compared with a situation with no trade.
However, the design of green certificate markets may have a large
impact on the distribution of costs across countries.
13/00530 Is the value of an environmental public good
sensitive to the providing institution?
Remoundou, K. et al. Resource and Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (3),
381395.
This study examines whether stated preferences and willingness to pay
estimates, obtained in a choice experiment, are sensitive to the
institutional context in which the good under evaluation is provided.
Specifically, the authors examine the effects on valuation from
employing two different institutions, an authority under the supervision
of the national government and an authority under the supervision of
an international body, the European Commission, as responsible for
the design and implementation of a forest restoration project following
a split sample approach. It was found that coefficients of the utility
model and willingness to pay estimates for all attributes are not
statistically different between the two treatments. This is so despite the
significant differences in the trust levels reported for the two
institutions. The authors speculate that the results reflect the
significance of the environmental good to the citizens given its local
nature and the sheer size of the fire disaster.
13/00531 Modelling carbon emissions of UK dwellings
the Tarbase domestic model
Jenkins, D. P. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 596605.
As part of the Tarbase project, the Tarbase domestic model was
developed to assess the energy performance of dwellings and options
for carbon-saving refurbishments. While subject to the usual limits of
steady-state building models, the Tarbase model allows the estimation
to be tailored to a specific dwelling, with climate and internal activity
accounted for. A wider discussion of steady-state models is given, and
the application of the Tarbase model to a real case study of 100 homes
is described. The use of such models can be a valuable, and convenient,
way of quantifying the approximate performance of a range of
individual dwellings, leading the user to solutions for carbon-saving
improvements. However, allowing the model to capture the variation in
building specification is of great importance, as is the philosophy of
seeing the building as being a product of location, construction and
activity/operation.
13/00532 Reduction of test and maintenance human errors
by analyzing task characteristics and work conditions
Kim, J. and Park, J. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 2012, 58, 8999.
Human errors during test and maintenance activities had a significant
contribution to unplanned reactor trips of nuclear power plants.
Especially, four error modes including wrong object, omission, too
little, and wrong action appeared to be recurrently occurring over
decades for execution-based human errors. This paper introduces
human error analysis (HEA) procedures for a predictive analysis of
human error potentials when maintenance personnel perform test or
maintenance actions based on a work procedure or work plan. The
developed HEA procedures are based on the basic error characteristics
and performance shaping factors (PSFs) associated with specific error
modes, and each of the procedures is composed of three steps such as
analysis of basic error potential, evaluation of possible impacts on the
system, and identification of deficient work context or PSFs. The
procedures can be used effectively for identifying potential human
error modes leading to potential negative impacts such as unplanned
reactor trips or plant transients and analysing weak points of work
context while performing T&M works in normal operating conditions,
thereby the maintenance personnel can prepare for the identified
human errors and work context to prevent or reduce potential human
errors. A case study was illustrated in this paper.
13/00533 Simulated impact of future biofuel production on
water quality and water cycle dynamics in the Upper
Mississippi river basin
Wu, M. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 41, 4456.
This study examined the impacts of increased biofuel feedstock
production on regional water resource and water quality. It focused
on the Upper Mississippi river basin, from which a majority of US
biofuel is produced at present. The production of biofuel from both
conventional feedstock and cellulosic feedstock will potentially
increase in the near future, and a significant portion of the cellulosic
feedstock is expected to come from this region. This work developed
future scenarios of biofuel feedstock production in 2015 to assess the
potential water quality and quantity changes associated with an
increase in biofuel production through corn yield increase, harvesting
a fraction of corn stover, and converting land to perennial grass
(switchgrass). The estimates are accomplished by a watershed model
SWAT. Results project a slight increase in phosphorus loading and
decrease in nitrogen loading when corn yield is increased without
cellulosic feedstock production. Harvesting a fraction of corn stover
with improved management and efficient nitrogen use could lead to a
decrease in nitrogen loading (up to 10%) and phosphorus loading (2%)
when soil properties remain constant. Changes in sediment loadings
are relatively minor. Growing switchgrass reduces soil erosion
considerably and positively impacts nitrogen and phosphorus loadings
at the projected yield and fertilizer input while switching from pasture
to switchgrass would increase the water loss associated with evapo-
transpiration (1% of total precipitation), decrease base flow (2%), and
decrease the surface runoff flow to the basin. Major factors including
land use changes, feedstock types, fertilizer inputs, crop yield, and soil
properties were analysed for their direct and composite impacts.
13/00534 The effect of forest fuel harvesting on the fungal
diversity of clear-cuts
Toivanen, T. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 39, 8493.
The removal of logging residues and stumps from clear-cuts has
become a common forestry practice. Forest fuel harvesting decreases
the initially low volume of dead wood in managed forests, but the
biodiversity effects are poorly known. The effects of forest fuel
harvesting on decomposer fungi on clear-cut Norway spruce stands in
central Finland were studied. The number of occurrences and taxa of
polypores, saprotrophic agarics and pleurotoid agarics were deter-
mined on 10 forest fuel harvested and 10 control clear-cuts 45 years
after logging. In total, 148 fungal taxa were recorded. The total number
of taxa, the number of polypore occurrences, and the number of
polypore species within small area were lower at forest fuel harvested
sites. The effect on the number of saprotrophic agaric taxa became
obvious with increasing area. Most of the common polypore species
had fewer occurrences on forest fuel harvested sites while the common-
est agaric species increased due to forest fuel harvesting. Concerning
different dead wood types, there were fewer fungal species and
occurrences on stumps and fewer occurrences on logs on forest fuel
78 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
15 Environment (pollution, health protection, applications)
harvested sites. Most of the effects of forest fuel harvesting were
explained by the reduction in resource availability. It was concluded
that forest fuel harvesting, especially stump removal, has negative
effects on decomposer fungi and that there is a risk that populations of
certain species still thriving in managed forests will decline in the
future.
13/00535 The willingness to pay for mortality risk
reductions in Mongolia
Hoffmann, S. et al. Resource and Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 493
513.
This paper reports results from a stated preference survey designed to
estimate the willingness to pay for mortality risk reductions in
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. The survey includes both contemporaneous
and latent risk reductions of a magnitude typically achievable through
clean air policy. The study is one of a series of national studies
designed to provide comparable estimates around the world. One goal
of this series is to build a more solid bridge for benefits transfer
between developed and developing countries. The survey was con-
ducted in winter 2010. Estimates of willingness to pay passed external
and internal scope tests. Study results imply a value of statistical life of
approximately $500,000 (based on a purchasing power parity exchange
rate) for a contemporaneous 5-in-10,000 annual risk reduction.
13/00536 The yield response of the energy crops
switchgrass and reed canary grass to fertiliser applications
when grown on a low productivity sandy soil
Shield, I. F. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 42, 8696.
Two field experiments were conducted, one each with the energy
grasses switchgrass, Panicum virgatum L. and reed canary grass,
Phalaris arundinacea L., to determine the role of nutritional elements
in optimizing crop yield and associated effects on crop quality for
thermal energy conversion technologies. The two experiments were
adjacent and on low productivity sandy soils in southeast England.
This paper reports the crop yield effects during the years 20032005.
Nitrogen was added in 50 kg ha
1
increments from 0 to 250 kg ha
1
nitrogen. The potassium and sulfur treatments were applied in
combination with 50 and 150 kg ha
1
nitrogen. No yield increase was
detected, suggesting that the soil potassium and sulfur supply was
already sufficient. In reed canary grass a yield response was recorded
when 50 kg ha
1
nitrogen was applied. However, the greater statistical
power achieved by pooling the potassium and sulfur treatments at the
two rates of nitrogen showed that application of 150 kg ha
1
nitrogen
compared to 50 kg ha
1
nitrogen, to reed canary grass, increased crop
yield in each of the 3 years of the study, and by a maximum of
1.35 t ha
1
dry matter in 2004. The same comparison in switchgrass
showed a lesser response (0.7 t ha
1
dry matter) to 150 compared to
50 kg ha
1
nitrogen and in one year only (2003). Therefore, the data
generally show reed canary grass to be the more responsive crop to
nitrogen, but all data should be viewed in respect of the limitations to
yield imposed by site conditions. For both crops, yield peaked in either
late summer or early autumn and then declined overwinter, most
markedly in 20042005. Overall, mean crop yield at final harvest for
both crops, in late winter of each year, was low (<4 t ha
1
dry matter).
This was considered to be due to water stress. The sandy soils had a low
water holding capacity and the weather during 20032005 was generally
warmer and dryer than the long-term average for the site. Block 3 of
the reed canary grass experiment rooted into an area of finer textured
soil (at ca.1.5 m depth) and produced greater yields (5.45 cf. 3.25 and
3.01 t ha
1
dry matter) from blocks 1 and 2, respectively in 20042005.
The results clearly indicate that these genotypes of switchgrass and reed
canary grass may fail to give financially viable yields on inherently low
productivity sites, and that varieties specially selected for such con-
ditions will need to be bred for the industry if such areas are to be used.
CO
2
, NO
x
, SO
2
and particulate
emissions
13/00537 A novel CO
2
cryogenic liquefaction and
separation system
Xu, G. et al. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 522529.
In this paper, the phase transition characteristics of CO
2
and CO
2
/H
2
mixture are analysed, and ideas for improving the cryogenic separation
method are drawn. On this basis, a novel CO
2
cryogenic liquefaction
and separation system is put forward. In the novel system, two-stage
compression, two-stage refrigeration, two-stage separation, and suffi-
cient recovery of cryogenic energy are adopted. Two-stage compression
can increase the total pressure of gas mixture and liquefaction
temperature of CO
2
. Two-stage refrigeration and two-stage separation
can reduce the cryogenic energy demand and compression work in
subsequent steps. Sufficient recovery of the cryogenic energy can
reduce refrigeration duties. All these measures decrease the total
energy consumption. As a result, under a CO
2
recovery ratio of 90%,
the total energy consumption is only 0.395 MJ/kgCO
2
with over 99%
CO
2
purity. Further analysis indicates that the proposed CO
2
cryogenic
liquefaction and separation system is more suitable for separating
liquid CO
2
from gas mixtures with high CO
2
concentration, and that
the high initial pressure of the mixture presents better performance.
The proposed system can serve as a new approach to CO
2
removal with
low energy penalty.
13/00538 Analysis of regional difference on impact factors
of Chinas energy-related CO
2
emissions
Li, H. et al. Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 319326.
With the intensification of global warming, the issue of carbon
emissions causes more and more attention in recent years. In this
paper, Chinas 30 provincial-level administrative units are divided into
five emission regions according to the annual average value of
provincial CO
2
emissions per capita during 1990 and 2010. The
regional differences in impact factors on CO
2
emissions are discussed
using STIRPAT (stochastic impacts by regression on population,
affluence and technology) model. The results indicate that although
GDP (gross domestic product) per capita, industrial structure,
population, urbanization and technology level have different impacts
on CO
2
emissions in different emission regions, they are almost always
the main factors in all emission regions. In most emission regions,
urbanization and GDP per capita has a bigger impact on CO
2
emissions
than other factors. Improving technology level produces a small
reduction in CO
2
emissions in most emission regions, but it is still a
primary way for CO
2
reduction in China. It is noteworthy that
industrial structure is not the main factor and improving technology
level increases CO
2
emissions in high emission region. Different
measures should be adopted for CO
2
reductions according to local
conditions in different regions.
13/00539 Carbon dioxide capture from flue gases using
microalgae: engineering aspects and biorefinery concept
Pires, J. C. M. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012,
16, (5), 30433053.
Carbon dioxide (CO
2
) is one of the most important contributors for the
increase of the greenhouse effect. CO
2
concentrations are increasing in
the last decades mainly due to the increase of anthropogenic emissions.
To reduce the effects caused by this environmental problem, several
technologies were studied to capture CO
2
from large emission source
points: (i) absorption; (ii) adsorption; (iii) gas-separation membranes
and (iv) cryogenic distillation. The resulting streams with high CO
2
concentrations are transported and stored in geological formations.
However, these methodologies, known as carbon capture and storage
technologies, are considered as short-term solutions, as there are still
concerns about the environmental sustainability of these processes. A
promising technology is the biological capture of CO
2
using micro-
algae. These microorganisms can fix CO
2
using solar energy with
efficiency ten times greater than terrestrial plants. Moreover, the
capture process using microalgae has the following advantages:
(i) being an environmental sustainable method; (ii) using directly the
solar energy; and (iii) co-producing high added value materials based
on biomass, such as human food, animal feed mainly for aquaculture,
cosmetics, medical drugs, fertilizers, biomolecules for specific appli-
cations and biofuels. Approaches for making CO
2
fixation by micro-
algae economically competitive in comparison with CCS methodologies
are discussed, which includes the type of bioreactors, the key process
parameters, the gaseous effluents and wastewater treatment, the
harvesting methods and the products extracted by microalgal biomass.
13/00540 Correlation for thermal NO
x
formation in
compression ignition (CI) engine fuelled with diesel and
biodiesel
Saravanan, S. et al. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 401410.
This work attempts to develop a correlation to predict thermal NO
x
formation in compression ignition (CI) engine when fuelled with diesel
and biodiesel. Attention was focused on both the fuel properties
(cetane number, density) and engine design factors (bore, stroke,
compression ratio, fuel injection timing) while developing correlation,
ensuring that it is suitable for all CI engine fuels tested on both
constant and variable speed engines. It was observed that NO
x
emissions predicted through the correlation is comparable with those
of the measured ones. The general trend is observed to be the same for
both the predicted and measured NO
x
emission. At loads more than
25% of the rated load the difference is found to be within 10% while
the difference is slightly higher at loads less than 25%. It was also
observed that the error was in the range of 1020% at modified fuel
injection timings for all the three esters at standard injection timing.
This correlation yields comparatively accurate results for all the fuels at
loads greater than 25% of the rated load and at standard fuel injection
timing.
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 79
15 Environment (CO
2
, NO
x
, SO
2
and particulate emissions)
13/00541 Exergy analysis of a hydrogen fired combined
cycle with natural gas reforming and membrane assisted
shift reactors for CO
2
capture
Atsonios, K. et al. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012, 60, 196
203.
Hydrogen production from fossil fuels together with carbon capture
has been suggested as a means of providing a carbon free power. The
paper presents a comparative exergetic analysis performed on the
hydrogen production from natural gas with several combinations of
reactor systems: (a) oxy- or air-fired autothermal reforming with
subsequent water gas shift reactor and (b) membrane reactor assisted
with shift catalysts. The influence of reactor temperature and pressure
as well as operating parameter steam-to-carbon ratio, is also studied
exergetically. The results indicate optimal power plant configurations
with CO
2
capture, or hydrogen delivery for industrial applications.
13/00542 Experimental study on the effects of HP and
LP EGR in an automotive turbocharged diesel engine
Zamboni, G. and Capobianco, M. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 117128.
An experimental investigation was performed with a view to comparing
high and low pressure exhaust gas recirculation systems (HP and
LP EGR) fitted on an automotive turbocharged diesel engine, focusing
on analysing their influence on fuel consumption, pollutant emissions
and the combustion process. Following the development of a prototype
cooled LP EGR circuit, the main engine and turbocharger parameters
were measured in six part-load operating conditions related to the
European driving cycles. Different operating modes were considered,
from the simplest and most commonly investigated (without EGR, with
HP or LP EGR) to more complex schemes, namely the simultaneous
application of high and low pressure recirculation and the addition of
variable nozzle turbine (VNT) control. The extensive experimental
database made it possible to confirm literature concerning the
comparison of recirculating systems and the potential of LP EGR on
engine intake temperature and NO
x
reductions. New aspects were also
analysed, such as the balance of the high and low pressure EGR rate in
order to achieve maximum NO
x
reductions in simultaneous appli-
cations, the interactions between EGR circuit management and the
application of VNT control in order to improve the trade-off between
fuel consumption and NO
x
and soot emissions.
13/00543 Identifying critical supply chain paths that drive
changes in CO
2
emissions
Oshita, Y. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 10411050.
To address the problem of global warming, it is important to identify
the supply chain paths that drive changes in life cycle CO
2
emissions
and provide both policy makers and decision makers with the
information on the critical paths in order to efficiently reduce the
CO
2
emissions. This paper extracts and analyses the factors and key
supply chains involved in changes in CO
2
emissions associated with
Japans overall demand from 1990 to 2000 using the structural path
decomposition (SPD) method applied to the 199019952000 linked
Japanese environmental inputoutput tables at the four-digit commod-
ity classification level. The results reveal that the volume of CO
2
emissions increased as a result of changes in the input structure of the
electricity of the services sector, such as electricity amusement and
recreation facilities household demand, electricity retail trade
household demand and electricity public administration (local)
local government demand, indicating increasing dependence of
services on energy input. The author also finds that the final demand
shift changed CO
2
emissions, for example the rise in demand for
integrated circuits in exports has contributed to increasing CO
2
emissions generated from electricity, the fall in demand for frozen
fish and shellfish in household demand has contributed to decreasing
CO
2
emissions from marine fisheries.
13/00544 NO
x
and SO
2
emissions from municipal solid
waste (MSW) combustion in CO
2
/O
2
atmosphere
Tang, Y. et al. Energy, 2012, 40, (1), 300306.
The NO
x
and SO
2
emissions from MSW combustion in CO
2
/O
2
atmosphere were studied using a lab-scale electrically heated tube
furnace. The shape, peaks location, and peaks values of NO
x
concentration curves all changed with temperature. In comparison,
regarding these three characteristics of SO
2
concentration curves, only
peaks values were affected by temperature. The shape and peaks
location of NO
x
and SO
2
concentration curves changed with
atmosphere indistinctively, but their peaks values, maximal average
emissions, and the corresponding temperature were affected by
atmosphere. Replacement of N
2
by CO
2
reduced NO
x
emission when
the temperature was higher than or equal to 800

