Manufactured Structures

U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
SafetyandHealthinManufacturedStructures

Suggested citation: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and U.S. Department
of Housing and Urban Development. Safety and health in manufactured structures.
Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2011.
Use of trade names is for identifcation only and does not imply endorsement by
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Public Health Service, the U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, or the U.S. Department of Housing and
Urban Development.
Edited by Don Ryan, MURP, environmental health consultant, and Liza Bowles, MUA,
Newport Partners LLC.
Additional copies of this manual can be downloaded from
http:// www.cdc.gov/healthyhomes.
SafetyandHealthin
ManufacturedStructures
Editedby
DonRyan,MURP
LizaBowles,MUA
CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention
NationalCenterforEnvironmentalHealth/AgencyforToxicSubstancesandDiseaseRegistry
DivisionofEmergencyandEnvironmentalHealthServices
HealthyHomesandLeadPoisoningPreventionBranch
U.S.DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices,PublicHealthService
Atlanta,GA

Preface
MillionsofpeopleinAmericaliveinmanufactured
structuresarangeofunitsthatincludesmanufact-
uredhomes,traveltrailers,campingtrailers,andpark
trailers.Manufacturedstructuresareusedforlong-
termresidence;fortemporaryhousingfollowing
disasters;forrecreationalandtravelpurposes;and
alsoforclassrooms,daycarecenters,andworkplaces.
Housingisaprimarypurposeofthesestructures,
withmanufacturedhomesaccountingfor6.3%ofthe
housingunitsintheU.S.andhousing17.2million
persons.Manufacturedhomesofferexibilityand
affordability,andcompriseanimportantpartofthe
U.S.housingstock.
Whetherusedforlong-termhousingorforshort-
termshelterfollowingadisaster,forclassroomsor
forofces,manufacturedstructuresshouldbesafe
andhealthyforthepeoplewholive,work,study,
andplayinthem.WithAmericansspendingthe
vastmajorityoftheirtimeindoors,itisvitalthat
buildingsprotectoccupantsfromtheelementsand
provideprivacy,comfort,andpeaceofmind.At
thesametime,thesestructuresshouldnotpresent
riskstooccupantshealthandsafetyduetodesign,
construction,ormaintenanceproblems.
Thisreportidentiesandsummarizessafetyand
healthissuesinmanufacturedstructuresbasedon
awideexpanseofresearch.Theendresultisa
thoroughcharacterizationofhealthandsafetyhazards
inmanufacturedstructures,alongwithmitigation
strategiesanddiscussionsofopportunitiesforhealth/
safetyenhancementsandat-riskpopulations.
Manyofthehazardsdiscussedinthisreportarenot
uniquetomanufacturedstructures,whileotherissues
havebeenidentiedasparticularproblemsforthis
formofhousing.Further,whenmanufacturedstructures
areusedasinterimhousingfollowingadisaster,
additionalhealth/safetyissuescanarise.Thespecic
topicscoveredinthisreportareanintroductionto
manufacturedstructures,resafety,moistureandmold,
indoorairquality(IAQ),pestsandpesticides,sitingand
installation,utilities,postdisasterhousing,andpotential
opportunitiesforfutureenhancements.
Thehealthandsafetyhazardsrelatedtoresafety,
moistureandmold,IAQ,pestsandpesticides,and
otherissuesgenerallyfallintothecategoriesof
design,construction,andmaintenance.Thus,for
anissuelikeeffectivemoisturemanagementto
preventmoldandrelatedproblems,strategiesrange
fromgoodproductselectioninthedesignphaseto
propergradingofthesiteduringconstructionallthe
waytoregularmaintenanceofthebuildingenvelope
aftermanyyearsofservice.Mostotherhealthand
safetyhazardsaresimilarinnature,withmultiple
partiesplayinganimportantroleinmanagingrisks
fromthedesignofthemanufacturedhomethrough
itsuseasahomeforyearstocome.
Fortunately,thechallengesofmanaginghealthand
safetyrisksinmanufacturedstructuresarewell
documented,alongwithappropriatestrategiesand
solutions.Thisreportdocumentsandsummarizes
thisinformation,withtheintentofservingasa
comprehensiveresourcetoinformdiscussionsand
futuredecisionsregardingthedesign,construction,
maintenance,anddeploymentofmanufactured
structuresintheUnitedStates.
