The eighteenth century was an era of Western colonial expansionism.

The entire Muslim World was

groaning under the iron heels of the European colonialists. The mighty Ottoman Empire was heading
towards a collapse. Muslim society suffered from superstitions, pagan practices, heretical innovations and
apostatical leanings. The concept of pure and uncompromising Tawhid (monotheism) got mixed up with
polytheism. Hijaz, the land of two sanctuaries of Islam, was no exception. The whole of the Arabian
Peninsula was under the grip of superstitions and Jahiliya practices. Najd, the central part of the
Peninsula, had also lapsed into pre-Islamic heathenism. Despite such a gloomy picture, the reformative
impulse was always active and operational.

Religio-Cultural And Political Milieu Of Najd Before The Shaikh
Bedouin Arabia had slipped into ignorance, barbarism, bloodletting, discord and corruption. Religion was
perverted and the socioeconomic and cultural life was paralysed. Few God-fearing 'Ulama' were
combating the heathen beliefs and practices, such as stone, tree and grave worship. The state of affairs
in Najd was awful:
"... They called upon idols and sought their intercession and aid, offered sacrifices to stones and rocks
and trees in the belief that these possess the power to bring good and ward off evil, and so people sought
their pleasure and approbation through
offerings ..... (Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhaab; Ahmad Abdul Ghafur)

The Najdians used to consult the soothsayers and oracles as if they were the successors of Al-Ablak al-
Saadi, the famous oracle of pagan Najd. It resembled the practices of the Quraish before Islam. The life
of Bedouins in the desert of Najd, as well as in its cities and villages, were characterised by lawlessness,
bestiality, mad and brute freedom which was bound to let the society loose in ignorance, wickedness and
political tyranny of the Amirs and Governors.

Bedouins assaulted the travellers and caravans and killed innocent men and women. Assassins fell upon
villages and towns during day and night. They would plunder towns, kill and enslave people and kidnap
children and infants to sell them into slavery. Since there was no strong ruler to ensure peace and
security and since petty states were ruled by absolute tyrants, devoid of Islamic spirit, public safety was
non-existent. The devilish and wicked rulers and leaders hired criminals to kill the 'Ulama' who were
preaching the truth of Islam or were frightening the people with the punishments of the Hereafter. The
'Ulama', judges, notables, preachers and guides of Al-Kasim were killed in 1196 A.H., without
discrimination. A conference was convened by the criminals to decide the fate of all those who preached
reform. The unanimous decision of the conference was:

"... to get rid of the 'Ulama' by murder and every town and village would slay its 'Ulama' in a single day ...
"

Thus on the specified day the 'Ulama'and learned men in every town and village were killed. It was on
Friday that the 'Ulama' of Al-Khabra, and Al-Janah were slain when they were going to the mosque for
their Friday prayers. Other towns and villages followed Suit.

Shaikh Husain ibn-Ghannam has recorded numerous tragedies of a similar nature in his famous book
'Rawdat al-Afkar wal-Afham' which mirrors the contemporary life in Najd. He shows how the Najdians had
slipped into polytheism and heathenism and worshipped deities other than Allah, "calling them for
protection in distress and invoking them to provide sustenance, and ward off evil and bring good". There
was a general belief that certain shrines, domes, stones and trees possessed the power to harm and
protect people. The famous palm tree called "al-Fahhal" in Bleida was worshipped by men and women
who would call on it to provide sustenance, lighten their distress and cure their sicknesses. The women
would invoke its help and ask it to give her a husband or a child. The tree of 'Tarjiya' was worshipped in
the same way. The women begetting a male child would hang a rope or a piece of cloth on the tree,
asking it to grant a long life to the child. The branches, leaves and stems of the tree was not visible
because they were covered by piles of ropes and pieces of cloth. The cave, situated in the hill of Dar'iya,
was the centre of pilgrimage. It was claimed that the cave was the grave of the daughter of a Prince. She
was a great female saint. People invoked her for aid. (Ibid)

"The story was invented by a deceiver to lead people astray and to extort money through jugglery" (Ibid)

Similarly, a blind man was being worshipped after his death. To him was attributed great Karamat. There
was hardly a city where tombs and graves were not worshipped. Special mosques were venerated and
visited as objects of pilgrimage. People invoked succour and offered sacrifices on them. Islam as religion
was forsaken and its teachings forgotten.

The Amirs and rulers, being totally ignorant of the laws of Allah, were blinded by lust, prejudices and mad
impulses, slaying people without reason, and plundering their houses and lands. Wars were rampant
among the tribal chiefs and Amirs who would enslave women and sell them for adultery. The savage
bestiality swayed supreme. The two families, comparatively better in administering justice, were the rulers
of Dar'iya and 'Uyaina. The former was ruled by the Sa'ud family while the latter was under the rule of the
family of Muammar. They were religiously orientated. Other parts of the country were governed by tyrants
and despots. Riad was ruled by Daham ibn-Dawas, a tyrant and hypocrite of the first order, who would
sew the mouths of women, cut the tongues of innocent people, break their teeth and slash flesh from their
bodies and force them to eat their own flesh after being roasted. He was a peerless brute, whose sports
was nothing but pillage, plunder and aggression.