C, but reduced SO
2
emission when the temperature was lower than 1000

C. At 1000

C,
some improvement measures, such as adding appropriate sorbents,
were required in 80CO
2
/20O
2
to achieve removal characteristics of SO
2
and NO
x
simultaneously. The maximal desulfurization efficiency of
CaO in 80CO
2
/20O
2
atmosphere (34.4% at 800

C) or limestone in
80N
2
/20O
2
atmosphere (23.4% at 900

C) was lower than that of

limestone in 80CO
2
/20O
2
atmosphere (43.3% at 1000

C), indicating
that direct sulfation in 80CO
2
/20O
2
atmosphere was favourable for
high desulfurization degree and consequently enabled better sorbent
utilization. Besides, to obtain higher desulfurization efficiency at high
temperature, Ca/S ratio should be increased.
13/00545 Returns to scale, damages to scale, marginal rate
of transformation and rate of substitution in DEA
environmental assessment
Sueyoshi, T. and Goto, M. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 905917.
This study discusses a new use of DEA (data envelopment analysis)
environmental assessment to measure MRT (marginal rate of
transformation) and RS (rate of substitution) between desirable and
undesirable outputs. To discuss MRT and RS, this study first examines
a concept of disposability from the perspective of corporate strategies
to adapt a regulation change on undesirable outputs. The concept of
disposability is separated into natural and managerial disposability.
Then, this study explores the computational framework of RTS
(returns to scale) and DTS (damages to scale). The type of RTS is
measured within the natural disposability, while the type of DTS is
measured within the managerial disposability. Considering the two
types of disposability, this study discusses MRT and RS between
desirable and undesirable outputs. As an illustrative example, this
study applies the proposed approach to evaluate the performance of
US coal-fired power plants. This study finds that the regulation policy
on NO
x
and SO
2
has been effective on their emission controls under
US Clean Air Act (CAA). The regulation on CO
2
, or a major source of
the global warming and climate change, is still insufficient in the USA.
Therefore, this study recommends that US federal and local govern-
ments should regulate the amount of CO
2
emission under the CAA.
13/00546 The outlook for improved carbon capture
technology
Rubin, E. S. et al. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 2012, 38,
(5), 630671.
Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is widely seen as a critical
technology for reducing atmospheric emissions of carbon dioxide
(CO
2
) from power plants and other large industrial facilities, which are
major sources of greenhouse gas emissions linked to global climate
change. However, the high cost and energy requirements of current
CO
2
capture processes are major barriers to their use. This paper
assessed the outlook for improved, lower-cost technologies for each of
the three major approaches to CO
2
capture, namely, post-combustion,
pre-combustion and oxy-combustion capture. The advantages and
limitations of each of method were discussed, along with the current
status of projects and processes at various stages in the development
cycle. A variety of roadmaps developed by governmental and private-
sector organizations were then reviewed to project the commercial roll-
out and deployment of advanced capture technologies. For perspective,
recent experience with R&D programs to develop lower-cost technol-
ogies for SO
2
and NO
x
capture at coal-fired power plants were also
reviewed. For a perspective on projected cost reductions for CO
2
capture, past experience in cost trends for SO
2
and NO
x
capture
systems were further reviewed. The key insight for improved carbon
capture technology is that achieving significant cost reductions will
require not only a vigorous and sustained level of research and
development (R&D), but also a substantial level of commercial
deployment, which, in turn, requires a significant market for CO
2
capture technologies. At present such a market does not yet exist.
While various incentive programs can accelerate the development and
deployment of improved CO
2
capture systems, government actions that
significantly limit CO
2
emissions to the atmosphere ultimately are
needed to realize substantial and sustained reductions in the future cost
of CO
2
capture.
Hydrocarbon emissions
13/00547 Formation of PAH and soot during acetylene
pyrolysis at different gas residence times and reaction
temperatures
Sanchez, N. E. et al. Energy, 2012, 43, (1), 3036.
The formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and soot
from the pyrolysis of acetylene was studied, taking into account the
influence of the operating conditions, such as gas residence time and
temperature. The influence of gas residence time was considered
between 1.28 and 3.88 s for the experiments carried out under different
temperatures from 1073 to 1223 K. The total PAH was calculated as the
addition of PAH concentration found in different locations, namely
adsorbed on soot and on the reactor walls, and at the outlet gas stream.
The relationship between the PAH concentrations and their carcino-
genic equivalence sum (KE) was also evaluated. The results obtained
80 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
15 Environment (hydrocarbon emissions)
showed that temperature and residence time have a high influence on
pyrolysis products, especially on the PAH concentration adsorbed on
soot, which exhibited the highest KE in all cases studied.
13/00548 Source apportionment of elevated PAH
concentrations in sediments near deep marine outfalls in
Esquimalt and Victoria, BC, Canada: is coal from an 1891
shipwreck the source?
Yunker, M. B. et al. Organic Geochemistry, 2012, 46, 1237.
Previous studies have suggested that coal from the 1891 shipwreck of a
collier off Victoria, BC, Canada is responsible for elevated parent
(unsubstituted) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) concen-
trations in sediments near deep marine outfalls from Esquimalt and
Victoria in the Strait of Juan de Fuca. To resolve this question, the
authors analysed a comprehensive suite of resolved and unresolved
complex mixture (UCM) alkanes, tricyclic terpane, hopane and sterane
biomarkers, and parent and alkyl polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs) in samples of coal, wastewater and sediments. Composition
patterns, principal components analysis (PCA) models and PAH and
biomarker ratios all indicate that coal from the collier does not make a
dominant contribution to any sediment sample. Mass balance
calculations based on the n-C
24
content and 24/4 tetracyclic terpane
to 26/3R tricyclic terpane ratio in coal provide a particularly good
match between predicted and observed alkyl PAH concentrations for
sediments with high alkyl naphthalenes and phenanthrene/anthracenes
and low UCM, but the predicted coal contribution substantially
underestimates the measured parent PAHs for all sediment samples.
Methylbenz[a]anthracene/chrysene profiles for sediments with a
dominance of parent PAHs are very close to coal tar, with a marked
predominance of methylbenz[a]anthracenes and the possible 10-
methylbenz[a]anthracene as a major constituent, while the methylchry-
senes predominate in coal. Hence, coal from the collier could account
for most alkyl PAHs in the sediments, but dredged sediment containing
pyrolysed coal waste from a former coal gas plant in Victoria Harbour
is a more likely source for the samples with elevated parent PAHs.
PAH ratios indicate that these sources are superimposed on combus-
tion PAHs introduced by a combination of atmospheric deposition and
delivery via stormwater and the outfalls. Parent PAH distributions also
suggest that PAHs in wastewater that originate from oils and soot in
liquid fossil fuel combustion are dispersed and degraded, while the
larger wood char particles (containing PAHs more protected from
degradation) settle closer to the outfalls. Overall, results suggest that
PAHs have predominant sources in wood combustion, coal and
possibly coke, with a likelihood of much lower bioavailability than
would be expected from wastewater dominated by oils and soot from
vehicle combustion.
13/00549 Sources and mitigation of methane emissions by
sectors: a critical review
Karakurt, I. et al. Renewable Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 4048.
Global warming is considered as one of the most important
environmental problems. Increasing use of fossil fuels and destruction
of forests cause a significant increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas
emissions leading to global warming. Among these gases, methane is
responsible for approximately 16% of the greenhouse effect. As a
result of this study, it was disclosed that agriculture and energy sector
are the biggest sources of anthropogenic methane emissions. These are
responsible for 50.63% and 28.65% of the emissions, respectively.
Waste and industry sectors follow these emissions. Due to the increase
in population and living standards, and growth in energy consumption,
methane emissions have increased recently and are estimated to
increase in near future. Many technologies and practices presented in
the paper can be considered to reduce methane emissions from all
sectors.
Life cycle analysis
13/00550 A life cycle assessment of biodiesel production
from winter rape grown in southern Europe
Gasol, C. M. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 40, 7181.
This paper analyses the viability of Brassica napus as an energy crop
cultivated for producing biodiesel in southern Europe. The proposed
methodology assessment combines physical variables such as grain
production and agroclimate conditions with environmental analysis
(LCA) in order to determine the Mediterranean agroclimates areas
that could be cultivated for non-food purposes. The results obtained in
a local production and distribution scenario (25 km) demonstrate that
the biodiesel systems analysed have a better energy balance than diesel.
Biodiesel obtained a net energy benefit of 16.25 MJ kg
1
of biodiesel or
35.10 MJ kg
1
of biodiesel when the avoided impacts from coproducts
(glycerine and rapemeal) are considered in comparison with conven-
tional diesel. In terms of environmental performance, the biodiesel
system also has less impact compared with diesel in three categories
abiotic depletion (AD), photochemical oxidation (PO) and global
warming potential (GWP). The estimated impact reduction in the
GWP category when is compared with diesel reached a minimum of
1.76 kg CO
2
eq. per kg of biodiesel when emissions of the use phase are
included. The paper also demonstrates that agroclimates called e, b
and d that ensure grain productions higher than 2000 kg ha
1
the
biodiesel commercialization from B. napus energy crop is suitable in
environmental terms for an energy local and regional production and
distribution strategy.
13/00551 Comparative life cycle assessment of ethanol
production from fast-growing wood crops (black locust,
eucalyptus and poplar)
Gonzalez-Garc a, S. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 39, 378388.
A life cycle assessment (LCA) study was carried out to evaluate the
environmental implications of the production and use of ethanol from
three fast-growing wood crops: eucalyptus, black locust and poplar in
flexi-fuel vehicles. The production of a blend rich in ethanol: E85 (85%
ethanol and 15% gasoline by volume) was assessed and the results
compared with those of conventional gasoline (CG) in an equivalent
car. The following environmental categories were evaluated: fossil fuels
use (FF), global warming potential over 100 years (GWP
100
), photo-
chemical oxidant creation potential (POCP), acidification potential
(AP) and eutrophication potential (EP). The use of ethanol derived
from black locust was found to be the option with the lowest impact in
most categories with reductions of 97%, 42%, 41% and 76% for
GWP
100
, AP, EP and FF respectively in comparison with CG.
Concerning the production stage of ethanol (excluding the stages of
blending and use), black locust has the lowest environmental impacts
due to the low levels of agricultural inputs during its cultivation. The
poplar scenario has higher impacts in AP and EP due to the emission
of diffuse substances from fertilizer application and the eucalyptus
scenario in GWP
100
, POCP and FF due to the use and requirements of
heavy machinery during harvesting. The use of the LCA methodology
has helped to identify the key areas in the life cycle of ethanol. Special
attention should be paid to ethanol production related activities and
forest activities oriented to the feedstock production.
13/00552 Domestic heat pumps: life cycle environmental
impacts and potential implications for the UK
Greening, B. and Azapagic, A. Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 205217.
This paper presents the results of a life cycle assessment of domestic
heat pumps in the UK in comparison with gas boilers. The study
considers air (ASHP), ground (GSHP) and water (WSHP) source heat
pumps. The results show that heat pumps have higher environmental
impacts than gas boilers due to the use of electricity. On average, the
impacts for the ASHP are 82% higher than from the boiler and 73% for
the GSHP and WSHP. The exception to this are the global warming,
fossil resource depletion and summer smog impacts which are lower for
the pumps than the boilers. For example, up to 36% of CO
2
eq. can be
saved with the WSHP and 6% with the ASHP in comparison with the
boiler. Among the heat pumps considered, ASHP have the highest
impacts due to lower efficiencies and higher material requirements for
the system. The GSHP and WSHP have comparable impacts, with the
latter being marginally better. The life cycle impacts of heat pumps may
improve if the UK electricity mix is sufficiently decarbonized; however,
they will still remain higher than for the gas boiler. Overall, their
potential to contribute to the UK climate change targets is limited.
13/00553 End-user experiences in nearly zero-energy
houses
Mlecnik, E. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 49, 471478.
High end-user satisfaction levels are key for the acceptance of nearly
zero-energy housing. Post-occupancy evaluation research on highly
energy-efficient dwellings can lead to recommendations which will
influence their performance in the expected future large volume
market of such houses. This study analysed mainly German, Austrian
and Swiss post-occupancy evaluation research results on nearly zero-
energy dwellings and undertook a survey of occupants of nearly zero-
energy houses in the Netherlands. The study determined how various
comfort parameters (such as winter thermal comfort, summer thermal
comfort, indoor air quality and acoustics), information provision and
control parameters are related to positive or negative end-user
appraisal, finding that summer comfort design and the quality of
and information about heating and ventilation systems are critical
factors which must be addressed to improve user satisfaction in nearly
zero-energy dwellings.
13/00554 Environmental impacts of the UK residential
sector: life cycle assessment of houses
Cuellar-Franca, R. M. and Azapagic, A. Building and Environment,
2012, 54, 8699.
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 81
15 Environment (life cycle analysis)
This paper presents for the first time the results of a full life cycle
assessment study for the three most common types of house in the UK:
detached, semi-detached and terraced. All life cycle stages are
considered, including house construction, use and demolition after
50 years. The results indicate that the use stage has the largest
contribution to most environmental impacts. For example, the global
warming potential (GWP) over the 50-year lifetime of the detached
house is 455 t of CO
2
eq.; 374 t CO
2
eq. of the semi-detached; and 309 t
CO
2
eq. of the terraced house. Around 90% of the GWP is from the
use, 9% from construction (embodied carbon) and 1% from the end-
of-life waste management. A similar trend is noticed for all other
impacts. Recycling the building materials at the end of life leads to an
overall reduction of the impacts. For instance, the GWP reduces by 3%
for the detached and semi-detached houses (to 441 t of CO
2
eq. and
363 t CO
2
eq., respectively) and by 2% (to 302 t CO
2
eq.) for the
terraced house. The main environmental benefit is from reusing the
bricks and recycling the aggregates. At the housing sector level, the
total GWP is 132 million tonnes of CO
2
eq. per year with the semi-
detached houses contributing 40%, terraced 37% and detached houses
27%. Over the 50-year lifetime, the total GWP from the sector is nearly
6.6 billion tonnes of CO
2
eq. The results also highlight the importance
of decisions made in the design and construction stages as they
determine the impacts of the house in the use and end-of-life stages.
13/00555 Evaluation of environmental impacts of cellulosic
ethanol using life cycle assessment with technological
advances over time
Pawelzik, P. F. and Zhang, Q. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 40, 162
173.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) has been used in quantifying the
environmental impacts of materials, processes, products, or systems
across their entire lifespan from creation to disposal. To evaluate the
environmental impact of advancing technology, life cycle assessment
with technological advances over time (LCA-TAT) incorporates
technology improvements within the traditional LCA framework. In
this paper, the LCA-TAT is applied to quantify the environmental
impacts of ethanol production using cellulosic biomass as a feedstock
through the simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF)
process as it improves over time. The data for the SSCF process are
taken from the Aspen Plus
1
simulation developed by the National
Renewable Energy Lab (NREL). The environmental fate and risk
assessment tool (EFRAT) is used to calculate the fugitive emissions
and SimaPro 7.1 software is used to quantify the environmental impacts
of processes. The impact indicators of the processes are calculated
using the Eco-indicator 95 method; impact categories analysed include
ozone layer depletion, heavy metals, carcinogens, summer smog, winter
smog, pesticides, greenhouse effect, acidification and eutrophication.
Based on the LCA-TAT results, it is found that removal of the
continuous ion-exchange step within the pretreatment area increases
the environmental impact of the process. The main contributor to the
increase in the environmental impact of the process is the heavy metal
indicator. In addition, a sensitivity analysis is performed to identify
major inputs and outputs that affect environmental impacts of the
overall process. Based on this analysis it is observed that an increase in