Iwishtothanktheworkinggroupparticipantsfrom
theCentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention,U.S.
DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment,
FederalEmergencyManagementAgency,U.S.
DepartmentofEducation,NewYorkCityOfceof
EmergencyManagement,andHarvardSchoolof
PublicHealth;theexpertconsultantswhoreviewed
thedraftdocumentduringtheSafeandHealthy
ManufacturedStructuresmeetingonOctober17,
2008;andsubject-matterexpertswhoreviewed
andcommentedonseveraldraftsofthedocument.
Ibelievethattheserecommendationsprovide
essentialguidanceonthesafeandhealthyuseof
manufacturedstructures.
ChristopherJ.Portier,Ph.D.
Director,NationalCenterfor
EnvironmentalHealthand
AgencyforToxicSubstancesand
DiseaseRegistry
Page ii |Safety and Health in Manufactured Structures
TableofContents
GLOSSARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
CHAPTER 1: Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
WhyFocusonManufacturedStructures?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
WhyWorryaboutHealthandSafetyRisksinHousing,Schools,andOces?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
ScopeofManufacturedStructuresCovered. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
OverviewofHealthandSafetyConcerns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
StructuralIntegrityandBuildingPerformance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
AccesstoSafeUtilities.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
FireSafety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
MoistureandMold.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
PestsandPesticides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
IndoorAirQuality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
SitingandInstallation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
EmergencyDeployment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
RelevantStandardsandRegulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
ManufacturedHousing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
RecreationalVehiclesandCampingTrailers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
PortableClassrooms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
FederalAgencyRolesandResponsibilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
CHAPTER 2: Fire Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
TheDangerofFire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
LeadingCausesofFire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
EectofHUDsStandards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
TheImportanceofSmokeAlarms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
TechnologiestoConsiderforImprovedFireSafety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
FireSafetyTips. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
SmokeAlarms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
CigaretteSmoking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Cooking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
ElectricalCircuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
HomeHeating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
CHAPTER 3: Moisture and Mold. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
IndoorMoistureProblems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
MoldandManufacturedStructures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Flooring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
WallsandWindows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Roofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Safety and Health in Manufactured Structures |Page iii
Heating,Ventilation,andAirConditioningSystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
CrawlSpaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
HealthEectsofMold. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
AssessingMoldProblems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
CleaningupMoldProblems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
EvaluatingHealthafterExposuretoIndoorMold. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
PreventingandControllingMoldProblems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
DesignandConstructionIssues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
TechnologiestoPreventMoistureandMoldProblems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
TipstoReduceMoistureandMoldProblems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
CHAPTER 4: Indoor Air Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
IndoorAirContaminantsofConcern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
VolatileOrganicCompounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Allergens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
CombustionByproducts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Pesticides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
EnvironmentalTobaccoSmoke. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Radon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
ControllingSourcesofIndoorAirContaminants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
DesignChangestoImproveVentilation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
TipstoOccupantsforImprovingIndoorAirQuality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
CHAPTER 5: Pests and Pesticides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
HealthRisksPosedbyPests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
DustMites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
Cockroaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
RatsandMice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
Mosquitoes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
Ticks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
BedBugs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
PesticideRiskstoHumanHealth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
ExistingCodesandRegulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
PreventingPestProblems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
PestControlStrategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
DustMites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Cockroaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
CommensalRodents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Mosquitoes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Ticks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
BedBugs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Page iv |Safety and Health in Manufactured Structures
CHAPTER 6: Siting and Installation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
CommunitySetting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
DesignPrinciplesforMHCs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
SelectaHealthyandSustainableSite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
ProvideUtilityServices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
IncorporateMixedLandUses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
CreateWalkableNeighborhoods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
ProvideaVarietyofTransportationChoices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
ProvideAccesstoParks,Greenspace,andRecreationalFacilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
EnsureSafetyandSecurity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
InvolveStakeholdersinCommunityDesignDecisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
GiveResidentsaSenseofPlace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
ProvideaRangeofHousingChoices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
ProvidePostdisasterSocialServicesasNeeded. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
StormwaterManagement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
AvoidingStormwaterProblems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