The economic life was as corrupt as was the religio-cultural life. Piracy and plunder had paralysed the
trade routes and liquidated the import and export of merchandise. Agriculture perished due to the
extortion of the tyrant rulers who would burn standing crops. Thus anarchy and famine prevailed, raiding,
robbery and murders continued, and lust and ambitions swayed supreme. Moral and educational life was
almost non-existent. Righteous 'Ulama' were resented and reformists were slain

The Advent Of The Shaikh:
It was in the background of such pitch darkness that Shaikh Muhammad ibn-'Abd-al-Wahhab appeared
on the scene and started his Da'wa work. He was full of hope and promise and dispelled the clouds of
gloom and frustration that had engulfed the souls of people. He revived the concept of pure Tawhid
(monotheism) and called people to return to pristine Islam - the Quran and the Sunna. He launched his
movement with full vigour and resolved to cut the roots of heathenism, superstitions and heretical
innovations with the sharp scissor of Tawhid. Ruthless battles with the formidable adversaries had to
follow and migration and persecutions were in store for the Shaikh. Had there been no protection of Allah
descending on the Shaikh, he would have perished.

The rise of the Tawhid Movement, threatened the rulers politically and the 'Ulamaa` as-Su` (evil-minded
religious scholars), religiously. The Ottoman Empire got frightened and hastened to liquidate the
movement through military operations. 'Ibrahim Pasha, the son of Muhammad 'Ali, the Turkish governor
of Egypt, was sent to crush the movement which he did in April 1818, when Dar'iya was raised to the
ground and men and women, old and young and infants were slain. Amir 'Abd-Allah, the Sa'udi ruler of
Dar'iya, was arrested and sent to Turkey via Egypt, where he was executed at the Aya Sofia Square with
humiliation. His companions were also executed in Turkey.

A Profile Of The Shaikh:
The Shaikh, who descended from a noble family - the Musharraf - a branch of Banu-Tamim, was born in
1703/1115 in the family of learned 'Ulama'. His father 'Abd-al-Wahhab himself was a great Jurist, 'Alim
and a chief Qadi (Judge) of Dar'iya. He personally taught his son all the sciences of Islamic learning. He
learnt the Qur'aan by heart while still a child. His brilliance and good memory helped him to cut short the
years of study. By the age of twenty, he excelled all the 'Ulama' of his town. Since his movement involved
his whole family in open hostility leading to the use of force by the adversaries, his father had to migrate
in 1139 from 'Uyaina to Huraimila, along with his family. The Shaikh resolved to stay behind and promote
his Da'wa. The 'Ulamaa` as-Su` started refuting him and instigated people to rise against him, ridicule,
abuse and insult him. The opposition reached such a passe that the Shaikh had to migrate from his
hometown 'Uyaina', so that the fire of discord kindled by the opponents, could be extinguished. He went
to Mecca and Madina for higher education and for the promotion of his mission. Many 'Ulama' in Mecca
and Madina supported his Da'wa. He studied under the 'Ulama' of Madina, especially under Shaikh Ibn-
Saif who initiated him to study Imaam Ahmad ibn-Hanbal, and the Sihah Sitta, the six famous
compilations of Hadith. The Shaikh launched his Da'wa in the holy cities which were also under the grip of
un-Islamic practices. One day he was shocked when he saw painful scenes in front of the tomb of the
Holy Prophet (SAW), and he decided to emancipate people from acts which were forbidden even by the
Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) himself. After having finished his education in Madina he returned to Najd and
survived the ordeals that he had to face during the course of his journey from Madina to Najd via Basra,
az-Zubair and al-Ahsa. He reached Huraimila where his parents lived. His father pledged his support,
help and protection to the son and encouraged him to carry on with his call. The 'Ulama' of Huraimila rose
against the Shaikh and instigated the rank and file to stiffen their resistance to his call and murder the
Shaikh.

The Shaikh left his parents and reached 'Uyaina where he was welcomed by the Amir, 'Uthman-ibn-
Mu'ammar, who lent all his support to the Shaikh and gave the daughter of 'Abd-Allah ibn-Mu'ammar into
his marriage. The matrimonial relations helped the Shaikh in the promotion of his Da'wa. Now people of
'Uyaina, in addition to people of Huraimila, Riad and Dar'iya also joined the Shaikh in his noble mission.

The Da'wa In Action:
The Shaikh started teaching people the Quraan, and Hadith and the concept of Tawhid and invited them
to return to pristine Islam and renounce the idolatrous cult. The first acid test of public faith appeared
when the Shaikh invited them to pull down the gigantic sacred tree at 'Uyaina and to demolish the idols
that were worshipped by them. People were scared to do so because they feared that some divine curse
would befall them soon after the act was committed. The tree was, however, pulled down and the idols
were removed. People's faith was strengthened in the call of the Shaikh when no curse descended upon
them after the tree was cut off. They were spellbound with amazement.