waste production and acid use have the greatest effect on the
environmental impacts of the SSCF process. Comparing economic
analysis with projected technological advances performed by NREL,
the improvement in environmental impact was not matched by a
concomitant improvement in economic performance. In order to
implement technologies which are environmentally sustainable, it is
critical to perform LCA for future technological advances.
13/00556 Exergetic life cycle assessment of a hydrogen
production process
Ozbilen, A. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37,
(7), 56655675.
Exergetic life cycle assessment (ExLCA) is applied with life cycle
assessment (LCA) to a hydrogen production process. This comparative
environmental study examines a nuclear-based hydrogen production
via thermochemical water splitting using a copperchlorine cycle. LCA,
which is an analytical tool to identify, quantify and decrease the overall
environmental impact of a system or a product, is extended to ExLCA.
Exergy efficiencies and air pollution emissions are evaluated for all
process steps, including the uranium processing, nuclear and hydrogen
production plants. LCA results are presented in four categories:
acidification potential, eutrophication potential, global warming
potential and ozone depletion potential. A parametric study is
performed for various plant lifetimes. The ExLCA results indicate
that the greatest irreversibility is caused by uranium processing. The
primary contributor of the life cycle irreversibility of the nuclear-based
hydrogen production process is fuel (uranium) processing, for which
the exergy efficiency is 26.7% and the exergy destruction is 2916.3 MJ.
The lowest global warming potential per megajoule exergy of hydrogen
is 5.65 g CO
2
-eq achieved a plant capacity of 125,000 kg H
2
/day. The
corresponding value for a plant capacity of 62,500 kg H
2
/day is 5.75 g
CO
2
-eq.
13/00557 LCA of a solar heating and cooling system
equipped with a small waterammonia absorption chiller
Beccali, M. et al. Solar Energy, 2012, 86, (5), 14911503.
In this paper, the life cycle assessment methodology was applied to
assess resource use and other environmental burdens related to the
entire life-cycle steps of a solar cooling plant. The investigated system
works with an absorption chiller assisted by a solar plant. Two back-up
configurations (hot back-up and cold back-up) were examined in two
localities: Palermo (southern Italy) and Zurich (Switzerland). The
benefits in terms of primary energy savings and greenhouse gases
emission reduction were demonstrated by comparing the use of this
innovative plant in substitution of a conventional one. Energy and
CO
2eq
emission payback times and the energy return ratio of the system
were calculated. For all the analysed configurations they ranged from
4 to 6 years. A sensitivity analysis related to the calculation of the
energy payback time was carried out to assess the influence of various
system performance parameters on the payback index. The analysis
stressed the following. (1) The LCA of renewable energy technologies
has to include a detailed analysis of the use phase to assess the benefits
that arise from the energy produced by the system during its useful life
and to obtain reliable and high-quality LCA results. (2) The use phase
is responsible of about 7090% of the energetic and environmental
impacts of the plant life cycle. (3) The innovative plant has a lower
environmental impact than the conventional plant. (4) The advantages
of renewable energy technologies strongly depend on the climate of the
installation site.
13/00558 LCA of low-energy flats using the Eco-indicator
99 method: impact of insulation materials
Audenaert, A. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 47, 6873.
Sustainable housing is receiving increasing attention by policy makers,
architects, consumers and scholars. This study aims at enhancing
knowledge on the environmental impact of sustainable houses by
performing a life cycle assessment on a single case study. The case
study is performed on a single low-energy building containing 19 flats
using the Eco-indicator99 method. The results indicate that the choice
of insulating materials has a significant impact on the eco-score of the
design. The materials production turns out to be by far the most
influential, which bears the consequence that architects and consumers
should focus on choosing the best materials in terms of eco-score
instead of focusing on an environmental-friendly design. Waste
recycling (if possible) has a lower eco-score compared to waste
disposal (dumping or burning).
13/00559 Life cycle assessment of transportation fuels
from biomass pyrolysis
Iribarren, D. et al. Fuel, 2012, 97, 812821.
This article evaluates the environmental performance of a biofuel
production system based on the fast pyrolysis of short-rotation poplar
biomass using a life cycle assessment (LCA) approach. The system
includes a circulating fluidized bed reactor followed by bio-oil
upgrading through hydrotreating and hydrocracking to produce gaso-
line and diesel. The investigated system was selected on the basis of an
overview of available technologies for the production and upgrading of
fast pyrolysis bio-oil. Inventory data for the whole system were
collected and used in order to carry out the life cycle impact
assessment. Seven impact categories were evaluated: cumulative energy
demand, global warming, ozone layer depletion, photochemical oxidant
formation, land competition, acidification and eutrophication. Feed-
stock pre-treatment, pyrolysis and steam reforming for the production
of the hydrogen required for hydroprocessing were identified as the
subsystems with the highest contributions to the potential impacts.
Within these subsystems, natural gas production, electricity generation
and direct emissions to air were the main contributors. Special
attention should also be paid to the production of the lignocellulosic
biomass feedstock, especially to the associated land occupation and
fertilizer requirements.
13/00560 Life cycle assessment-based selection for a
sustainable lightweight body-in-white design
Mayyas, A. T. et al. Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 412425.
Nowadays life cycle tools, namely life cycle assessment (LCA), life cycle
costing (LCC) and life cycle optimization (LCO) are being used to
assess new vehicular structures from sustainability and design for the
environment perspectives. This manuscript implements a LCA-based
design approach to assess the performance of vehicular body-in-whites
(BIW) through its complete life cycle. The proposed LCA model will
aid in the early design stages (i.e. conceptual design stage) serving as
an eco-design decision-making support tool. This study provides a
complete life cycle assessment covering the extraction and the
processing of virgin materials, the manufacturing, the use and main-
82 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
15 Environment (life cycle analysis)
tenance stage, the end-of-life stage, in addition to the fuel extraction
and production stages. Traditional LCA studies do not usually consider
the latter stages which accounts for a significant portion of the energy
consumed and the generated CO
2
emissions. This study results show
that the material selection for vehicular applications is a sensitive
process not only to the vehicle lifetime (as expressed in travelled
miles), but also to the environmental burdens from the extraction stage
and recyclability efforts. Additionally, the proposed study shows the
effect of the different materials choices on the vehicle structure
functionality.
13/00561 Life cycle cost and sensitivity analysis of palm
biodiesel production
Ong, H. C. et al. Fuel, 2012, 98, 131139.
Increased biodiesel production is being proposed as one solution to the
need to ease the impact of increased demand for crude oil and to
reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. Despite this, biodiesel has yet to
reach its full commercial potential, especially in the developing
countries. Besides technical barriers, there are several non-technical
limiting factors which impede the development of biodiesel such as
feedstock price, production cost, fossil fuel price and taxation policy.
This study assesses these by undertaking a techno-economic and
sensitivity analysis of biodiesel production in Malaysia, the second
largest producer of crude palm oil feedstock. It was found that the life
cycle cost for a 50 ktons palm biodiesel production plant with an
operating period of 20 years is $665 million, yielding a payback period
of 3.52 years. The largest share is the feedstock cost which accounts for
79% of total production cost. Sensitivity analysis results indicate that
the variation in feedstock price will significantly affect the life cycle
cost for biodiesel production. One of the most important findings of
this study is that biodiesel price is compatible with diesel fuel when a
fiscal incentive and subsidy policy are implemented. For instance,
biodiesel price with subsidies of $0.10/l and $0.18/l is compatible and
lower than fossil diesel price at crude palm oil price of $1.05/kg or
below. As a conclusion, further research on technical as well as non-
technical limitations for biodiesel production is needed before
biodiesel can be fully utilized.
13/00562 Life cycle CO
2
assessment of concrete by
compressive strength on construction site in Korea
Park, J. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16, (5),
29402946.
As research on the reduction in the life cycle carbon dioxide (LCCO
2
)
emissions of buildings has become increasingly important, the devel-
opment of technologies that can quantitatively assess the LCCO
2
emissions of a building at the level of the construction materials is
essential. In addition, concrete of various compositions, such as high-
performance concrete mixed with fly ash and blast furnace slag and
eco-concrete, has become readily available and thus, a quantitative
evaluation of CO
2
basic units for these new materials is needed.
However, basic units for various types of concrete are not provided by
the national life cycle inventory database in Korea. Therefore,
thorough research on these materials has become an important
priority. In this study, a method to assess LCCO
2
emissions using the
compressive strength of concrete is proposed. Specifically, the
compressive strengths of various mixes of concrete that are employed
at construction sites in Korea were utilized to evaluate CO
2
emissions.
Comparisons according to the characteristics of each mixture were also
made. Approximately 560 concrete mix designs used at construction
sites were first classified according to the compressive strength,
admixture, and season. The concrete CO
2
emissions assessment
process was carried out for the concrete raw materials production
stage, the concrete raw materials transportation stage, and the concrete
production stage; quantitative assessment methods are proposed for
the CO
2
emissions at each stage. Based on the proposed assessment
methods, an evaluation of the concrete CO
2
emissions was conducted
and the obtained values were analysed.
13/00563 Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions and energy
analysis of prefabricated reusable building modules
Aye, L. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 47, 159168.
Prefabrication is one strategy considered to provide improved
environmental performance for building construction. However, there
is an absence of detailed scientific research or case studies dealing with
the potential environmental benefits of prefabrication, particularly the
embodied energy savings resulting from waste reduction and the
improved efficiency of material usage. This paper aims to quantify the
embodied energy of modular prefabricated steel and timber multi-
residential buildings in order to determine whether this form of
construction provides improved environmental performance over
conventional concrete construction methods. Furthermore this paper
assesses the potential benefits of reusability of materials, reducing the
space required for landfill and need for additional resource require-
ments. An eight-storey, 3943 m
2
multi-residential building was inves-
tigated. It was found that a steel-structured prefabricated system
resulted in reduced material consumption of up to 78% by mass
compared to conventional concrete construction. However, the
prefabricated steel building resulted in a significant increase (-50%)
in embodied energy compared to the concrete building. It was shown
that there was significant potential for the reuse of materials in the
prefabricated steel building, representing up to an 81% saving in
embodied energy and 51% materials saving by mass. This form of
construction has the potential to contribute significantly towards
improved environmental sustainability in the construction industry.
13/00564 Phytoremediation, a sustainable remediation
technology? II: economic assessment of CO
2
abatement
through the use of phytoremediation crops for renewable
energy production
Witters, N. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 39, 470477.
Phytoremediation could be a sustainable remediation alternative for
conventional remediation technologies. However, its implementation
on a commercial scale remains disappointing. To emphasize its
sustainability, this paper examines whether and how the potential
economic benefit of CO
2
abatement for different crops used for
phytoremediation or sustainable land management purposes could
promote phytotechnologies. This analysis is based on a case study in
the Campine region, where agricultural soils are contaminated with
mainly cadmium. Life cycle analysis is used to show for the most
relevant crops (willow (Salix spp), energy maize (Zea mays), and
rapeseed (Brassica napus)), that phytoremediation, used for renewable
energy production, could abate CO
2
. Converting this in economic
numbers through the marginal abatement cost of CO
2
(e 20 ton
1
) the
authors can investigate this in the economic analysis to compare
phytoremediation crops with each other, and phytoremediation with
conventional technologies. The external benefit of CO
2
abatement
when using phytoremediation crops for land management ranges
between e55 and e501 per hectare. The purpose of these calculations
is not to calculate a subsidy for phytoremediation. There is no reason
why one would prefer phytoremediation crops for renewable energy
production over normal biomass. Moreover, subsidies for renewable
energy already exist. However, these numbers could contribute to
making explicit the competitive advantage of phytoremediation
compared to conventional remediation technologies, and add to a
more sustainably funded decision on which crop should be grown on
contaminated land.
16 ENERGY
Supplies, policy, economics, forecasts
13/00565 A case study exploring regulated energy use
in domestic buildings using design-of-experiments
and multi-objective optimisation
Evins, R. et al. Building and Environment, 2012, 54, 126136.
The newly released standard assessment procedure (SAP) 2009
underpins all energy calculations for Building Regulations compliance
and Code for Sustainable Homes ratings for domestic buildings in the
UK. A newly-developed three-stage optimization framework is applied
to the outputs of SAP for a case study concerning a two-bed mid-level
flat. First, a comprehensive full-factorial design-of-experiments analy-
sis is performed to determine the significance of each input to the
outputs of SAP (carbon emissions, running costs and overheating risk).
This allows many of the inputs to be disregarded as non-significant.
Next a multi-objective optimization algorithm is applied to all
significant variables to simultaneously optimize regulated carbon
emissions versus capital and running costs, constrained by limits on
overheating and roof area. Finally a more detailed multi-objective
optimization using greater precision is conducted on all variables that
exhibit complex behaviour, i.e. which do not take a single value for all
optimum solutions. Information is obtained concerning parameter
significance and optimal parameter settings, which is presented as
graphical design guidance using the process of innovization. This will
assist engineers in achieving high-performing, cost-effective designs.
13/00566 Capital stock-labor-energy substitution and
production efficiency study for China
Su, X. et al. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 12081213.
This study estimates the elasticities of substitution for China from 1953
to 2006 by the two-level constant elasticity of substitution (CES)
production function with three factor inputs: capital stock, labour and
energy. A technological change rate and non-constant returns to scale
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 83
16 Energy (supplies, policy, economics, forecasts)
are under considered. All possible combinations and two other
subdivided periods are carried out respectively and their technological
change rates, elasticities of substitution and returns to scale are found.
This study also provides an analysis of production efficiency by using
marginal productivity of specific factor input according to the
estimated results and distinguishes the marginal productivities deriving
from the three different combinations. It suggests that the decision-
makers of China need to consider the effects of different factor inputs
on gross domestic product growth.
13/00567 Chinas primary energy demands in 2020:
predictions from an MPSORBF estimation model
Yu, S. et al. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012, 61, 5966.
In the present study, a mix-encoding particle swarm optimization and
radial basis function (MPSORBF) network-based energy demand
forecasting model is proposed and applied to forecast Chinas energy
consumption until 2020. The energy demand is analysed for the period
from 1980 to 2009 based on gross domestic product (GDP), population,
proportion of industry in GDP, urbanization rate and share of coal
energy. The results reveal that the proposed MPSORBF based model
has fewer hidden nodes and smaller estimated errors compared with
other ANN-based estimation models. The average annual growth of
Chinas energy demand will be 6.70%, 2.81% and 5.08% for the period
between 2010 and 2020 in three scenarios and could reach 6.25 billion,
4.16 billion, and 5.29 billion tons coal equivalent in 2020. Regardless of
future scenarios, Chinas energy efficiency in 2020 will increase by
more than 30% compared with 2009.
13/00568 District heating and cooling: review of technology
and potential enhancements
Rezaie, B. and Rosen, M. A. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 210.
District energy systems are reviewed and possible future enhancements
involving expanded thermal networks are considered. Various defi-