FoundationOptionsforSitingUnits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
SoilConditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
SeismicActivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
WindZones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
SnowLoads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
FrostHeave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Termites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
TypesofFoundationsandAnchoringSystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Pier-anchorSystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Slabs-on-grade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
ProprietarySystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
RelocatingManufacturedHomes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
TransportingtheManufacturedHome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
EnsuringtheAdequacyoftheDwellingforItsNewLocation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
CHAPTER 7: UTILITIES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
UtilityServicesforManufacturedStructures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
HotWater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
DrinkingWater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
SewageService. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Electricity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Gas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
CHAPTER 8: Postdisaster Housing: Keeping Safe and Healthy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
FireandElectricalSafety...................................................................................................62
SmokeAlarms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
CigaretteSmoking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
Cooking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
Candles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
ElectricalCircuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
Burns/Scalds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
Safety and Health in Manufactured Structures |Page v
EscapePlan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
Heating,Cooling,andVentilation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
OperatingYourHeating/CoolingSystem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
SpaceHeaters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
VentilatingtheBuilding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
CombustionSafety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
IndoorAirQualityandMoistureControl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
ManagingIndoorHumidityLevels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
HouseholdCleaningProducts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
Allergens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
Mold. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
MoldCleanUp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
MoldTesting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
PestsandRodents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
Preventionand"Pest-proong"Tips. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
BeforeUsingPesticidesin/AroundtheHome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
StructuralIntegrity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
BuildingAccessibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
SpecialPopulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
CHAPTER 9: POTENTIAL OPPORTUNITIES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
SustainableBuildingandHealth/Safety...................................................................................69
EnergyEciencyandConservation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
WaterConservation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
OptimizingIndoorAirQualityandMechanicalVentilation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
DesigningforDurabilityandDisaster. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Floods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Termites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
HighWinds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Fire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
EvaluatingNewTechnologiesforHealth/Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
U.S.DOEBuildingAmericaProgram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
GreenandSustainabilityRatingsandPrograms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
Chapter1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
Chapter2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Chapter3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
Chapter4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
Chapter5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Chapter6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Chapter7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Chapter9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
Page vi |Safety and Health in Manufactured Structures

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Weacknowledgethetechnicalandscienticinput,
suggestions,andreviewofnumerousindividualsand
organizationsthatcontributedtothedevelopmentofthis
Safety and Health in Manufactured Structuresmanual.
Themanualwasdevelopedasafollow-uptothe
SafeandHealthyManufacturedStructuresworking
meetingheldonOctober17,2008.Meetingparticipants
representingfederal,state,andlocalgovernment;
communityandenvironmentalgroups;industry;
professionalassociations;andacademicinstitutions
reviewedandcommentedonformativematerialsforthis
document.Individualsfromthefollowingagencieswere
involvedinthevariousdraftsofthemanual:
Federal Agencies
AccessBoard
CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention(CDC),
U.S.DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices
ConsumerProductSafetyCommission
DepartmentofEducation
DepartmentofHomelandSecurity(DHS)
DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment
(HUD)
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)
NationalInstituteofStandardsandTechnology,
DepartmentofCommerce
State and Local Government
CaliforniaAirResourceBoard
NewOrleansDepartmentofHealth
NewYorkCityDepartmentofHealthand
MentalHygiene
NewYorkCityOffceofEmergencyManagement
Community and Environmental Entities
CollaborativeforHighPerformanceSchools
EnvironmentalWorkingGroup
NationalCenterforEnvironmentalHealthStrategies
NationalCenterforHealthyHousing
NationalEnvironmentalHealthAssociation
SierraClub
Southface
Industry Groups
AmericanForestandPaperAssociation
CompositePanelAssociation
FormaldehydeCouncil
ManufacturedHousingAssociationforRegulatory
Reform
ManufacturedHousingInstitute
ManufacturedHousingResearchAlliance
NewportPartners,LLC
NortheasternIPMCenter
RecreationalVehicleIndustryAssociation
Professional Associations
AmericanAcademyofPediatrics
AmericanInstituteofArchitecture/NewYork
AmericanNationalStandardsInstitute
AmericanPlanningAssociation
AmericanPublicHealthAssociation
ArchitectureforHumanityNewYork
AssociationofStateandTerritorialHealthOffcials
FederationofAmericanScientists
HealthySchoolsNetwork
HomeSafetyCouncil
InternationalCodeCouncil
NationalAssociationofCountyandCityHealth
Ofcials
NationalFireProtectionAssociation
NorthGulfportCommunityLandTrust
PhysiciansforSocialResponsibility
Academic Institutions
GeorgiaInstituteofTechnology
HarvardUniversity,HarvardSchoolofPublicHealth
Mid-AtlanticCenterforChildrensHealth,George
WashingtonUniversity
WashingtonStateUniversity
Attribution to the Subject-matter Experts
Ourdeepappreciationgoestothefollowingsubject-
matterexpertsandreviewerswhohelpedtoguidethe
authorsindevelopingandproducingthisdocument:
MaryJeanBrown,ScD,RN;ChinyereO.Ekechi,JD;
AndrewDannenberg,MD,MPH;HowardFrumkin,
MD,DrPH;PaulGarbe,DVM;CAPTMichael
Herring,REHS,MPH;CDRMarkJackson;RitaK.