There was still another test to follow, namely, the demolition of the dome from the tomb of a grave, which
was ascribed to Zaid ibn-al-Khattab, situated at Gubaila. Scholars do hold that the said grave has not yet
been located by archaeologists. The supposed grave was a centre of pilgrimage, where people
committed idolatrous acts. It was, however, demolished in the presence of the ruler of 'Uyaina. The tomb
was a means of earning a living. The ruler himself took part in its demolition. People were now more
scared of divine afflictions and chastisement of the town that had to follow after such acts of desecration.
But their faith was further strengthened when they saw that no affliction descended on them from the
heavens. Consequently, people followed the call of the Shaikh in large numbers. 'Uyaina and its suburbs
were cleared from such trees, stones and domes.

The news of the success of the Shaikh and of the support given to him by the ruler of 'Uyaina alarmed
other tyrant rulers who were afraid of losing their political power. The rulers of Najd and Al-Ahsa' made an
alliance to destroy the movement as soon as possible. The ruler of Al-Ahsa' asked the Amir of 'Uyaina to
suspend his support and present himself to Al-Ahsa', which he did not comply with. The ruler of Al-Ahsa'
stirred a revolt against the Shaikh in order to expel him from 'Uyaina. He succeeded in doing so. The
Shaikh left his hometown and reached Dar'iya, which was destined to become the cradle of the immortal
Tawhid movement. Ibn-Sa'ud, the Amir of Dar'iya, lent his full support to the Da'wa of the Shaikh and
protected and promoted the call. The town and its people were now transformed from darkness unto light
and from ignorance to knowledge. The Shaikh gave lessons in the Holy Book, the Hadith and other
Islamic 'Ulum in the famous hall Dar-an-Nadwa'. Mosques were filled with the youth. The envious 'Ulamd'
could not see the scene and branded the Shaikh as soothsayer, sorcerer and false pretender and
charged him with trickery and charlatanry. Some of them charged him of being a heretic, an unbeliever
and a lying sorcerer. The Shaikh, however, exercised maximum forbearance for his sufferings at the
hands of the clergy and the laity and endured the mischief they inflicted upon him. He simply prayed to
Allah for the guidance of the opponents. Forbearance and fortitude became the elements of his sterling
character and pattern of behaviour.

An unholy alliance, against the Shaikh, was made between the rulers of Riad, Al-Katif and Basra. The
'Ulamaa` as-Su` joined them. The most determined and vehement enemies of the call were the Ulama' of
Najd. Muhammad ibn-Sahim and his son Ibrahim were among them. Daham ibn-Dawas, the Amirr of
Riad, and Sulaiman, the Amir of Al-Ahsa', the absolute tyrants, launched their offensive and militant
crusades against the Da'wa. The war between Daham, the ruler of Riad and Ibn-Sa'ud, the ruler of
Dar'iya, who was the protector of the Da'wa of Tawhid, raged for about twenty seven years, but to no
avail. The Amir of Al-Ahsa', another sworn enemy of the Shaikh, approached various tribes to join him.
Their combined armies swarmed the plains and heights of the desert as never witnessed before. The
tribes had joined him in lure of plunder and booty. They unleashed their tyrannies, by killing the followers
of the Shaikh. In 1188, he destroyed their towns, and burnt their homes. He wanted to march on Dar'iya
but his sudden death in 1188 stopped him from his brute ambitions and after his death the opposition
could not survive any more.

The failures and discomfiture of the opponents became a source of strength to the Shaikh and his Da'wa
and helped him to gain more adherents. The call reached the soil of Iraq, Syria and Hijaz. The call
survived and brought radical transformation in the religious, intellectual and political life of the Umma.
Now the 'Ulama' were divided into two camps, those who supported the Da'wa and those who opposed it
vehemently.

The Wahhabi-Sa'udi Rule:
Since there was no separation between religion and state in Islam and since the state was supposed to
enforce the laws of Islam as ordained by Divine Revelation and the Hadith, the Sa'udi rulers of Dar'iya,
accepted the call of the Shaikh in letter and spirit and the new state was in fact a Wahhabi-Sa'udi State,
promoting justice, truth, righteousness and happiness for the people. The Shaikh himself did not assume
any power. He merely motivated the Sa'udi rulers to enforce canonical law and guided them towards
Islamic justice. He gave his judgements in disputes in regard to religio-political conflicts or treaties signed
between States. He worked both as a religio-social reformer as well as a political leader with vision,
insight and acumen. He did not live in isolation from the society or political affairs of the state. The Shaikh
and Ibn-Sa'ud acted in perfect harmony because they were on the same wave length of ideas.The
harmony reached to such an extent that the Sa'udi rulers could not decide anything without consulting the
Shaikh. Even his decisions on war and peace were accepted by the rulers. Thus the government of
Dar'iya - was the first Islamic state in the eighteenth century - that was run jointly by the Sa'udi and
Wahhabi" leaders.