nitions, classifications and applications of district cooling and heating
are discussed and elements of a district energy system are described.
Also, the integration of combined heat and power (CHP) with district
energy, permitting the cogeneration of electricity and heat, is examined
from several points of view and for various locations and applications.
One of the main advantages of district heating and cooling systems is
their environmental benefits, which are explained in detail. The
economics of a thermal network system, as a major factor in the
justification for any project, is elaborated on from industrial,
governmental and societal perspectives. Furthermore, related regu-
lations at government levels are suggested based on various investi-
gations. The efficiency of district energy is discussed and exergy
analysis, as an effective method for calculating the efficiency of a
thermal network, is explained. Finally, other advantages of the district
energy technology for communities are pointed out. This review of
district heating and cooling considers technical, economic and
environmental aspects and helps identify possibilities for future study
on district energy systems.
13/00569 Does a stricter enforcement policy protect the
environment? A political economy perspective
Cheng, C.-C. and Lai, Y.-B. Resource and Energy Economics, 2012, 34,
(4), 431441.
The conventional wisdom suggests that a stricter enforcement policy
can reduce pollution emissions. Nevertheless, this present paper argues
that this assertion does not necessarily hold if the stringency of
environmental regulation is subject to the influence of lobbying. A
stricter enforcement policy increases the polluters expected financial
burden, and induces them to exert greater political pressure on
reducing the stringency of environmental regulation, thereby resulting
in a larger amount of pollution emissions. It was also shown that
tightening the enforcement policy can reduce efficiency and highlight
the possibility of policymaking being misguided due to overlooking the
political effect of enforcement policy.
13/00570 Economic optimisation of a UK advanced biofuel
supply chain
Akgul, O. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 41, 5772.
There has been a growing interest in liquid biofuels during the recent
years due to concerns about security of energy supply and global
climate change. Targets have been set throughout the globe for
blending biofuels into conventional petroleum fuels. In this paper, an
optimization framework for the strategic design of a hybrid first/second
generation ethanol supply chain is presented. The model seeks to
address sustainability issues such as the use of food crops, land use
requirements of second generation crops and competition for biomass
with other sectors. The applicability of the model is demonstrated with
a case study of ethanol production in the UK. Different instances were
investigated for the years 2011 (3.4% by energy content) and 2020
(10% by energy content) based on the domestic and EU biofuel targets,
respectively. For 2011, first-generation as well as hybrid first/second-
generation technologies have been studied. The results indicate that
utilizing wheat straw can offer reductions in the overall supply chain
cost. The effect of opportunity cost of straw on the total supply chain
cost and optimal network configuration has also been analysed. As seen
from the results, opportunity cost can significantly affect the extent to
which straw is used for biofuel production as well as the amount of
wheat imported. On the other hand, in addition to straw, miscanthus
and SRC crops have been considered as potential feedstocks in
scenario 2020. The use of set-aside land for these two special energy
crops has also been taken into account. The results show that the use of
second-generation technologies can reduce the dependency on biomass
imports. From both scenarios, it is expected that the potential cost
reductions of second-generation biofuel systems according to the
learning curve approach are likely to lead to the deployment of these
technologies at a larger scale.
13/00571 Energy supply and use in a rural West African
village
Johnson, N. G. and Bryden, K. M. Energy, 2012, 43, (1), 283292.
Over three billion people live in the rural areas of low- and middle-
income countries. Often rural households have many unmet energy
needs, including cooking, lighting, heating, transportation, and tele-
communication. Designing solutions to meet these needs requires an
understanding of the human, natural, and engineered systems that
drive village energy dynamics. This paper presents the results of a novel
study of energy supply and use over a one-year period in an isolated
rural village of 770 people in Mali. Quantitative data and narrative
descriptions from this study portray village energy supply and use.
Annual village energy use is 6000 MJ cap
1
yr
1
. Domestic energy
needs account for 93% of village energy use. Wood is the primary
energy source and provides 94% of the village energy supply.
Approximately 98% of the wood is used for domestic consumption.
The uses of wood in the home are cooking (52.2%), heating water
(22.2%), space heating (19.1%), and other activities (6.5%). This paper
also reports variations in energy usage over the period of a year for a
broad range of domestic, artisan, transport and public energy uses.
13/00572 EU energy and climate change strategy
da Grac a Carvalho, M. Energy, 2012, 40, (1), 1922.
This paper will summarize the European Strategy for Energy and
Climate Change. In current international negotiations Europe has
proposed a 20% reduction in GHG (greenhouse gases) in the
developed countries by 2020 or 30% should there be an international
agreement in the domain. However it is important to define measures
to achieve the targets. One of the principal tools is to improve energy
efficiency under the energy efficiency action plan, which will help to
achieve a 20% energy saving by 2020. On the other hand, the amount of
energy from renewable sources consumed in Europe will have to rise
from its current level of 8.520% by 2020. These are ambitious but
achievable targets. Nonetheless, these can only be achieved through
strong investment in areas of the knowledge triangle which strengthens
research and innovation in the energy sector in Europe. The paper
covers European Energy and Climate Change Policy, the European
Strategic Energy Technology plan, the consequences of the Lisbon
Treaty, European and national road maps to a low-carbon economy,
the energy efficiency plan for 2011 and finishes with a brief
consideration of the EUs energy infrastructure priorities.
13/00573 Evaluating biomass energy strategies for a UK
eco-town with an MILP optimization model
Keirstead, J. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 39, 306316.
In recent years there has been a marked interest in the construction of
eco-towns. These are showcase developments intended to demonstrate
the best in ecologically-sensitive and energy-efficient construction. This
paper examines one such development in the UK and considers the
role of biomass energy systems. The authors present an integrated
resource modelling framework that identifies an optimized low-cost
energy supply system including the choice of conversion technologies,
fuel sources and distribution networks. The analysis shows that
strategies based on imported wood chips, rather than locally converted
forestry residues, burned in a mix of internal combustion engines and
organic Rankine cycles combined heat and power facilities offer the
most promise. While there are uncertainties surrounding the precise
environmental impacts of these solutions, it is clear that such biomass
systems can help eco-towns to meet their target of an 80% reduction in
greenhouse gas emissions.
13/00574 Exhaustible resources, technology choice and
industrialization of developing countries
Damsgaard, E. F. Resource and Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (3), 271
294.
How should the world economy adapt to the increased demand for
exhaustible resources from countries like China and India? To address
that issue, this paper presents a dynamic model of the world economy
with two technologies for production; a resource technology, which
uses an exhaustible resource as an input and an alternative technology,
84 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
16 Energy (supplies, policy, economics, forecasts)
which does not. The authors found that both the time path of resource
extraction and the adoption of the alternative technology depend on
the optimal allocation of capital across the technologies, and on the
size of the capital stock in relation to the resource stock. In particular,
if the capital stock is low, only the resource technology is used initially
and the alternative technology is adopted with a delay. Next, the model
was used to analyse the effects of industrialization of developing
countries on the extraction of oil and technology choice for energy
production. As a result of industrialization, the alternative technology
for energy production is adopted earlier.
13/00575 Fuel switching and climate and energy policies
in the European power generation sector: a generalized
Leontief model
Pettersson, F. et al. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 10641073.
The purpose of this paper is to analyse: (a) the role and the nature of
price-induced switching behaviour between fossil fuels (i.e. coal, oil,
and natural gas) in the western European power sector; as well as
(b) the fuel choice impacts of a number of public policies implemented
in this sector during the last 20 years. The analysis is conducted within a
Generalized Leontief cost function framework, and employs pooled
data across eight countries over the time period 19782004. The
authors present short-run own- and cross-price elasticities of fossil fuel
demand, and assess the impacts of a set of government policies
implemented over this time period. The empirical results show
evidence of notable short-run interfuel substitution between oil and
gas, and particularly in countries where fossil fuels are used extensively
for both base and peak load purposes. These findings support the
notion that ex post fossil fuel substitution takes place in dual- and
multi-fired plants, by switching load between different single-fuel fired
plants, as well as through the conversion of power plants to be able to
burn alternate fuels. The results also illustrate that different public
policies i.e. removal of coal subsidies, electricity market liberal-
ization, etc. have had profound impacts on fossil fuel choices and
have in particular favoured power generation gas use at the expense of
coal. Finally, the paper makes use of the empirical results to simulate
the fuel switching impacts of different carbon prices within the
European Emissions Trading Scheme.
13/00576 Implementation of biofuels in Malaysian
transportation sector towards sustainable development:
a case study of international cooperation between Malaysia
and Japan
Lim, S. and Lee, K. T. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
2012, 16, (4), 17901800.
Modern transportation nowadays has evolved into an important
economic activity for human civilization. Even though various
alternative energy solutions have been put forward to reduce the
dependency on fossil fuels, biofuels remain one of the few options
which are capable of replacing the roles of fossil fuels in transportation
sector without suffering from major economic losses. Malaysia with a
huge supply of palm oil for biofuels production is intended to
implement mandatory biodiesel blends in its transportation sector in
2011 in order to achieve its carbon reduction commitment towards a
more sustainable development. This implementation was originally
targeted to start in 2009 but had to be postponed due to several
obstacles such as expensive cost, lack of sufficient infrastructure and
low public demand. On the other hand, Japan is also trying to fulfil its
carbon reduction obligation as outlined under Kyoto Protocol with the
usage of biofuels to replace fossil fuels in the transportation sector.
However, it lacks sufficient biofuels supply to support its high
transportation energy demand. In this case study, the mutual
cooperation between Malaysia and Japan in the implementation of
biofuels in transportation sector will be studied and analysed in order
to overcome the challenges presented in both countries. It is hope to
ascertain potential cooperation opportunities amongst those two
countries to promote biofuels energy as Malaysia is rich in natural
resources while Japan has the relevant expertise and technology. It is
believed that the strengths from one country can help to cover for the
weaknesses from the other and vice versa via closer bilateral partner-
ship which will be extremely crucial when dealing with global energy
issues. Ultimately, it is hope that this case study will enable both
Malaysian and Japanese government to achieve their renewable energy
target in domestic transportation sector.
13/00577 Is energy intensity important for the productivity
growth of EET adopters?
Kounetas, K. et al. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 930941.
This paper mainly examines the role of energy intensity on the
productivity growth of energy efficient technologies (EET) adopters.
Given the importance of EET for sustainable development and the
technological diversity of EET adopters, this approach is aimed at
properly encompassing issues related to technological heterogeneity,
with energy consumption being such the most critical issue. Hence, the
authors employed a metafrontier-based methodology and the standard
decomposition of TFP into technological change, technical efficiency
change and scale efficiency change, while also examining the time-
varying aspect of EET adoption. The results with respect to Greek
firms established that energy intensity does not affect significantly the
total factor productivity (TFP) growth of EET adopters, thus implying
that policy measures encouraging EET adoption should not be more
beneficial for heavy energy consumers. Furthermore, the authors
derived expressions for the metafrontier:frontier ratio of TFP and its
components, which allowed them to investigate whether the observed
productivity growth is driven mostly by the restricted technology or the
metatechnology. Empirical findings suggest that TFP growth arises
mostly from the metatechnology (defined by the entire set of EET
adopters), thus illustrating broader knowledge spillovers among most
EET adopters, irrespective of their energy intensity. Moreover, the
authors implemented a second step of analysis in order to examine
firm-specific factors that moderate EETs impact on productivity; the
representative set of variables used essentially complemented the
aforementioned findings, while also linking them with related
literature. A mixed pattern of the EET adopters underlying knowledge
conditions, encapsulating their absorptive ability as well as their
potential for technological leadership, appears to be the main driver of
their TFP growth. Moreover, the economic dimensions tagging the
EET investment projects appear to be crucial for the EET adopters
TFP growth, whereas the corresponding environmental features of the
adopted technologies leave TFP growth unaffected. Along this line,
interesting issues of the type does the pollutant pay for pollution arise
once the role of capital subsidies on EET adoption rate and their
impact on the adopters TFP growth are considered. Hence, the
approach taken here allows for a thorough examination of productivity
issues related to EET by a methodological framework for examining
technological and time-based heterogeneity. Given the importance of
the topic, this approach could become valuable in other settings, e.g.
for measuring the impact of energy intensity in other countries (or
regions) or for disentangling different types of heterogeneity among
EET adopters.
13/00578 Japans energy supply: mid-to-long-term
scenario a proposal for a new energy supply system in the
aftermath of the March 11 earthquake
Onoue, K. et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2012, 37,
(10), 81238132.
After the Fukushima nuclear plant accident, Japan is facing an
unprecedented situation with its energy supply. This paper provides
an overview of Japans current energy landscape with descriptions of
the kinds and production of energy. Since it is inevitable that the use of
nuclear energy will decrease, a best mix of electric sources of the large-
scale and centralized network is proposed as well as the decentralized
network as an alternative. The hub for this proposal is regional power
centres (RPC) to control the electric supply as well as fuel transport-
ation and storage on an area-by-area basis. As technologies that will
realize this power centre, this paper also discusses fuel cells, hydrogen
production and storage and furthermore, the potential of CCS, which is
requisite technology for carbon dioxide emissions reduction.
13/00579 Learning rates and future cost curves for fossil
fuel energy systems with CO
2
capture: methodology and
case studies
Li, S. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 348356.
The broadly applicable equations for estimating learning rates of cost
variables in energy systems with CO
2
capture (CC) are formulated, in
which the effect of overall plant efficiency upgrade on learning rates is
reflected. Based on the equations, as a case study, the authors estimate
the learning rates, predict the future cost trend of IGCC power plants
with CC in China, and examine the effect of plant efficiency upgrade on
its future cost. It is revealed that the learning rates of the whole CC
plant are relevant not only to the learning rate of each subunit, but also
to its cost proportion and the overall plant efficiency upgrade. Results
from case study show that the learning rates of IGCC+CC in China
are in the range of 0.09640.2022 for unit investment, 0.07260.1489 for
COE, and 0.06360.1462 for cost of CO
2
avoidance (COA). When the
cumulative production reaches 100 GW, the investment for IGCC+CC
will decrease from the current level (approximately 2150 $/kW) to
around 7601350 $/kW, COE will decrease to 4668 $/MWh, and COA
will fall from 33.4 $/t to 1625 $/t. Sensitivity analysis indicates that
overall plant efficiency upgrade and the capacity at which learning
begins pose significant effects on cost reduction. Compared with
PC+CC, for gradual learning with a low learning rate, the unit
investment of IGCC+CC will be a little bit higher than that of
PC+CC in the future. For rapid and moderate learning, IGCC+CC
will be more expensive than PC+CC in the near term, while breakeven
points are observed with the cumulative experiences growing, indicat-
ing that IGCC+CC can economically perform better than PC+CC in