Noonan,PhD(CDC)
ElizabethA.Cocke,PhD;WarrenFriedman,PhD,
CIH(HUD)
KatherineJ.Seikel,MBA(EPA)
JonathanTorres,BS;RyanBuras(DHS)
SethCummins,JD(NewYorkCityOffceof
EmergencyManagement)
AllisonA.Taisey(NortheasternIPMCenter)
Also,specialthankstoPamelaS.Wigington(CDC)for
herhardworkpreparingthemanualforpublication
andtoLawrenceE.Posey,JD,ManagementConsultant
contractor(CDC)foroverseeingtheday-to-day
managementoftheproject.
Safety and Health in Manufactured Structures|Page vii

Glossary
Air retarder:Amaterialorsystemdesignedand
installedtoreduceairleakageintoorthrough
theexposedareasofawallorotherbuilding
componentsthatencloseconditionedspace.
Belly: Thevolumeofamanufacturedhousingunit
betweenthesuboorandthebottomboard.
Bottom board:Mostcommonlyaexiblesheet
materialusedtoenclosethebottomsideoftheoor
systemfromthecrawlspace.
Building envelope: Theentireoutershellofa
structurethatseparatestheinternalenvironment
fromtheexternalenvironment,providingstructural
integrity,temperaturecontrol,andairdiffusion
control.
Camping trailer:Aformoftraveltrailerconstructed
withcollapsiblepartialsidewallsthatfoldfortowing
byanothervehicleandunfoldatthecampsiteto
providetemporarylivingquartersforrecreational,
camping,ortraveluse.
Daylighting: Theuseofnaturallightforillumination
ofaspace.Whenusedproperly,daylightingisa
techniquethatcansaveenergyinbuildings.
Dehumidication: Theremovalofwatervaporfrom
airbyeithercoolingtheairbelowthedewpointand
drainingtheresultingliquidaway,orbyabsorbingit
fromtheairthrougharepeatablechemicalprocess.
Dew point: Thetemperatureatwhichhumidair
becomessaturatedandthewatervaporbeginsto
condensetoliquidwater.
Exltration: Theuncontrolledowofairoutofa
buildingthroughcracks,holes,doors,orother
openingsthatallowairtoescape.Airthatleaksfrom
ahomeisreplacedbyoutdoorairbroughtinbyfans
orinltration.(SeeInltration.)
Feedback systems: Energymonitoringdeviceswith
visualdisplaysoffactorsaffectingenergyuseinthe
home.
Inltration: Theuncontrolledowofairintoa
buildingthroughcracks,holes,doors,orother
openingsthatallowsairtomoveinfromtheoutside.
(SeeExltration.)
Insulation: Abuildinglayerthathasahighresistance
toheatowinandoutofbuildings.Common
insulationmaterialsusedinmanufacturedhousing
arecellulose,berglass,androckwool.