The Da'wa of the Shaikh succeeded so rapidly because it had a political power and executive authority at
its back. Despite hostile assaults, wars for decades, the Da'wa emerged triumphant and the Shaikh saw
the fruits of his sacrifice during his own lifetime. The Shaikh, who started his Tawhi'd movement when he
was only twenty years old or even less, was happy at heart for he had established the Islamic
commonwealth at Dar'iya and had restored the Islamic life-style. After having achieved his mission, the
Shaikh surrendered himself to the call of his Creator and passed away in 1792/1206. The news of his
demise engulfed the souls of Muslims with sadness, sorrow and grief. Great 'Ulama' mourned the demise
in elegiac odes. His message, however, reached Asia, Africa and Europe. One can see the hands of the
Shaikh moving in the present resurgence of Islam throughout the Muslim World. It is, however, the
saddest episode in the history of Islamic movement that the same Sa'udis who had promoted the call in
the beginning have forgotten it today and have slipped into luxuries and are entrapped into the cobwebs
of the Superpowers.

Militant Crusade Launched By The 'Ulama':
The 'Ulama', as alluded to repeatedly, constituted a united front in exciting the states and the public
against the Shaikh. Since the Shaikh did not believe in verbal exhortation and guidance and since he was
a political positivist, and took part in battles along with Ibn- Sa'ud, he was suspected, disliked and
disowned by the 'Ulama' who had accepted gladly the divorce between religion and politics or the state.
The Shaikh believed that Islam needed political authority in order to uphold and support the
commandments of the Quraan and the Sunna. The Shaikh neither introduced any new doctrine nor
invented a new creed in Islam. Revival of the concept of Tawhid and renunciation of heathen practices
was the core of his call. Scholastic

Disputes Disowned:
Despite insurmountable obstacles blocking the way as fetters on his movement, he clung fast to the
Quraan and the Sunna. He died as a poor man. The great Imaams of Islam, such as Imaam Ahmad ibn
Hanbal of Madina, Imaam Ibn-Taimiya and Imaam ibn-Qayyim al-Jawzi, served as inspirational sources
for him in the field of reform and reconstruction of the Muslim society which had relapsed into heathenism
and had drifted rapidly from its pristine origins. The Shaikh adopted the Qur'anic method in proving and
reviving the concept of Tawhid and rejected the scholastic methodology of Greek logic and dialectics that
were adopted by some Muslim scholastic theologians (Mutakallimin). Revelation and not logic or
empiricism, according to him was the sole guide in metaphysical affairs ('Ilm al-Ilahiyat). He believed that
the method of the Quraan in regard to the assertion or negation of metaphysical issues and in arguing
with disbelievers and sceptics was enough for the defence of the Islamic standpoint. Greek logic or
dialectics aimed merely at defeating the opponents, rightly or wrongly, through false wrangling. The
method adopted by him in proving the existence of God and His indivisible Unity was purely Qur'aanic.
The reply given by him to Shaikh Ibn Sahim, is self-explanatory. Questions related to the Being or the
Nature of God, (Zat and Sifat) such as, whether God is a substance, a body or an accident, were debated
by the philosophers and scholastic theologians. Imaam Ahmad ibn-Hanbal argued that the Quraan and
the Sunna, rather than logic and speculative philosophy of the Greeks, were the sole guides for the
Muslims in this regard.

The same view was endorsed by the Shaikh. Since scholastic theologians were not the real 'Ulama' of
Islam, they had introduced erroneous doctrines that were based on Greek rationalism. They were
disowned and denounced by all classical 'Ulama' of Islam. The Shaikh answered the queries that were
made by Shaikh 'Abd-al-Latif of Al-Ahsa' in the same strain. He was well aware of the Ahadith in which
the Holy Prophet (SAW) had warned the Muslim Umma not to get involved in speculative conjectures in
regard to metaphysical issues, such as the essence of and attributes of God, (Zat and Sifat of Allah),
predestination and the like, for previous nations lost their way due to such futile discourses; the Muslim
Ummah had to follow as it was commanded by the Quraan and the Ahaadith. Muslims were dissuaded
from discussing topics of no avail. The companions of the Prophet (SAW) followed the course prescribed
by the Holy Prophet. The Shaikh followed the Ahaadith in letter and spirit and attacked the Mutakallimin
who were ignorant of the evil consequences of 'Ilm al-Kalam and advised them to follow the path laid
down by the Holy Prophet.

Waves Of Allegations:
Despite such orthodox faith in the Qurdn and Hadith, the Shaikh was branded by the 'Ulama' as an
unbeliever, who regarded all Muslims as infidels, save his own followers. It was alleged that he did not
believe in reciting Darood and Salaam on the Prophet and prevented people from doing so. Moreover, he
prevented them from visiting the mausoleum of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.). All such charges were refuted
by the Shaikh in his books, letters and discourses.