the medium and long term. The paper provides an approach to
estimate the learning rates of CC plants, and thus to project their
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 85
16 Energy (supplies, policy, economics, forecasts)
future cost curves, which will help to formulate the first clear-cut CCS
roadmap in China and to aid the identification of key CC technologies
that should be focused on.
13/00580 Long memory and disaggregated energy
consumption: evidence from fossils, coal and electricity
retail in the U.S.
Apergis, N. and Tsoumas, C. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 1082
1087.
In this paper, the long memory properties of disaggregated fossils, coal
and electricity retail consumption in the USA over the 19892009
period are examined. The presence of long memory is related to
autocorrelation persistence of each series. The results show that there
is heterogeneity in the order of integration between these types of
energy consumption and for the different sectors employed, which is
affected by the inclusion of a break event. The order of integration was
generally higher for the case of a break in the intercept than in the
slope, with the latter being more plausible for all series.
13/00581 Measuring buildings for sustainability:
comparing the initial and retrofit ecological footprint
of a century home the REEP house
Bin, G. and Parker, P. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 2432.
The residential sector is recognized as a major energy consumer and
thus a significant contributor to climate change. Rather than focus only
on current energy consumption and the associated emissions, there is a
need to broaden sustainability research to include full life cycle
contributions and impacts. This paper looks at houses from the
perspective of the ecological footprint, a well-known sustainability
indicator. Exemplifying single-detached houses of the early twentieth
century, the century-old REEP house (downtown Kitchener, Canada),
together with its high performance energy retrofits, is examined in
detail. This research combines material, energy and carbon emission
studies. Its scope covers the life cycle of the house, including the direct
and indirect consumption of material and energy, and concomitant
carbon emissions during its stages of material extraction, transpor-
tation, construction, operation, and demolition. It is revealed that the
REEP house had a typical impact on the environment when it was
built, and, even though the renovations to improve energy efficiency by
80% introduce additional embodied environmental impacts, they are
environmentally sound activities because the environmental payback
period is less than 2 years.
13/00582 Net modelling of energy mix among European
countries: a proposal for ruling new scenarios
Dassisti, M. and Carnimeo, L. Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 100111.
European energy policy pursues the objective of a sustainable,
competitive and secure supply of energy. In 2007, the European
Commission adopted an energy policy for Europe, which was
supported by several documents on different aspects of energy and
included an action plan to meet the major energy challenges Europe
has to face. A farsighted diversified yearly mix of energies was
suggested to countries, aiming at increasing security of supply and
efficiency, but a wide and contemporary view of energy interchanges
between states was not available. In a previous work by the authors,
energy import/export interchanges between European states were used
to develop a geographic overview at one-glance. In this paper, the
enhanced interchange energy network (EIEN) is investigated from a
modelling point of view, as a small-world net, by supposing that
connections can exist between states with a probability depending also
on economic/political relations between countries. Satisfactory results
have been found that suggest that this modelling technique allows the
interpretation of the evolution of the EIEN over the years, highlighting
some interesting behavioural features. The basic predictions coming
out from the proposed modelling technique, which may allow
comparisons with different real world networks, could be useful for a
further analysis of renewable energy flows, which would be interesting
to evaluate, as far as reliable statistical data are available. Electricity
trade has been growing with the increasing globalization and opening
of national economies. Thus, it is important to collect information
about trade, disaggregated by countries of origin and destination.
These statistics could also help in identifying potential transmission
congestion and could provide means for a more efficient operation of
an evolving international transmission grid.
13/00583 Practices and perceptions on the development of
forest bioenergy in China from participants in national
forestry training courses
Qu, M. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 40, 5362.
This study examines forest bioenergy related knowledge, perceptions,
attitudes, and behaviour among participants of national forestry
training course in China. The participants are forestry professionals
and are senior government officials in this area on a county level;
additionally all have been working in the forestry field for more than
10 years. Their perceptions and practices are worth examining as they
directly influence local and regional decision makers, and could affect
the adoption of forest bioenergy in the country. The purpose of this
study was to determine how well the professionals practices and future
preferences concerning the use of forest bioenergy fit together.
A thorough assessment was conducted using a questionnaire of 74
professionals in Xiamen and Hangzhou (China). The results revealed
that, first, their environmental behaviour can be classified as being a
low carbon lifestyle. Second, the professionals think that renewable
energy has potential for use in the future, but less potential for forest
bioenergy. Third, the professionals practices and future preferences
concerning the use of forest bioenergy do not appear coherent. Fourth,
the professionals feel that the development of forest bioenergy requires
increased cooperation between the government and enterprises with
respect to the different functions of the forest and its impact on the
ecosystem. Finally, the findings indicate that bioenergy related educa-
tion through different channels has to be improved. The findings create
a foundation for further discussions regarding the use of forest as a source
of renewable energy, as well as forest management in the country.
13/00584 Renewable energy policy in Turkey with the new
legal regulations
Tukenmez, M. and Demireli, E. Renewable Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 19.
Since the energy crises in the 1970s, public and private decision makers
are considering how to achieve a sustainable transition from fossil fuel
based energy to sustainable and clean energies namely renewable
energies. Combined with the improvement of energy efficiency and the
rational use of energy, renewable energy can provide everything fossil
fuels currently offer in terms of heating and cooling, electricity
generation and transportation. Renewable energy technologies possess
many long-term benefits including energy security, job creation,
business opportunities, sustainable development and prevention of
global warming. Turkeys population is growing at an annual rate of
1.04%. If Turkey uses only traditional energy sources, it simply will not
have enough energy capacity for its population. Renewable energy
sources have the potential to make a large contribution to Turkeys
sustainable and independent energy future. Turkey aims to utilize its
energy potential, including from renewable sources in a cost-effective
manner. Turkey targets the share of renewable resources in electricity
generation to be at least 30% by 2023 has in its 2009 electricity market
and security of supply strategy. Positive achievements have been
obtained in renewable energy development and manufacturing in
Turkey over the past decade. The renewable energy related legislation
has been intensified. To meet its 30% target, the current promotion
mechanism for renewable sources of electricity relies on feed-in tariffs
for different renewable energy sources. Large hydropower is already
competitive to conventional fossil-based electricity, so feed-in tariffs in
the new renewable energy law are set to facilitate expanding the
deployment of other, less mature renewable energy technologies.
13/00585 The clean development mechanism and low
carbon development: a panel data analysis
Huang, Y. and Barker, T. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (4), 10331040.
The clean development mechanism (CDM) of Kyoto Protocol,
designed for industrialized countries to earn emission credits by
investing in greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction projects in
developing countries, shall contribute to emission reductions and
sustainable development in the host countries. However, whether the
CDM is achieving its dual goals has been questionable. This research
empirically investigates the long-run impacts of CDM projects on CO
2
emission reductions for 80 eligible CDM host countries over 1993
2009. By allowing for considerable heterogeneity across countries, this
research provides evidence in support of a decline in CO
2
emissions
associated with CDM projects. It serves to encourage developing
countries to effectively develop CDM projects towards low carbon
development.
13/00586 The comprehensive nuclear promotion plan of the
Republic of Korea
Kim, Y.-M. and Chang, S. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 2012, 58, 5863.
Access to economic and sustainable energy is essential in every
country. The Republic of Korea (ROK) has insufficient supply of
energy resource. Accordingly, ROK has considered nuclear energy as
the main energy source since the oil crises of the 1970s. In 1994, ROK
declared the Direction to Long-term Nuclear Energy Policy towards
the Year 2030 and revised the Atomic Energy Act to promote the safe
and peaceful use of nuclear energy. According to this act, the
government made the comprehensive nuclear energy promotion plan
(CNEPP) for every 5 years since 1997. This CNEPP shall include the
analysis of current status and prospect, policy targets, implementation
tasks, plan to invest, and other matters for the nuclear utilization and
safety. National nuclear technology has advanced considerably by 1st
(19972001), 2nd (20022007), and 3rd CNEPP (20072011). Through
these previous plans, ROK designed its own nuclear reactor, the Korea
Standard Nuclear Power Plant (KSNP), and became the fifth nuclear
reactor exporter after the USA, France, Russia and Canada. ROK has
86 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
16 Energy (supplies, policy, economics, forecasts)
been preparing for the 4th CNEPP to advance further and to
harmonize with the long-term policy direction. In this study, the
detailed process of the establishment of the 4th CNEPP was analysed.
By the analysis of the domestic and international environmental
changes, the achievement of the 3rd CNEPP and the major issue of the
4th CNEPP were proposed. Six promotion areas were set in the 4th
CNEPP as nuclear utilization, sustainability, export/growth force,
radiation, safety/public acceptance and infra/international cooperation.
It will be discussed by various social, economic, political, cultural, and
technical professionals to harmonize with the national vision for the
future, short- and long-term plans. By doing this, it will help to improve
the nuclear safety, transparency, and effectiveness in the promotion of
national nuclear technology.
13/00587 The role of bioenergy in a fully sustainable global
energy system
Cornelissen, S. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 41, 2133.
This paper presents a detailed analysis of the supply potential and use
of biomass in the context of a transition to a fully renewable global
energy system by 2050. The authors investigate bioenergy potential
within a framework of technological choices and sustainability criteria,
including criteria on land use and food security, agricultural and
processing inputs, complementary fellings, residues and waste. The
potential for sustainable bioenergy from residues and waste, comp-
lementary fellings, energy crops and algae oil in 2050 is 340 EJ a
1
of
primary energy. This potential is then compared to the demand for
biomass-based energy in the demand scenario related to this study, the
Ecofys energy scenario. This scenario, after applying energy efficiency
and non-bioenergy renewable options, requires a significant contri-
bution of bioenergy to meet the remaining energy demand; 185 EJ a
1
of the 340 EJ a
1
potential supply. For land use for energy crops, the
authors found that a maximum of 2,500,000 km
2
is needed of a
6,730,000 km
2
sustainable potential. For greenhouse gas emissions
from bioenergy, a 7585% reduction can be achieved compared to
fossil references. The paper concludes that bioenergy can meet residual
demand in the Ecofys energy scenario sustainably with low associated
greenhouse gas emissions. It thus contributes to its achievement of a
95% renewable energy system globally by 2050.
13/00588 Transport energy demand forecast using
multi-level genetic programming
Forouzanfar, M. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 91, (1), 496503.
In this paper, a new multi-level genetic programming (MLGP)
approach is introduced for forecasting transport energy demand
(TED) in Iran. It is shown that the result obtained here has smaller
error compared with the result obtained using neural network or fuzzy
linear regression approach. The forecast uses historical energy data
from 1968 to 2002 and it is based on three parameters; gross domestic
product (GDP), population (POP), and the number of vehicles (VEH).
The approach taken in this paper is based on genetic programming
(GP) and the multi-level part of the name comes from the fact that GP
is used in two different levels. At the first level, GP is used to obtain the
time series model of the three parameters, GDP, POP, and VEH, and
forecast those parameters for the time interval that their actual data
are not available, and at the second level GP is used one more time to
forecast TED based on available data for TED along with the data that
are either available or predicted for the three parameters discussed
earlier. Actual data from 1968 to 2002 are used for training and the
data for years 20032005 are used to test the GP model, the study is
limited to these data ranges in to compare the results with the existing
ones in the literature. The estimation GP for the model is formulated
as a non-linear optimization problem and it is solved numerically.
13/00589 Using an energy flow chart to analyze Jiangsu
Provinces energy balance
Zhang, M. and Wang, W. Renewable Energy, 2012, 39, (1), 307312.
Since the start of economic reform in 1979, Jiangsu Province has
become one of the most developed regions in China. To ensure
adequate energy supply and sustainable development of economy and
environment, it is necessary to analyse Jiangsu Provinces energy
balance. The energy flow chart is taken as a useful tool for sorting out
and displaying energy statistics data. The purpose of this paper is to
draft the Jiangsu Provinces energy flow chart for 2009, which is used to
study the characteristics of energy production and consumption in
Jiangsu Province. It was found that: (1) in 2009, energy imported from
other regions accounted for 96.1% of the total primary energy supply.
However, its energy supply mainly came from coal. (2) Jiangsu thermal
power and heating efficiencies in 2009 were higher than those of
Guangdong and China in 2007. However, its coal processing and
petroleum refineries efficiencies in 2009 were lower than those of
Guangdong and China in 2007. (3) Electricity supply in Jiangsu
Province mainly depended on thermal power, which accounted for
88.97% of the total electricity supply. However, 96.36% fuel for
thermal power was coal. (4) The share of final energy consumption of
the secondary industrial sector was 81.28% in 2009.
13/00590 What drives the change in UK household energy
expenditure and associated CO
2
emissions? Implication and
forecast to 2020
Chitnis, M. and Hunt, L. C. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 202214.
Given the amount of direct and indirect CO
2
emissions attributable to
UK households, policy makers need a good understanding of the
structure of household energy expenditure and the impact of both
economic and non-economic factors when considering policies to
reduce future emissions. To help achieve this, the structural time series
model is used here to estimate UK transport and housing energy
expenditure equations for 19642009. This allows for the estimation of
a stochastic trend to measure the underlying energy expenditure trend
and hence capture the non-trivial impact of non-economic factors on
household transport and housing energy expenditure; as well as the
impact of the traditional economic factors of income and price. The
estimated equations are used to show that given current expectations,
CO
2
attributable to transport and housing expenditures will not fall
by 29% (or 40%) in 2020 compared to 1990, and is therefore not
consistent with the latest UK total CO
2
reduction target. Hence, the
message for policy makers is that in addition to economic incentives
such as taxes, which might be needed to help restrain future energy
expenditure, other policies that attempt to influence lifestyles and
behaviours also need to be considered.
13/00591 When will oil, natural gas, and coal peak?
Maggio, G. and Cacciola, G. Fuel, 2012, 98, 111123.
In this paper, a predictive model based on a variant of the multi-cyclic
Hubbert approach is applied to forecast future trend in world fossil
fuel production. Starting from historical data on oil (crude and NGL),
natural gas, and coal production, and taking into consideration three
possible scenarios for the global ultimate (i.e. cumulative production
plus remaining reserves plus undiscovered resources), this approach
allowed us to determine when these important energy sources should
peak and start to decline. In particular, considering the most likely
scenarios, estimated peak values were: 30 Gb/year in 2015 for oil,
132 Tcf/year in 2035 for natural gas, and 4.5 Gtoe/year in 2052 for coal.
A plateau is likely to occur in the case of natural gas, if the global
ultimate is high. A comparison of the multi-Hubbert variant approach
used in this paper with both the single-cycle Hubbert and the original
multi-cyclic Hubbert approach has also been carried out.
Energy conservation
13/00592 A linear programming approach to household
energy conservation: efficient allocation of budget
U