Manufactured home:Ahomethatisgenerallywider
than8feetandlongerthan40feet(foranarea
greaterthan320squarefeet);builtonapermanent
chassis;containsplumbing,heating,air-conditioning,
andelectricalsystems;anddesignedtobeusedas
adwellingwithorwithoutapermanentfoundation
whenconnectedtotherequiredutilities.Itis
assembledinamanufacturingplantandtransported
inoneormoresections.Atitsnaldestination,the
manufacturedhomeistypicallymountedandthe
wheelsoraxles,orboth,areremoved.
Manufactured structure:Arangeofunitsthat
includesmanufacturedhomes,traveltrailers,camping
trailers,andparktrailers.Someofthishousingis
usedforlong-termresidence,someforrecreational
andtravelpurposes,andsomeastemporaryhousing
followingdisasters.
Marriage line: Thelineofintersectionthroughthe
oor,walls,ceiling,androofthatjoinstwohome
sectionstogether.
MHCSS (Manufactured Home Construction and
Safety Standards):Asetofspecicationsto
whichmanufacturedhousingmanufacturersmust
build.Thisisacomprehensivenationalstandard
administeredbyHUD;itpreemptsallotherbuilding
regulations.AlsoreferredtoastheHUDCode.
Modular home:Ahomethatisbuiltinafactoryin
sections,transportedtoabuildingsite,liftedfrom
thetransportbycrane,andrestedonaprebuilt
foundation.Thesesectionsarethenfastened
together.Modularhomesarebeyondthescopeof
thisdocument.
Moisture and vapor retarder:Materialsusedtoslow
thepassageofwatervaporormoistureintobuilding
assembliesthroughdiffusion.(AlsoseeVapor
Barrier.)
Motor home:Self-propelledvehiclesthatcontain
atleastfourofthefollowingsystems:cooking,
refrigeration,toilet,heatingand/orairconditioning,
potablewater,separateelectricalpowersupply,and/
orLPgassupply.
Page viii |Safety and Health in Manufactured Structures

Park trailer: Alargerversionofatraveltrailer(upto
400squarefeetinarea)thatisusedastemporary
livingquarters.Usuallyparktrailersareregulatedby
transportationauthorities.
Permeance:Ameasureoftheabilityofamaterialto
transmitfreewatermoleculesbydiffusion.Theterm
permreferstotherateofwatermovementthrough
amaterial.
R-value: Themeasureofinsulationsresistanceto
heatoworitsinsulatingeffectiveness.R-valueis
calculatedastheinverseofamaterialsU-factor.
ThehighertheR-value,thehighertheinsulative
propertiesofamaterial.
Recreational vehicle: Avehiclebuiltonsinglechassis,
under400squarefeet,self-propelledortowablebya
lightdutytruck,anddesignedprimarilytobeusedas
temporarylivingquartersforrecreational,camping,
travelorseasonuse,butnotasapermanent
dwelling.Recreationalvehiclesincludecamping
trailers,motorhomes,andtraveltrailers.
Relative humidity (RH): Theratioofwatervaporin
theairtotheamounttheaircouldpotentiallyholdat
agiventemperature.
Site-built structure:Aformofhousingwherethe
materialsforthehome,whichmaybedetached
orattached,aretransportedtothebuildingsite
andassembledtoformthestructure.Site-built
structuresarebuiltonpermanentfoundationsand
arenotdesignedtobetransportedormoved.These
structuresarebuiltinaccordancewiththelocally
applicablebuildingcodesandregulations.
Skirting: Aperimeterenclosurethatcreatesthecrawl
spaceareaunderamanufacturedhome.Skirting
materialsrangefromventilatedvinylsidingtobrick
walls.
Solar heat gain coefcient (SHGC): Therated
portionofsolargainthatpassesthroughawindow.
ValuesofSHGCarebetween0and1,withlower
valuesrepresentinglesssolargain.
Thermal barrier: Acontinuousblanketofmaterials
(suchasberglassinsulation)usedtoslowtheow
ofheatintobuildingassemblies.
Travel trailer: Aawheel-mountedtrailerdesignedto
providetemporarylivingquartersduringrecreation,
camping,ortravelactivities.Traveltrailersgenerally
havesizelimits,suchas8feetinwidthand40feetin
length,foranareaoflessthan320squarefeet.When
towedbyamotorvehicle,atraveltrailerdoesnot
requireaspecialhighwaymovingpermitbasedon
sizeorweight.Traveltrailersaregenerallyconsidered
vehiclesratherthanstructuresandareregulatedby
statetransportationauthoritiesratherthanhousing
authorities.