His response to the queries made by Shaikh 'Abd-ar-Rahman as-Suwaidi of Iraq, is illuminating. He
asserted that he neither regarded any Muslim as apostate nor condemned their marriages as invalid.
Neither had he ever thought of pulling down the dome of the Holy Prophet, nor to bring any change in the
Kaba. These, he asserted, were blatant lies. He, however, advised people to read the Quraan instead of
books like Dalaa'il al-Khairat. A similar reply was sent to 'Abd-Allah ibn-Sahim in response to his twelve
questions addressed to the Shaikh. He rejected the allegation that he was at war with the 'Ulama'. On the
contrary, he invited people to follow the rightly guided 'Ulama' of Islam. The domes that were demolished
were not the result of desecration of holy shrines but because they were converted into centres of
corruption and above all money-making complexes, which corrupted and enfeebled the faith (Aqaaid) of
people. The Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) was the first to dismantle the centres of idolatry and priesthood and to
ask people to turn to Allah alone and ask Him for Bounties or Favours instead of asking the stones and
idols. His mission was, the Shaikh asserted, the revival of the same message. But no amount of
explanation could satisfy the 'Ulama' who framed new stories and coined new phrases. It was alleged that
Wahhabism and the sword go together and they were inseparable. Thus lies were ascribed to the Shaikh
and his Tawhid movement, every now and then. He was intensely detested by the 'Ulama'. His
statements and writings were tampered with in order to deceive the innocent public, who were the victims
of 'Ulamaa` as-Su`.

Examples of the Prophet were followed by the Shaikh. The Holy Prophet himself had ordered the pulling
down of a tree called 'Dhat Anwat', on which polytheists used to hang their arms and worship it. This
analogy did not convince the theologians who charged the Shaikh of disrespecting the Holy Prophet. The
truth is that the Shaikh rarely mentioned the name of the Holy Prophet without having recited the Darood
and Salam on him.

The 'Ulama' who ignited both the rulers and the public were in fact, court-'Ulama', patronised by the rulers
and Amirs. They were afraid of losing face in the public if people were acquainted with the truth of the
Tawhid movement, the most powerful emancipating and liberating force from all earthly bondages and
mundane loyalties. Consequently, they sowed the seed of discord among the Muslims, instilled hatred
and hostility in their hearts against the Da'wa of the Shaikh. The passions of the public, stirred by the
'Ulama' rose so high that they were ready to assassinate the Shaikh. The Sharif of Mecca - Ghalib ibn-
Sa'id (1204), hastened to ask 'Abd-al-Aziz-ibn-Sa'ud, the Amir of Dar'iya to send to him some of the
learned Wahhabi 'Ulama' in order to clear the mist of mistrust and suspicions befogging the climate about
the credentials of the movement. The son of the Shaikh was sent to Mecca with a special message from
the Shaikh which is worth reading.

It was also alleged that the Shaikh was very harsh in his Da'wa works. The fact is that the Shaikh in his
'Sadir', advised his followers to be kind, and patient in Da'wa work. He cannot be held responsible for the
harshness of some of his followers who were prone to such behaviour due to their Bedouin temperament.
The Shaikh explained his views in regard to intercession and made it clear that he believed in the
intercession of the Holy Prophet on the Day of Resurrection. Authentic books, such as 'Al-Tawassul wal-
Wasila' by Ibn-Taimiya and 'Ad-Dur an-Nadir'by Imaam Shawkaani, were also cited by him. He finally
quoted the Qur'anic verse: "... Those whom you call on, themselves desire nearness to Allah, which of
them shall be nearer to Allah.

He further explained the Qur'anic injunctions in which Allah says that all intercessions belonged to Him
and He alone will grant permission for intercessions. The Holy Prophet was granted the right to intercede.
The chapter on intercession in his "Kitab at-Tawhid' is quite elaborate. Ibn-Taimiya had divided
intercession into six categories. The Shaikh also discussed the visit to the graves in the light of Ahadith.
Ibn-Qayyim made an express statement in the following words: "Among evil practices are using them
(tombs) as religious festivals, performing prayers in them, walking round them, kissing them and touching
them, rubbing the face against the dust, worshipping persons buried in them, making supplication to them
and calling on them for sustenance, health, repayment of debts, alleviation of distress, aid to the needy,
and other things such as idolaters used to ask their idols"

Ibn-Taimiya, in his 'Al-Tawassul wal-Wasila' wrote that: Numerous are the traditions telling that the
Prophet forbade using tombs as mosques and cursed anyone who does so, and forbade using his grave
as a religious festival, for polytheism first started among the people of Noah.

The Shaikh was not different in his message from those of Ibn-Qayyim or Ibn-Taimiya.

From Hostility To Compromise:
The mighty forces rallied against Wahhabism, in and outside of the Arabian Peninsula, could no longer
afford to battle against it, either through the pen or the swords. They had to seek compromise and
accommodation. The British had already exploited and abused the term of Wahhabism, in order to divide
Muslims and rule over them. They had hired religious scholarship in order to produce books against the
movement. Syed Ahmad Shahid of Baraili and his movement were branded as Wahhabi movements in
the Indo-Pak Subcontinent and gave a brutal blow to his Jihad movements in Balakot in 1831. The
Turkish Khilafat, already cracking down, used the term as a source of hate in the Arab and non-Arab
world and smeared its good name. They also hired such 'Ulama' who could issue religious decrees of
infidelity (Fatwa of Kufr). It was propagated that Wahhabism was a movement of assassins and of
unbelievers.