c tug, F. G. and Yukseltan, E. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 49, 200

208.
Linear programming method was used to optimize the allocation of
budget in order to maximize the energy savings of a hypothetical
household in Turkey. The energy conservation methods involved in this
study were installing photovoltaic solar cells, replacing regular windows
with double-glazed ones, replacing incandescent bulbs with compact
fluorescent light bulbs and replacing C-Energy Class household
appliances with A-Energy Class ones. The costs of these different
energy conservation methods were obtained from the manufacturers
or distributors websites. The annual energy savings of these methods
were either obtained from available sources or calculated when
necessary. The results showed that installing double-glazed windows
and purchasing compact fluorescent light bulbs are the proper choices
for low budgets. When budget increased, solar panel installation
emerged as the feasible choice. The findings indicated that replacing
household appliances should be considered only when a budget greater
than e20,000 is available. Payback periods were found to be less than
one and a half years, even at the highest budget. A budget decision of
e800 was found to be the optimum decision for short term investments,
whereas a budget decision of e24,000 was found to be the optimum
decision for long term investments.
13/00593 An approach for developing sensitive design
parameter guidelines to reduce the energy requirements of
low-rise apartment buildings
Yildiz, Y. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 337347.
High levels of energy consumption in residential buildings and global
warming are important issues. Thus the energy performance of
buildings should be improved in the early stages of design. This article
describes an approach for developing guidelines on sensitive and
robust design parameters for the present, the 2020s, the 2050s and the
2080s. Such guidelines can help architects to design low-rise apartment
buildings that require less energy for various purposes, such as heating
or cooling. The article consists of a general literature review, interviews
with architects, the generation of case-specific information and a mock-
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 87
16 Energy (energy conservation)
up presentation and a meeting with professionals. An example
guideline that aims to reduce annual cooling energy loads under
global warming in low-rise apartment buildings located in hot-humid
climates is presented to demonstrate how the proposed approach can
be applied. For this guideline, case-specific information was generated,
and a global sensitivity analysis based on Monte Carlo analysis and the
Latin hypercube sampling technique was performed. The results show
that the suggested approach is feasible and could be used to provide
helpful information to architects during the design of low-rise
apartment buildings with high energy performance. The most sensitive
design parameters that affect annual cooling energy loads in low-rise
apartment buildings were natural ventilation, window area, and the
solar heat-gain coefficient of the glazing. The results are relevant for
the present, the 2020s, the 2050s and the 2080s.
13/00594 Analysis and application of a novel
three-dimensional energy-saving and emission-reduction
dynamic evolution system
Fang, G. et al. Energy, 2012, 40, (1), 291299.
A novel three-dimensional energy-saving and emission-reduction
chaotic system is proposed, which has not yet been reported in present
literature. The system is established in accordance with the compli-
cated relationship between energy-saving and emission-reduction,
carbon emissions and economic growth. The dynamic behaviour of
the system is analysed by means of Lyapunov exponents and bifurcation
diagrams. With undetermined coefficient method, expressions of
homoclinic orbits of the system are obtained. The S