U-factor: Theratedquantityofheatthatpassesthrough
amaterialinagiventime(Btu/hrXft2XF),also
knownasconductance.ThelowertheU-factor,the
highertheinsulativepropertiesofamaterial.
Vapor diffusion: Themovementofwatervapor
fromaregionofhighconcentrationtoaregionof
lowconcentration.
Vapor retarder:Materialusedtoslowthepassageof
watervaporintobuildingassemblies;usuallyasheet
orcoatingwithlowpermeance.Alsoreferredtoas
vapordiffusionretarder.
Ventilation: Theintroductionofoutdoorairintoa
building.Passiveventilationtakesplacenaturally
throughwindows,doors,andairleakagesites.
Mechanicalventilationusesafantomove
air.Mechanicalsystemsthatuseexhaustfans
depressurizeahome,whereassystemsthatbring
inventilationairwiththefurnacefanpressurize
ahome.Spotventilationisthetemporaryuseof
bathandstoveexhaustfanstoremoveodorsand
watervapor.
Wall, ceiling, and oor cavities:Spacesbetweenthe
outsidesheathingandtheinsidesurfacetreatment,
usuallycontaininginsulation,ductworkplumbing,
andelectricalwiring.
Safety and Health in Manufactured Structures|Page ix
Page x |Safety and Health in Manufactured Structures

CHAPTER1:INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE
Thepurposeofthismanualistoprovideinformation
Thismanualprovidesaconsolidatedsourceof
thatwillhelpprotectthehealthandsafetyofpersons
whousemanufacturedstructures.Thisdocument
shouldbeusefultomanyaudiences,including:
Manufacturersofthevarioustypesofmanufactured
structures;
Thosewhopurchase,ownandmaintain
manufacturedstructures;
Federal,stateandlocalemergencyresponse
agencies;
Localgovernmentagenciesinvolvedinpermitting
andsitingdecisions;
Publichealthoffcials;and
Individualswholive,work,study,andplayin
informationandanoverviewofhealthandsafety
issuesassociatedwithmanufacturedstructures.This
manualdescribessignicanthealthandsafetyrisks;
highlightsfactorsthatdistinguishmanufactured
structuresfromsite-builtstructures;identiescausal
andotherriskfactorsfornegativehealth/safetyimpacts
onoccupants;andpresentsadviceaboutwhatsteps
manufacturers,purchasers,owners,andoccupants
ofmanufacturedstructurescantaketopreventand
controlhealthandsafetyrisksinmanufactured
structures.Thismanualidentiesspecialchallenges
associatedwithmanufacturedstructuresrolein
helpingtomeetemergencyresponseneedsafter
naturaldisastersaswellaspotentialopportunitiesto
furtherreducehealthandsafetyrisksinmanufactured
structuresandcontributetoothernationalobjectives.
Thisdocumenthasnoregulatoryforce.Inaddition,
thismanualprovideslinkstoamultitudeofsourcesfor
moredetailedinformationandadvice.
Safety and Health in Manufactured Structures|Page 1

WHY FOCUS ON MANUFACTURED
STRUCTURES?
MillionsofpeopleinAmericaliveinmanufactured
structuresarangeofunitsthatincludesmanufactured
homes,traveltrailers,campingtrailers,andparktrailers
(seeGlossaryfordefnitions).Someofthishousing
isusedforlong-termresidence,someforrecreational
andtravelpurposes,andsomeastemporaryhousing
followingdisasters.AfterHurricanesKatrinaandRita,
forexample,approximately120,000manufactured
structuresincludingmanufacturedhomes,park
models,andtraveltrailersandcampingtrailershoused
individualsdisplacedbythesestorms.
Accordingtothe2007AmericanHousingSurvey(AHS)
(U.S.CensusBureau2008),8.7millionmanufactured
homesaccountfor6.3%ofthe128.3millionhousing
unitsintheUnitedStatesandhouse17.2millionpersons
(U.S.CensusBureau2007).Manufacturedhomesoffer
exibilityandaffordabilityandcompriseanimportant
partoftheU.S.housingstock.