The offensive tides started receding only when progressive 'Ulama' and theologians began to write
articles on the movement and evaluated the Shaikh as a great religious reformer and political leader that
the eighteenth century had produced. They defended the movement and attacked the Arab rulers who
had liquidated it in their countries. Muhammad Kurd 'Ali, a renowned Syrian scholar, wrote his famous
article entitled "The Origins of Wahhabism" in the monthly 'Al-Muqtattaf' in 1901/1318, reproduced in his
book entitled 'The Old and The New', printed in Egypt in 1925/1343. The movement was favourably
evaluated and false accusations were dismissed. Dr. Taha Husain, a well known Egyptian scholar and
stylist, changed the climate when he evaluated the movement highly and wrote an article in 'Al-Hilal' in
March 1933, about the literary life in the Arabian Peninsula. He rejected the views of Al-Azhar about the
Shaikh, and regarded the movement as a great Islamic movement in the Middle East, which liberated the
Arabian Peninsula from heathenism and emancipated them from Jahiliyya practices and brought the
Bedouins back into Islam, as the Holy Prophet had done in his own time. He concluded by saying: "Had
the Turks and Egyptians not made common cause to combat this doctrine and did not combat it in its
homeland with force and arm, never known before to the people of the desert, it would have been very
probable that this doctrine could have united the Arabs in the twelfth and the thirteenth centuries, just as
the advent of Islam had united them in the first century. It awakened the Arab soul and presented it with
the lofty ideal it loved."

These statements captured the imagination of the Arab youth who were enchanted with the magical
prose style of Taha Husain (1889 - 1973). They were emancipated from both hate and hostility towards
Wahhabism, that they had inherited from their elders. 'Abbas Mahmud al-'Aqqad, (1882 - 1964),
Muhammad Abduh (d. 1905), Rashid Rida and Ahmad Amin rejected the prejudiced approach and
regarded it as a great Islamic movement in the eighteenth century.

The impact of the movement reached beyond the confines of the Arabian Peninsula. The whole of the
Islamic World, whether in Asia, Africa or Europe, was influenced by its reform movements. Al-Aqqad
remarked that the Hajj pilgrims imported the revolutionary message to Iraq, Sudan, India and other distant
parts of the world, such as China, Java, Indonesia and Africa. The African leaders, such as Ahmad Bello
of Nigeria, killed in 1966 for his Islamic commitment and reform impulse, was influenced by the
movement. The Shaikh can be bracketted along with Shah Wali-AllAh, Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani, and
Syed Ahmad Shahid of Baraili.

European Colonialists and Wahhabism:
The movement of Tawhid (pure monotheism), launched by Muhammad-ibn-'Abd-al-Wahhab, was
slandered and maligned by the Europeans as well. The very term "Wahhabism" or "Wahhabiya", coined
by them had malicious designs. It intended to prove that the movement was nonconformist and was out of
the pale of Islam. This forgery was hatched by the English, the Turks and the Egyptians. It was
unfortunate to note that for the last two centuries, all resurgent or reformist movements initiated in the
Muslim World, are being branded by the Orientalists as "Wahhabi Movement", in order to discourage the
revival of Islam or Islamisation of the Muslim lands. The colonial powers were afraid of any kind of Islamic
revival or of Jihad movement in Muslim lands colonised by them. They connected all Islamic reformist
movements with Wahhabism. Since the Sanusi Jihad Movement of North Africa (al-Maghrib) had
challenged the Italian colonialists and wanted to expel them from North Africa, the Italian Orientalists
linked the Sanusi' movement with Wahhabism. Similarly, the English colonialists, being challenged by the
Jihad Movement of Syed Ahmad Shahid, branded his Jihad movement as the replica of Wahhabism. The
truth is that the latter was never influenced by the former. Logically speaking, the movement of
Muhammad should have been called either "Muhammadis" or "Muhammadiyun" rather than
Wahhabiyun", related to the name of his father 'Abd-al-Wahhab.

The European Travellers And Writers On Wahhabism:
The Orientalists tried to confuse people about the founder of the movement. H.J. Bryges, in his
"Wahhabiya", regarded 'Abd-al-Wahhab as the founder of the movement and W.W. Hunter declared 'Abd-
Allah, the son of Muhammad, as his grandson (Hafid). The earliest traveller of Bedouin Arabia, Caresten
Nie Bury, believed in Bryges' theory and wrote that Muhammad was opposed to the movement of his
father. He wrote it in 1764 when Muhammad was alive and was leading his movement. He died twenty
eight years later. A Christian clergy regarded the movement as a new religion. He asserted that Ibn-
Taimiya, who proclaimed himself a Hanbali, was in fact a "Wahhabi. Can there be a statement more
ridiculous than this? This was either a gross ignorance or wilful distortion. How could ibn-Taimiya be a
follower of the Wahhabi Movement which emerged four hundred years after his death? How could ibn-
Taimiya then be regarded as a Wahhabi?

It is not certain as to who invented the term "Wahhabi and when. It is, however, certain that the term was
used during the lifetime of Muhammad. The term was used frequently during the First World War.