ilnikov theorem
guarantees that the system has Smale horseshoes and the horseshoes
chaos. Artificial neural network (ANN) is used to identify the
quantitative coefficients in the simulation models according to the
statistical data of China, and an empirical study of the real system is
carried out with the results in perfect agreement with actual situation.
It is found that the sooner and more perfect energy-saving and
emission-reduction is started, the easier and sooner the maximum of
the carbon emissions will be achieved so as to reduce carbon emissions
and energy intensity. Numerical simulations are presented to demon-
strate the results.
13/00595 Analysis of scenarios for the reduction of energy
consumption and GHG emissions in transport in the Basque
Country
Bueno, G. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16, (4),
19881998.
Fossil energy depletion and fight against climate change force
humanity to decarbonize the economy. By year 2050 CO
2
emissions
will have to reduce globally at least 85%, and probably over 95% in
developed countries. The modelling of the transportation of people
and commodities in the Basque Autonomous Community (Spain) in
year 2008 has allowed the authors to draw some conclusions about the
challenges ahead. The exploration of several scenarios modelled in
order to reduce energy consumption in transport shows that mobility in
a decarbonized world will have to be more efficient, electrified when
moving people and freight on land, based on renewable generation,
and organized in such a way that guarantees very high occupancies of
vehicles. All these elements will be indispensable, and even not
sufficient if they are still not complemented with a reduction of
mobility in absolute terms, so that economic transportation intensity
the ratio between transportation and whole economic activity
recovers to levels seen in the world four decades ago, prior to the
development of present hypermobility.
13/00596 Aspects of energy reduction by autogenous
copper production in the copper smelting plant Bor
Najdenov, I. et al. Energy, 2012, 43, (1), 376384.
This work presents a comparative analysis of the energy consumption
during copper production by the standard procedure (roasting in a
fluosolid reactor and smelting in a reverberatory furnace) in the
smelting plant in Bor with modern autogenous procedures. All forms of
expended energy were reduced to primary energy or to the same energy
form, i.e. to the energy equivalent of the process (EEP), the raw
material and the process materials. In addition, the energy equivalent
of the process and waste products (water vapour, thermal energy and
similar) were balanced. To complete the consumption of all energy
generating products in copper production, they were reduced to
conditional fuel (coal equivalent = 29.3 MJ/kg). Additionally, this
study suggests replacement of the existing technology by an appro-
priate autogenous procedure and considers the prospects for further
development of mining and metallurgy in Bor. Estimates of develop-
ment perspectives for copper production should be comprehensive,
based on complete and relevant data, as well as on real considerations
of future development in world production.
13/00597 Case study: energy savings for a deep-mine water
reticulation system
Vosloo, J. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 92, 328335.
In deep-level mining, water reticulation systems are one of the major
consumers of electricity. The refrigeration plants, together with the
underground water supply and dewatering systems are integrated to
form one complete water reticulation system. This integrated water
reticulation system extracts hot water from the mine, cools it down and
returns the cold water to the various underground mining levels. As
much as 42% of the total energy consumption on a typical deep-level
gold mine can be ascribed to the water reticulation system. Reducing
the overall water demand and therefore electricity costs will depend on
climatic conditions, operating strategy, water reservoir capacity, and
electricity tariff rates. In this paper, a method is presented to
determine the optimum water reticulation strategy for different
electricity tariffs. This model minimizes the total operating cost of
the water reticulation system by a trade-off between the cost involved
in providing effective pump control and the savings achieved under a
specified electricity tariff. A case study of a typical deep mining
operation shows that a reduction of 65% during peak demand and 2%
overall electricity reduction is possible by adopting this new control
strategy. The corresponding savings in operating cost is 13%.
Techniques were developed to integrate, simulate, optimize and
control all components of the water reticulation system. This will
allow for a quick assessment of the effect of individual components on
the complete system. By integrating all these components into a single
system, the operation of each component can be assessed and optimally
controlled without adversely affecting other operations of the system.
13/00598 Cost analysis for optimum thicknesses and
environmental impacts of different insulation materials
Ozel, M. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 49, 552559.
In this study, the optimum thickness of thermal insulation used to
reduce heat gain and losses in buildings is investigated under dynamic
thermal conditions by using the climatic conditions of Elazig, Turkey.
Numerical method based on an implicit finite difference procedure
which has been previously validated is used to determine yearly cooling
and heating transmission loads, yearly averaged time lag and decre-
ment factor under steady periodic conditions. These loads are used as
inputs to an economic model for the determination of the optimum
insulation thickness. The optimum insulation thicknesses, energy
savings and payback periods are calculated by using life-cycle cost
analysis over lifetime of 20 years of the building. Results show that the
optimum insulation thicknesses vary between 5.4 and 19.2 cm, energy
savings vary between 86.26 and 146.05 $/m
2
, and payback periods vary
between 3.56 and 8.85 years for different insulation materials. The
environmental impacts of thermal insulation are also investigated. It is
seen that by applying optimum insulation thickness in uninsulated
walls, yearly fuel consumption and emissions are decreased by 68
89.5% depending on insulation materials.
13/00599 Determining operation schedules of heat
recovery ventilators for optimum energy savings in high-rise
residential buildings
Kim, S.-M. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 46, 313.
This study examines the influence of heat recovery ventilators (HRVs)
on energy savings in high-rise residential buildings to determine
optimum operation schedules. Field measurements were conducted in
two actual residential buildings, and computer simulations were
performed to predict energy savings by the HRVs. Measurement
results showed that energy consumption in each building was reduced
when the HRVs were operated in line with recommended ventilation
rates and comfortable temperature ranges. The HRVs achieved greater
savings of energy during winter than summer. Simulation results
showed that the HRVs contributed to the annual savings of heating and
cooling energy by 9.45% and 8.8%, respectively, when the ventilators
were operated continuously for 24 h. More energy was saved as the
operating hours of the HRVs increased. The continuous operation of
HRVs was effective for the savings of energy and to maintain
recommended ventilation rates. The HRVs achieved effective energy
savings and maintained necessary ventilation rates in high-rise
residential buildings where natural infiltration was minimal, due to
tightly sealed building envelopes. This study suggests that the influence
of HRVs on the improvement of indoor air quality needs to be
examined in conjunction with energy savings by HRVs.
13/00600 Energy consumption analysis of Spanish food
and drink, textile, chemical and non-metallic mineral
products sectors
Aranda-Uson, A. et al. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 477485.
This paper provides quantitative information for energy consumption
from four different industry sectors based on an energy analysis
obtained by means of in situ energy audits and complementary
information. The latter information was taken from Saving Strategy
and Energy Efficiency in Spain documents and the 2009 Industrial
Survey of Spain from the National Statistics Institute. The results show
an estimate of energy consumption for each sector, namely Spanish
food, drink and tobacco (9.6%), textile (4.5%), chemical (14.7%), and
88 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
16 Energy (energy conservation)
non-metallic mineral products (24.3%), as well as the degree of
inefficiency for each, obtained by means of a stochastic frontier
production function model. These results are combined with the energy
consumption analysis to identify potential energy saving opportunities
around 20% of the total energy consumption for all studied sectors.
These energy saving opportunities are classified according to thermal
or electrical energy consumption and percentage savings of the total
energy consumption.
13/00601 Energy losses by air leakage in condensing
tumble dryers
Stawreberg, L. et al. Applied Thermal Engineering, 2012, 37, 373379.
Tumble dryers, used for the drying of textiles, consume a considerable
amount of electricity due to the large number of dryers in use. A large
amount of this electricity is produced from coal, making it important to
reduce the electricity use and, hence, the carbon dioxide emissions.
Earlier studies made on the condensing tumble dryer have pointed out
that leakage is one of the parameters affecting the electricity use for
the drying process. With a view to reducing the energy use, leakage was
estimated through measurements and modelling. Energy balances were
used in order to verify the leakage. The energy balance showed good
agreement with the results from the model and confirms that the
leakage out from the dryer arises mainly between the heater and the
drum where the air is hot and has low relative humidity. Large leakage
at this location is detrimental for the energy efficiency of the dryer,
meaning that the leakage must be reduced in order to obtain a reduced
energy use. Results from the model also point out that even small
changes in the size of gaps, or changes to the pressure in the internal
system, result in a significant change in leakage from the dryer.
13/00602 Energy saving latent heat storage and
environmental friendly humidity-controlled materials for
indoor climate
Rao, Z. et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16, (5),
31363145.
This paper reviews the development and application of energy saving
latent heat storage phase change materials and environmental friendly
humidity-controlled materials for indoor thermal management and
humidity control. Based on the studies reported in the literatures, it is
indicated that the super-efficient and innovative micro-encapsulated
form-stable composite phase change material and humidity-controlled
materials with high moisture absorption and desorption capacity and
intelligent self-humidity-control and related key techniques are worth
consideration.
13/00603 Evaluation of economically optimal retrofit
investment options for energy savings in buildings
Kumbaroglu, G. and Madlener, R. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 49, 327
334.
In this study, a techno-economic evaluation method for the energy
retrofit of buildings is introduced, geared toward finding the
economically optimal set of retrofit measures. Split incentives of
building owners and users are considered explicitly in a conventional
(static) evaluation to identify the investment alternatives maximizing
the net present value (NPV). Energy price uncertainty for various
distributional assumptions of the stochastic variables is addressed
through Monte Carlo simulation. Results from the simulation are used
to compute probabilities and expected NPVs. Based on this, a
sequential (dynamic) evaluation method is developed, featuring a real
options investment appraisal. The real options approach is introduced
as an advancement in the practice of economic evaluation of building
retrofit investment options. The new method is applied to an office
building in Germany, illustrating its performance. The case study
results indicate that energy price changes significantly affect the
profitability of retrofit investments, and that high price volatility
creates a substantial value of waiting, making it more rational to
postpone the investment.
13/00604 Evaluation of several measures to improve
the energy efficiency and CO
2
emission in the European
single-family houses
Pardo, N. and Thiel, C. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 49, 619630.
The building sector is responsible for 40% of the energy consumption
and 36% of the CO
2
emissions in the European Union (EU). The
present work investigates how the energy consumption, CO
2
emissions
and related costs are affected by different measures which can be
adopted to satisfy the energy demand in EU single-family houses. To
achieve this objective, several types of single-family houses and energy
systems are analysed in three climatic areas. The results show that a
high insulation of the house envelope and the implementation of
energy systems, which produce heat and electricity from renewable
energy sources, are key measures to reduce the energy dependence and
CO
2
emissions in single-family houses. For heating and cooling
systems, the energy systems based on ground coupled heat pumps
had the lowest energy consumption but the systems based on district
heating and biomass heaters had lower CO
2
emissions. An inverse
relationship between investment and operational cost is observed. The
equipment with higher efficiency and lower CO
2
emission have the
highest and the lowest investment and operational costs respectively.
13/00605 Fan air flow analysis and heat transfer
enhancement of vehicle underhood cooling system
towards a new control approach for fuel consumption
reduction
Khaled, M. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 91, (1), 439450.
This study reports experimental results focused on the optimization of
a vehicle underhood cooling module. These results constitute the basis
for a new approach of controlling the cooling module positioning
according to the engine energy requirements. Measurements are
carried out on a simplified vehicle body designed based on the real
vehicle front block. The authors report here velocity and temperature
measurements by particle image velocimetry (PIV), by laser Doppler
velocimetry (LDV) and by thermocouples. The underhood of the
simplified body is instrumented by 59 surface and fluid thermocouples.
Measurements are carried out for conditions simulating both the
slowdown and the thermal soak phases with the fan in operation.
Different fan rotational speeds, radiator water flow and underhood
geometries have been experimented. The ultimate aim is to apply the
new control approach to a real vehicle so as to reduce the energy
delivered to the pump and compressor and therefore to reduce the
vehicle fuel consumption.
13/00606 Feasibility study on combined use of residential
SOFC cogeneration system and plug-in hybrid electric
vehicle from energy-saving viewpoint
Wakui, T. et al. Energy Conversion and Management, 2012, 60, 170179.
The energy-saving effect of a combined use of a residential solid oxide
fuel cell cogeneration system (SOFC-CGS) that adopts a continuous
operation, and a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is discussed by
optimal operational planning based on mixed-integer linear program-
ming. This combined use aims to increase the electric capacity factor of
the SOFC-CGS by charging the PHEV using the SOFC-CGS electric
power output late at night, and targets the application in regions where
the reverse power flow from residential cogeneration systems to
commercial electric power systems is not permitted, like in Japan. The
optimal operation patterns of the combined use of 0.7-kWe SOFC-
CGS and PHEV for a simulated energy demand with a sampling time
of 1 h and various daily running distances of the PHEV show that this
combined use increases the electric capacity factor of the SOFC-CGS
and saves more energy in comparison with their separate use in which
the SOFC-CGS is used but the PHEV is charged only with purchased
electric power. Furthermore, it is found that at the PHEV daily running
distance of 12 km/d, the reduction rate of the annual primary energy
consumption for this combined use increases by up to 3.7 percentage
points relative to their separate use. Consequently, this feasibility study
reveals that the combined use of the SOFC-CGS and PHEV provides
the synergistic effect on energy savings in the residential and transport
sectors. For practical use, simulation scenarios considering the energy
demand fluctuations with short periods and real-time pricing of the
purchased electric power must be considered as future issues.
13/00607 Financial viability of energy-efficiency measures
in a new detached house design in Finland
Saari, A. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 92, 7683.
This study analyses alternative energy-saving design concepts for a
typical new detached house design in Finland. The impact of these
design concepts on the construction costs and on the total delivered
energy needs of the building were calculated, and the financial viability
of the different concepts analysed. Different thermal insulation and
airtightness properties of the building envelope and different ventila-
tions heat recovery efficiency assumptions were tested in the analysis
work. Other variations modelled included the heating mode: direct
electrical floor heating, or floor heating via an air or ground source
heat pump. Among these alternatives, the estimated annual consump-
tion of purchased energy for running the household varied extensively,
in the range 57182 kWh/net floor m
2
. With the real interest rate set at
3%, the payback period was shortest for the air source heat pumps
(9 years). When a heat pump was installed in a house with higher
energy consumption, the payback period was 7 years, and if it was
installed in the ultra low-energy house designs, the payback period
was over 13 years. Investment to thick thermal insulation of envelope
was unattractive in Finland. The results of this study can be generalized
to similar climates and techno-economic environments.
13/00608 Forecasting non-linear time series of energy
consumption using a hybrid dynamic model
Lee, Y.-S. and Tong, L.-I. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 251256.
Energy consumption is an important index of the economic develop-
ment of a country. Rapid changes in industry and the economy strongly
affect energy consumption. Although traditional statistical approaches
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 89
16 Energy (energy conservation)
yield accurate forecasts of energy consumption, they may suffer from
several limitations such as the need for large data sets and the
assumption of a linear formula. This work describes a novel hybrid
dynamic approach that combines a dynamic grey model with genetic
programming to forecast energy consumption. This proposed approach
is utilized to forecast energy consumption because of its excellent
accuracy, applicability to cases with limited data sets and ease of
computability using mathematical software. Two case studies of energy
consumption demonstrate the reliability of the proposed model.
Computational results indicate that the proposed approach outper-
forms other models in forecasting energy consumption.
13/00609 Improving the energy efficiency of buildings:
the impact of environmental policy on technological
innovation
Noailly, J. Energy Economics, 2012, 34, (3), 795806.
This paper investigates the impact of alternative environmental policy
instruments on technological innovations aiming to improve energy
efficiency in buildings. The empirical analysis focuses on three main
types of policy instruments, namely regulatory energy standards in
buildings codes, energy taxes as captured by energy prices and specific
governmental energy R&D expenditures. Technological innovation is
measured using patent counts for specific technologies related to
energy efficiency in buildings (e.g. insulation, high-efficiency boilers,
energy-saving lightings). The estimates for seven European countries
over the 19892004 period imply that a strengthening of 10% of the
minimum insulation standards for walls would increase the likelihood
to file additional patents by about 3%. In contrast, energy prices have
no significant effect on the likelihood to patent. Governmental energy
R&D support has a small positive significant effect on patenting
activities.
13/00610 Londons urban heat island: impact on current
and future energy consumption in office buildings
Kolokotroni, M. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 47, 302311.
This paper presents the results of a computational study on the energy
consumption and related carbon dioxide emissions for heating and
cooling of an office building within the urban heat island of London,
UK, currently and in the future. The study developed 20 weather files
in an eastwest axis through London; the weather files were
constructed according to future climate change scenario for 2050
suitable for the UK which have been modified to represent specific
locations within the London UHI based on measurements and
predictions from a program developed for this purpose (LSSAT).
The study simulated an office with typical construction, heat gains and
operational patterns with an advanced thermal simulation program
(IESVE). The predictions confirm that heating load decreases, cooling
load and overheating hours increase as the office location moves from
rural to urban sites and from present to future years. It is shown that
internal heat gains are an important factor affecting energy perform-
ance and that night cooling using natural ventilation will have a
beneficial effect at rural and city locations. As overheating will increase
in the future, more buildings will use cooling; it is shown that this might
lead to a five-fold increase of carbon dioxide emission for city centre
offices in London in 2050. The paper presents detailed results of the
typical office placed on the eastwest axis of the city, arguing the
necessity to consider using weather files based on climate projections
and urban heat island for the design of current buildings to safeguard
their efficiency in the future.
13/00611 Novel instrumentation for monitoring after-hours
electricity consumption of electrical equipment, and some
potential savings from a switch-off campaign
Brown, N. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 47, 7483.
An increasing cause of electricity use and greenhouse gas emissions is
from information technology (IT) equipment such as computers,
printers and servers, with worldwide computer use increasing from
1000 million PCs in 2006, to 1400 million in 2010, and estimated to
cause 3% of global electricity demand. Significant energy may be saved
if unused devices are switched off. It was noted that the switch-off rates
in the USA for desktop computers in 2006, could be as low as 30%, and
there clearly is a need for up-to-date information. It has been difficult
to provide accurate figures for switch-off rates, since previous
monitoring of IT use has been expensive, requiring specialized
equipment and electrical work, labour intensive (using walk-through
surveys), or both. This paper demonstrates two low-cost techniques for
estimation of unoccupied PC use. Precision and tracking for both were
compared with actual power consumption, and subcircuit switch-off
rates appeared to be under 76%. Whole building IT related use
(including servers) was around 40% of electrical baseload. A desktop
switch-off campaign was instigated for accessible equipment, resulting
in a 20% reduction in electrical baseload. Extrapolation to a weeknight
campaign suggests that annual electricity savings could be of the order
of 12%.
13/00612 Optimum design of district heating: application of
a novel methodology for improved design of community
scale integrated energy systems
Mohammad Sanaei, S. and Nakata, T. Energy, 2012, 38, (1), 190204.
The purpose of this paper is to present a new tool for design of
integrated energy systems. The initial choice of the energy system
components and the way they should interact is a crucial decision which
the outcome of the design heavily relies on. Use of a physical law
(instead of engineering judgment) as the basis of the decision making is
the main advantage of the proposed approach over conventional
approaches for design of community scale energy systems. The
methodology has been implemented for design of a district heating
system for an existing district in arid region of Iran. The optimum level
of interaction between the energy system components has been
identified by employing an optimization algorithm seeking to minimize
the overall cost of the energy system. Some of the relative merits of the
optimum design comparing to the present energy system are 17%
increase of the exergy efficiency, 10.8% reduction in the amount of
CO
2
production per capita and 2% reduction in overall energy related
costs.
13/00613 Organic light emitting diodes: energy saving
lighting technology a review
Thejo Kalyani, N. and Dhoble, S. J. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 2012, 16, (5), 26962723.
This paper reflects the achievements and the challenges ahead in the
field of organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs). The primary intention
of this paper is to study different organic materials synthesized so far
and the OLEDs fabricated for solid-state lighting. After deep review of
literatures the authors have synthesized and characterized rare earth-
based europium organic complexes Eu(TTA)
3
Phen, Eu
(x
)Y
(1x)
(TTA)
3
Phen, and Eu
(x)
Tb
(1x)
(TTA)
3
Phen, where x =0.4 and 0.5 by
solution technique maintaining stoichiometric ratio. Blended films of
pure and doped Eu complexes that are molecularly doped into polymer
resins namely polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and polystyrene (PS)
are prepared according to weight percentage. Concentration effect on
absorption and emission spectra of the blended films was studied for
different weight percentages (10, 25, 50, 60%). All the complexes doped
in PMMA showed an excellent transparency of 9097% while the
complexes doped in polystyrene showed a transparency of 8590%, bit
less than in PMMA. Energy gap of the synthesized complexes have
been determined in PMMA and PS. Considering the facts that these
complexes have good solubility in most of the organic solvents, the
absorption spectra of Eu(TTA)
3
Phen, Eu
0.5
Y
0.5
(TTA)
3
Phen and Eu
0.5-
Tb
0.5
(TTA)
3
Phen complexes are studied, and OLED devices having the
structure ITO/m-MTDATA/c-NPD/TPBi:Eu
(x)
Y
(1x)
(TTA)
3
Phen/
Alq
3
/LiF:Al (where x =0.4, 0.5) were fabricated and characterized.
Significant red emission was observed from fabricated OLED devices at
612 nm when operated in a range of 1018 V. Thus the synthesized rare
earth based organic complexes are the best suitable candidates for
fabrication of red OLED devices. The extensive review on OLEDS
concludes that present lighting systems can be replaced with white
OLEDS, recently developed energy saving lighting technology.
13/00614 Reducing energy consumption of a raw mill in
cement industry
Atmaca, A. and Kanoglu, M. Energy, 2012, 42, (1), 261269.
Several grinding methods are available in cement industry depending
upon the material to be ground. In cement production process, about
26% of the total electrical power is used in grinding the raw materials.
During grinding process, the energy obtained from the rotary burner is
consumed. In this study, the first and second law analysis of a raw mill
is performed and certain measures are implemented in an existing raw
mill in a cement factory in order to reduce the amount of energy
consumption in grinding process. The first and second law efficiencies
of the raw mill are determined to be 61.5% and 16.4%, respectively.
The effects of ambient air temperature and moisture content of raw
materials on the performance of the raw mill are investigated. The data
collected over a 12-month period indicate that first and second law
efficiencies of the raw mill increase as the ambient temperature
increase and the moisture content of the raw materials decrease. The
specific energy consumption for farine production is determined to be
24.75 kWh/ton farine. The use of an external hot gas supply provides
6.7% reduction in energy consumption corresponding to a saving of
1.66 kWh per ton of farine production.
13/00615 Reducing fuel consumption through modular
vehicle architectures
Carvalho, I. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 556563.
By identifying energy waste streams in vehicles fuel consumption and
introducing the concept of lean driving systems, a technological gap for
reducing fuel consumption was identified. This paper proposes a
solution to overcome this gap, through a modular vehicle architecture
aligned with driving patterns. It does not address detailed technological
solutions; instead it models the potential effects in fuel consumption
90 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
16 Energy (energy conservation)
through a modular concept of a vehicle and quantifies their
dependence on vehicle design parameters (manifesting as the vehicle
mass) and user behaviour parameters (driving patterns manifesting as
the use of a modular car in lighter and heavier mode, in urban and
highway cycles). Modularity has been functionally applied in auto-
motive industry as manufacture and assembly management strategies;
here it is thought as a product development strategy for flexibility in
use, driven by environmental concerns and enabled by social
behaviours. The authors argue this concept is a step forward in
combining technological solutions and social behaviour, of which eco-
driving is a vivid example, and potentially evolutionary to a lean, more
sustainable, driving culture.
13/00616 Targeting industrial heat pump integration in
multi-period problems
Becker, H. and Marechal, F. Computer Aided Chemical Engineering,
2012, 31, 415419.
Process integration aims at optimizing industrial processes by identify-
ing the heat recovery potential and the optimal integration of energy
conversion systems. Most industrial processes especially in the food
industry are non-continuous problems (batch problems) that are more
difficult to tackle with process integration techniques. Process
integration of multi-period problems can become complex and often
the heat integration is realized by using time averaging approaches.
The main disadvantages are that the sizing of equipment becomes more
difficult and that the investment cost calculation is almost impossible at
the targeting stage, since storage tanks are not included. This work
presents a MILP method that targets simultaneously the heat recovery
and the integration of energy conversion systems like heat pumps and
other utilities in multi-period multi-time problems. In each time slice,
the heat cascade constraints are considered together with the flows of
the utility streams and the mass balances for storage, which create a
link between the different operating times.
13/00617 The energy-saving effects of apartment residents
awareness and behavior
Kang, N. N. et al. Energy and Buildings, 2012, 46, 112122.
The purpose of this study is to discuss the energy-saving effects of
residents participation in apartment complexes through the imparting
of relevant information and motivation. Therefore, this study com-
pared the results of two separate surveys. Surveys developed based on
the government guidelines were utilized to observe and compare
residents consciousness, knowledge and behaviours, before and after
providing them with information and performing promotion activities
The major findings are as follows: First, the residents energy-saving
consciousness, knowledge, and behaviour improved after they were
provided with relevant information and exposed to campaigns. Second,
these factors improved further if residents had been previously exposed
to such information and campaigns at their apartment complexes.
Third, energy-saving activities driven by residents participation
instilled a sense of pride in their apartment complex. Hence, this
studys examination and discussion of the energy-saving effects of
apartment complexes is expected to be utilized as a framework and
guideline for the creation of effective energy-saving manuals for
apartment residents.
13/00618 The potential of increasing cooling set-points in
air-conditioned offices in the UK
Lakeridou, M. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 94, 338348.
Following the Japanese Cool Biz campaign which advocated relaxed
dress codes and cooling set-points of 28