The travellers started mentioning the movement immediately after the death of Muhammad 'Ali Beg
(1807) and N. Burkhardt (1814) who visited Arabia before and after the invasion of Dar'iya by Muhammad
'Ali of Egypt. The latter wrote his books in 1816, entitl ed: 'Notes on the Bedouins and the Wahhabis',
1831 and frequently used the term 'Wahhabi in Volume two. The famous Egyptian historian 'Abd-ar-
Rahman al-Jabarti, who wrote his history in 1238, also referred to the term in his third volume.

Caresten Nie Bury, the first traveller of Arabia, who set out from Denmark in 1761 along with his
companions and reached Yemen in 1762, has recorded some of his observations in his book 'Travels
Through Arabia and other Countries in the East'. Since he could not visit Najd he had to depend on
secondary sources for his information about Muhammad, which led him to erratic judgements. His work
was translated by Robert Heren and published in Edinburgh in 1792. Harford Jone Bryges, an English
governor of Basra (1784 - 1794) and of Baghdad (1797 - 1806), in his 'Brief History of the Wahhabys', has
furnished some valuable information. But his accounts are also based on N. Burkhardt who visited Hijaz
in 1814 and wrote 'Notes on the Bedoins and the Wahhabys', published in two volumes in 1829 and 1831
respectively. The work of Bryges, which appeared in London in 1834 was, therefore, not based on
primary experience.

No account of the Shaikh and his movement, furnished by the Europeans, was fair and objective. Grifford
Paigrave, in his 'Narrative of a Year's Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia' (1862 - 1863), has
slandered Islam in general and Muhammad and his movement of Tawhid in Najd, in particular. G. Percy
Bedger, in his 'Imaams and Syeds of Oman' (London 1871), and Ch. M. Doughty, in his 'Travels in Arabia
Deserta' (1875), have mentioned nothing worthwhile. Wilfred Scawn Blint, who visited Najd in 1879, in his
'Future of Islam' (1882), made erratic and false statements. Zwemer's work 'Arabia the Cradle of Islam' is
full of falsehood. It is he who forged the story of the demolition of the tomb of the Holy Prophet by King
Sa'ud and flashed it in Europe. David George Hagarth, in his 'The Penetration of Arabia' (London 1904),
and 'A History of Arabia', despite his accuracies, has made serious errors. H. St. J. Philby, in his 'Arabia',
has covered the history of Najd, highlighting the mission of Muhammad. His work is mostly based on
Arabic sources. D.S. Margoliouth, in his 'Wahhabiya and Wahhabies', has proved both his ignorance and
antipathy against Islam. No different is W.W. Hunter, who in his 'The Indian Musalman' (1871) has shown
his indignation against the Jihad movement of Syed Ahmad Shahid and has connected the Jihad
movement with the Wahhabi movement. Andre Servier, in his 'Islam and Psychology of the Musalman'
could not hide his hatred both against Islam and the mission of Muhammad. He regarded Islam as the
greatest enemy of humanity. 'The Expansion of Islam', written by Wilson Cash, is a heap of falsehood. He
scoffed at the movement of Muhammad. Richard Coke, who, in his 'The Arab's Place in the Sun', despite
his sympathetic attitude to the movement, has relied on superstitions and forgeries. He could not make a
distinction between 'Abd-Allah ibn-Sa'ud and Sa'ud ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz. These are only few names among
the primary and contemporary sources which contain some information regarding the Tawhid movement
of Muhammad ibn-'Abd-al-Wahhab. Many works have appeared in recent decades which are worth
studying.

The Muslim Writers:
Books written about Muhammad and his movement, by the Muslims merit brief mention here. Among the
early Arab writers the noted ones are Shaikh 'Abd-al-Ghafur Attar, and Amin Sa'id. Among the writers of
the Indo-Pak Subcontinent are Moulana Manzur Nu'mani and Moulana Mas'ud 'Alam Nadwiy. The latter's
work, Muhammad ibn-Abd-al-Wahhab: Muslih, Mazlum and Muftara 'Alaih' (Arabic version Zamzam
Press, 1977) is based on high scholarship and research. The author has exhausted all accessible
material in Arabic, Urdu and Persian, in addition to European sources. Chapter one deals with the life and
works of Muhammad while chapters two and three treat the rise of the Sa'ud family and the Turkish
conquest of Hijaz and Najd respectively. The writings of Muhammad have been examined in the third
chapter, while his Da 'wa and message have been analysed in the fourth chapter. The fifth chapter
exposes the falsehood that were forged against Muhammad by pioneer forgers. The last chapter, being
the critique of sources, is most significant. The author analyses his Arabic, Urdu and Persian, as well as
the European sources objectively.

Writings Of Muhammad: A Critique Of His Critics:
Muhammad ibn-'Abd-al-Wahhab wrote many treatises (Risalat). Sixteen of them are extant now, while the
others have been mentioned in his other works. The main treatise, being 'Kitab at- Tawhid, served as the
manifesto of his movement. He revitalised the concept of Tawhid in the light of the Qur'anic verses and
the Ahadith. All other writings revolved around the same axis of Tawhid. The doctrinal, moral and ethical
issues were discussed in the light of Tawhid. He also wrote commentaries of certain chapters of the Holy
Quraan, the biography of the Holy Prophet and summarised the Sira of Ibn-Hisham and Zad-al-Maad of
Imaam Ibn-Qayyim.

Extravagance Of Accusations And Slanders And Mutilation Of Historical Facts:
Strange stories were forged by the opponents of the Shaikh. The pioneer of the movement was Sulaiman
bin Muhammad bin Sahim (d. 1181) who, during the lifetime of Muhammad, launched the campaign of
slander and accused him of demolishing the tomb of Zaid-ibn al-Khattab in Jahila, of the mosque adjacent
to the grave, of burning books such as Dalaail Khairat and Rauda ar-Riyaahin and of condemning books
such as Ibn-al-Farid and ibn-al-'Arabi as apostates. The truth is that the graves of Zaid and his
companions, as aforesaid, were still unknown and the story of burning of the books is a blatant lie. The
Shaikh, however, advised his followers not to read such books. With regard to the belief in sufi-
Pantheism, he, being opposed to pantheistic ideas, cautioned his followers about the hazards of such
beliefs.

Many scholars and Shaikhs joined the campaign of slander which was based on enmity and hatred,
rather than on academic grounds. Shameless poems were written by Ibn-Firoze (d. 1801).

Muhammad ibn-'Abd-al-Wahhab, who purified and sanctified the concept of Tawhid and revived the
Sunna of the Prophet, was also accused of laying claims to Prophethood and of denying the body corpus
of Hadith. Shaikh Ahmad Zainil Wahlan was a deadly enemy of Muhammad and accused him of laying
claims to Prophethood, although he could not declare it openly, due to public fear. These rumours were
imported to the Indo-Pak Subcontinent. Moulvi Fadl Rasul Badayuni (d. 1822), spread the rumour about
the denial of Hadith literature by the Wahhabis. 'Abd-Allah Yusuf 'Ali, the translator of the Holy Quraan,
also believed in such fanciful rumours. It merely shows his ignorance about such an important Islamic
movement. Even the Christian writers, such as Thomas Patrick Huges, who compared Wahhabism with
the Protestants, confessed that the Wahhabis were the staunch followers of the Qur'aan and Sunna.

Another serious allegation was made that Muhammad considered Muslims, other than his own followers,
as apostates and recommended their execution. Ibn-'Abdin ash-Shami (d. 1842), forged the story and he
was joined by Ahmad Zaini Wahlan (d. 1886).These allegations were emphatically denied by Mubammad
himself. It was unfortunate that a great scholar like Qadhi Muhammad ibn-'Ali Shawkani, without making a
thorough investigation into the matter, supported such forged views. Similar confusion prevailed in the
Indo-Pak Subcontinent when a scholar like Nawab Siddiq Hasan Khan (d. 1890), made conflicting
remarks and statements about the movement, in his writings.

Some of the students of Muhammad took a hard line. Shaikh Ahmad ibn-Nasir ibn-'Uthman al-Mu'ammar
(d. 1225 A.H.), a pupil of Muhammad, believed that the grave-worshippers and seekers of help from
anyone other than Allah, were apostates. Similar views were held by Muhammad ibn-Ismail al-Aamir al-
Yamani (d. 1182 A.H.), a contemporary supporter of Muhammad, although he softened his attitude later
on.

The opposition movement reached its peak when it declared that Muhammad "kills people, robs them of
their wealth and condemns Muslims as apostates". Some of the Indian scholars, such as Moulana Anwar
Shah Kashmiri (d. 1933), also accused Muhammad of baseless charges, as mentioned above.

Allegations, such as undermining the Holy Prophet, free interpretation of the Quraan and the Sunna,
denial of intercession of the Holy Prophet on the Day of Judgement, were emphatically refuted by both
Muhammad and his son 'Abd-Allah. Among the forgeries, most shameful was the story that was
concocted by the enemies about Sa'ud ibn-'Abd-al-Aziz ibn-Muhammad ibn-Saud (d. 1803). The enemies
rumoured that King Sa'ud wanted to demolish the tomb of the Holy Prophet, but could not do so because
of the lack of heavy instruments which could demolish such a solid building. This was a pure lie. Such
stories were exploited by the colonialists and the Orientalists in order to incite Muslim sentiments against
the movement. The Turkish government propagated that the Saudis had prohibited the Muslims from
going for Hajj. One of the most amazing forgeries committed by Shaikh Badawi was when he wrote that
portions of the Holy Qur'aan, deleted by Hadhrat 'Uthman the third Caliph from the main text of the Book,
was still in possession of the Wahhabis.

Such lies, falsehood and slanders were broadcast and exploited by Western authors, in favour of the
colonialists who were already trying to incite the colonized Muslims against the Wahhabi movement. They
succeeded in doing so, especially in the Indo-Pak Subcontinent where they incited Muslims against the
Jihad movement of Syed Ahmad Shahid, of which the prime targets were the English. They sowed the
seed of incurable division, now being ploughed and harvested by their sympathisers - both the laity and
the lettered.