C in air-conditioned public
buildings, other countries have introduced similar policies, with
temperature limits varying in different countries. In the UK the British
Council for Offices suggested that the summer cooling set-points of
UK air-conditioned offices should be increased by 2

C from the
previously recommended 22 2

C. However, these recommendations

are largely supported by desk-based analysis rather than using field
studies. This paper presents the findings of a blind, controlled
intervention study conducted in the summer of 2010 in an office
building in London to investigate the effects of increasing the current
cooling set-point to 24

C. The temperature of one floor was changed

and compared with a control floor where the set-point remained
unchanged. The indoor air temperatures were measured at various
locations across the floors to monitor the temperatures the occupants
were experiencing. The BUS post-occupancy evaluation survey was
used to assess occupants self-reported comfort and satisfaction, while
the NEP questionnaire was used to estimate occupants environmental
attitudes. The findings from statistical analyses of the data collected for
all 129 participants suggest that increasing the set-point temperature
led to the occupants feeling significantly warmer in comparison with
the group at lower temperature settings. Nevertheless, this did not
affect the self-reported thermal comfort of the occupants in the
intervention group, as depicted by an insignificant difference between
the two groups. It was also observed that there is a positive correlation
between the occupants tolerance of higher indoor air temperatures
and their environmental attitudes, indicating that this could play a key
role in the acceptance of indoor temperature changes in the UK.
13/00619 Towards net zero energy design for low-rise
residential buildings in subtropical Hong Kong
Fong, K. F. and Lee, C. K. Applied Energy, 2012, 93, 686694.
Hong Kong is a typical metropolis in subtropical southern China,
where high-rise buildings are all around the city. This generally implies
that the density of energy demand is extremely high, even where
renewable energy facilities are involved, they can just play as a minor
energy provider at the current technology level. It seems only the low
energy design for buildings can be made possible, not the zero energy.
Nevertheless, one group of the feasible places for implementing the net
zero energy (NZE) design is the low-rise residential buildings in Hong
Kong. Typically they are three-storey village houses, in which the
renewable energy provisions can be installed in the available space, like
the flat roof and the external walls. However, the question is still there
can the NZE target be achieved in this type of building even all the
possible space is used up for the renewable energy facilities? As such, a
dynamic simulation study was carried out to evaluate the year-round
energy performances and the related factors. The answer opens a way
to both the new and retrofit projects, which would enhance the low
carbon roadmap in the subtropical Hong Kong.
13/00620 Transient thermal behaviour of crumb
rubber-modified concrete and implications for thermal
response and energy efficiency in buildings
Hall, M. R. et al. Applied Thermal Engineering, 2012, 3334, 7785.
Experimental data are presented for the dry and saturated steady state
thermophysical properties, and also the dynamic thermal properties, of
180, 120 and 65 mm target slump mix designs for plain rubberized
concrete (PRC) with varying weight-percentages of rubber substitution
and aggregate replacement types (fine, coarse, and mixed). The
composites had significantly lower density and thermal conductivity
than plain concrete, and there was an inverse relationship between
thermal admittance and (a) mix design target slump, and (b) weight-
percentage crumb rubber substitution. The thermal decrement re-
mained almost constant, and yet the associated time lag can be
increased significantly. Parametric analysis of the effects of crumb
rubber substitution for a heavyweight PassivHaus standard dwelling (in
non-mechanical ventilation mode) was conducted using building
performance simulation. For a London (warmer) or Glasgow (cooler)
climate, PRC can be used at up to 30%wt addition and all replacement
types as a substitute for plain concrete without causing any significant
difference in dry resultant temperature (DRT) fluctuation, if used in
conjunction with passive ventilation for night time cooling. However,
for the same material there was a general tendency to increase the
number of overheating hours in this construction type due to its greater
ability to retain any stored heat energy.
17 ENERGY CONVERSION
AND RECYCLING
13/00621 Bacterial cellulose production from cotton-based
waste textiles: enzymatic saccharification enhanced by ionic
liquid pretreatment
Hong, F. et al. Bioresource Technology, 2012, 104, 503508.
Cotton-based waste textiles were explored as alternative feedstock for
production of bacterial cellulose (BC) by Gluconacetobacter xylinus.
The cellulosic fabrics were treated with the ionic liquid (IL) 1-allyl-3-
methylimidazolium chloride ([AMIM]Cl). [AMIM]Cl caused 25%
inactivation of cellulase activity at a concentration as low as of 0.02 g/
mL and decreased BC production during fermentation when present in
concentrations higher than 0.0005 g/mL. Therefore, removal of residual
IL by washing with hot water was highly beneficial to enzymatic
saccharification as well as BC production. IL-treated fabrics exhibited a
57-fold higher enzymatic hydrolysis rate and gave a seven times larger
yield of fermentable sugars than untreated fabrics. BC from cotton
cloth hydrolysate was obtained at an yield of 10.8 g/L which was 83%
higher than that from the culture grown on glucose-based medium. The
BC from G. xylinus grown on IL-treated fabric hydrolysate had a 79%
higher tensile strength than BC from glucose-based culture medium
which suggests that waste cotton pretreated with [AMIM]Cl has
potential to serve as a high-quality carbon source for BC production.
Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013 91
17 Energy conversion and recycling
13/00622 Co-composting of the solid fraction of anaerobic
digestates, to obtain added-value materials for use in
agriculture
Bustamante, M. A. et al. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2012, 43, 2635.
This work focuses on the viability of composting for the recycling of
digestates, to obtain added-value organic materials with potential use
in agriculture. Mixtures made from the solid fraction of a digestate
(obtained from the anaerobic co-digestion of cattle slurry and silage),
with or without vine shoot prunings as bulking agent, were composted
by the Rutgers composting system. During composting, the tempera-
ture of the composting piles was monitored, as were physicochemical,
chemical, and maturity parameters. Potential added-value properties of
the final composts, such as their physical characteristics and in vitro
suppression of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis, were determined.
The bulking agent had a positive effect, reducing the electrical conduc-
tivity and the N losses during composting and also diluting the heavy
metal contents of the end-products. The composts obtained showed
adequate degrees of stability and maturity, suitable physical properties
for use as growing media, and suppression of F. oxysporum f. sp. melonis.
13/00623 Determination of fossil fraction of refuse derived
fuel by the selective dissolution method in calorific value
basis: development of simplified method
Hiromi Ariyaratne, W. K. et al. Fuel, 2012, 98, 4147.
Determining the net CO
2
emissions from combustion of refuse derived
fuel (RDF) is not straightforward due to the heterogeneous nature of
the fuel. The fossil fraction of the fuel is an essential parameter for the
determination of net CO
2
emissions. In the present study, the fossil
fraction of RDF is determined by means of the selective dissolution
method (SDM) in calorific value basis. Seven artificially made RDF
mixtures were tested using this method. The mixtures were prepared by
mixing different proportions of plastic, paper and wood. It was found
that the experimentally determined fossil fractions were very close to
the theoretical values, which could be calculated based on the con-
stituents of the artificial RDF mixtures. This indicates a high accuracy
of SDM. However, SDM is a time-consuming method. Based on the
artificially made RDF mixtures, a functional relationship between
calorific value and fossil fraction in calorific value basis was found and
plotted graphically. This means that in cases where the nature of the
fossil and biogenic RDF constituents is known, determination of the
calorific value, ash content and moisture content of the fuel is sufficient
for determination of the fossil fraction in calorific value basis. Since
these parameters can be relatively quickly determined at least within
one day, and are often analysed anyway as part of the general fuel
characterization, this simplified method can save a lot of time and
resources compared to SDM, which takes 3 days to give a test result.
Hence, the simplified method can be an attractive alternative to SDM
when net CO
2
emissions from RDF combustion are to be determined.
When performing the SDM analysis, attention should be given for the
intermediate calculations since some of the ash forming matter
penetrates into the filter paper used in the SDM procedure.
13/00624 Developing a mechanical roadway system for
waste energy capture of vehicles and electric generation
Ting, C.-C. et al. Applied Energy, 2012, 92, 18.
Energy requirement of vehicles could be said the second large energy
consumption aside from industry. An extremely large percentage (ca.
85%) consumed energy by vehicles is converted to waste heat, i.e.
invalid work. To improve working efficiency of vehicles and to retrieve
waste energy from vehicles are two essential energy topics in the
twenty-first century. This work presents a mechanical system that will
be built in the decelerating downhill roadways to capture the waste
energy of vehicles and is internationally patented by the Taiwanese
Yeu-Chun green energy technology incorporated company. This
developed system is mainly composed of the piston plates and the
instantaneous electric generating apparatus in connection with the
potential energy storage. In process, the piston plates are built in the
decelerating downhill roadways and pressed by the decelerating
vehicles for waste energy capturing. The captured energy is either first
saved into the potential energy storage for energy collection and then
discharged to drive the electric generators or directly applied to the
electric generation. The hydraulic drive technique is applied in this
system for force transfer from vehicles to the electric generators while
vehicles are running over the piston plates. Dimension of the piston
plate is LW=106 56 cm
2
and its piston diameter is 3 cm with
piston stroke 3 cm. The results show that the first product generation
yielded total working efficiency over 40%.
13/00625 Evaluation of leather industry wastes as a
feedstock for biodiesel production
Alptekin, E. et al. Fuel, 2012, 95, 214220.
In this study, animal fat obtained from leather industry fleshing wastes
was used to produce methyl ester. The acid value of the fleshing oil was
24.30 mg KOHg
1
which corresponds to FFA level of about 12.15%.
Therefore, it was needed to perform a pretreatment to the fleshing oil.
For this aim, sulfuric acid was used as a catalyst and methanol was used
as alcohol for pretreatment reactions. The variables affecting the FFA
level including alcohol molar ratio and catalyst amount were investi-
gated by using the fleshing oil. After reducing the FFA level of the
fleshing oil to less than 1%, the transesterification reaction was com-
pleted with alkaline catalyst. Potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide,
potassium methoxide and sodium methoxide were used as catalyst and
methanol was used as alcohol for transesterification reactions. The
effects of catalyst type, catalyst amount and alcohol molar ratio on the
fuel properties of produced methyl esters were investigated. The mea-
sured fuel properties of the fleshing oil methyl ester (FOME) were
compared to EN 14214 and ASTM D6751 biodiesel standards. Accord-
ing to results, the cold flow properties of FOME should be improved
and the sulfur content of FOME should be investigated in detail.
13/00626 Fluidized bed waste incinerators: design,
operational and environmental issues
Van Caneghem, J. et al. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science,
2012, 38, (4), 551582.
The paper starts by reviewing the increasing production of waste and
the growing importance of its thermal treatment, which aims at volume
reduction of the waste, at the destruction, capture, and concentration
of hazardous substances, and at the recovery of energy (WtE).
Incineration is a generally applied thermal treatment technique,
whereas pyrolysis and gasification are still under development. Within
the incineration techniques, bubbling, rotating and circulating fluidized
beds have found specific and growing applications. As technical
information on fluidized bed waste incinerators is spread throughout
literature, the present review paper collates the relevant literature and
critically examines the parameters that govern the design and operation
of these incinerators. Secondly, the design strategy of a fluidized bed
incinerator is outlined, which involves considerations of hydrodynamic
(velocities, mixing), thermal (heat balances) and kinetic (reaction rate
and burnout) nature. Application of the design equations and
recommendations will facilitate the sizing of an appropriate fluidized
bed incinerator. Since during waste incineration pollutants are formed,
the origin and fate of the pollutants and their abatement are reviewed.
Finally, special attention is given to the specific de-fluidization
problems often encountered during fluidized bed combustor operation,
mainly because of agglomeration and sintering. The mechanisms of
agglomeration and sintering are discussed, and possible remedies are
given. Additionally, important issues of equipment erosion and uni-
form feeding of the waste into the fluidized bed reactor are considered.
13/00627 Optimisation of particle size in waste tyre pyrolysis
Oyedun, A. et al. Fuel, 2012, 95, 417424.
During pyrolysis of waste tyre, the operating parameters such as tyre
composition, the process temperature, the heating rate and the particle
size affect the result of the pyrolysis. Some of these parameters have
been closely considered but the particle size of the waste tyre is often
ignored. The goal of this paper is to study the effect of particle size in
waste tyre pyrolysis under different heating approaches and to use
optimization techniques to determine the optimized particle size for
each scenario. In this paper, the size of the waste tyre particle is
considered as a major factor in determining the magnitude of the
overall energy used as well as the completion time of the pyrolysis
reaction. Simulations were conducted to compare the effects of the
particle size on the completion time and the overall energy usage under
different heating rates and operational strategies. Shredding energy
needed to reduce waste tyre particles was also included into the
calculation of the overall energy consumption. Optimization of the
particle size was conducted under a number of specified maximum
completion times and heating rates. This study confirms the trade-off
between the overall energy used and the completion time. It also shows
the impact of using some optimization techniques to determine the
optimized particle size for different heating approaches.
13/00628 Study on a waste heat-driven adsorption cooling
cum desalination cycle
Ng, K. C. et al. International Journal of Refrigeration, 2012, 35, (3),
685693.
This article presents the performance analysis of a waste heat-driven
adsorption cycle. With the implementation of adsorptiondesorption
phenomena, the cycle simultaneously produces cooling energy and
high-grade potable water. A mathematical model is developed using
isotherm characteristics of the adsorbent/adsorbate pair (silica gel and
water), energy and mass balances for the each component of the cycle.
The cycle is analysed using key performance parameters namely
(i) specific cooling power (SCP), (ii) specific daily water production,
(iii) the coefficient of performance (COP) and (iv) the overall con-
version ratio. The numerical results of the adsorption cycle are valid-
ated using experimental data. The parametric analysis using different
hot and chilled water temperatures are reported. At 85

C hot water
inlet temperature, the cycle generates 3.6 m
3
of potable water and
23 Rton of cooling at the produced chilled water temperature of 10

C.
92 Fuel and Energy Abstracts January 2013
17 Energy conversion and recycling