Manufacturedstructuresarealsousedforclassrooms,
daycarecenters,andworkplaces.Forexample,a
2005U.S.DepartmentofEducationsurveyofpublic
schoolprincipalsfoundthat37%ofallpublicschools
useportablebuildings(ChaneyandLewis2007).In
California,oneinthreestudentslearnsinaportable
building(Shendelletal.2004a,2004b).Theprevalence
ofportablebuildingsatschoolsriseswithminority
enrollment,fromalowof19%inschoolswithlow
minorityenrollmenttoahighof53%inschools
with50%ormoreminorityenrollment(Chaneyand
Lewis2007).Nodataareavailableonthenumber
ofmanufacturedstructuresusedforofces,daycare
centers,constructionsiteofces,andotherpurposes.
Whetherusedforlong-termhousingorforshort-term
shelterfollowingadisaster,forclassroomsorforofces,
manufacturedstructuresshouldbesafeandhealthyfor
thepeoplewholive,work,study,andplayinthem.In
addition,manufacturedstructuresshouldbeaesthetically
pleasing,environmentallyfriendly,andeconomical
toconstructandpurchase.Foreffectiveemergency
responsetodisasters,itisvitalthatmanufactured
housingbereadilyavailable,easilytransported,and
quicklydeployable.
WHY WORRY ABOUT HEALTH
AND SAFETY RISKS IN HOUSING,
SCHOOLS, AND OFFICES?
Americansspendapproximately85%-95%oftheirtime
indoors(Lebowitz1983).Ourhomes,schools,offces
andotherbuildingsprotectusfromtheelementsand
diseaseandprovideprivacy,comfort,andpeaceof
mind.Atthesametime,thesestructurescanposerisks
toourhealthandsafetyduetodesign,construction,or
maintenanceproblems.
Thedirectconnectionbetweenourhousingandour
healthhasbeenrecognizedfordecades.In1938,the
AmericanPublicHealthAssociationsCommitteeonthe
HygieneofHousingpublishedtheBasic Principles of
Healthful Housing,whichremainrelevanttoday.Both
thepublichealthandhousingprofessionshavelong
recognizedtheimportanceofhealthyhousingforgood
health(Howden-Chapman2004;KriegerandHiggins
2002;Saegertetal.2003).Similarly,theimportance
ofhealthyschoolenvironments(Frumkinetal.2006)
andofhealthyworkplaces(Levyetal.2005)iswidely
recognized.
Everykindofstructurehasthepotentialtoposea
varietyofhealthandsafetyrisks,includingstructural
defects,riskofreandelectricshock,pests,moisture
andmoldproblems,andexposuretotoxiccontaminants
andexplosivegases.Thismanualaddressesasubsetof
structurescalledmanufacturedstructures.
SCOPE OF MANUFACTURED
STRUCTURES COVERED
Thismanualcoversthefollowingkindsof
Manufactured homes:Amanufacturedhomeis
generallywiderthan8feetandlongerthan40feet
(foranareagreaterthan320squarefeet);builtona
permanentchassis;containsplumbing,heating,air-
conditioningandelectricalsystems;andisdesigned
tobeusedasadwellingwithorwithoutapermanent
foundationwhenconnectedtotherequiredutilities.It
isassembledinamanufacturingplantandtransported
inoneormoresections.Atitsnaldestination,the
manufacturedhomeistypicallymountedanditswheels
oraxles,orboth,areremoved.Manufacturedhomesare
sometimesusedasschoolclassrooms,ofces,andfor
otherpurposesunrelatedtohousing.
Page 2 |Safety and Health in Manufactured Structures

Travel trailers:Atraveltrailerisawheel-mountedtrailer
designedtoprovidetemporarylivingquartersduring
recreation,camping,ortravelactivities.Traveltrailers
generallyhavesizelimits,suchaslessthan8feetin
widthand40feetinlength,foranareaoflessthan
320squarefeet.Atraveltrailerwhentowedbyamotor
vehicledoesnotrequireaspecialhighwaymoving
permitbasedonsizeorweight.
Camping trailers:Acampingtrailerisaformoftravel
trailerconstructedwithcollapsiblepartialsidewalls
thatfoldfortowingbyanothervehicleandunfoldat
thecampsitetoprovidetemporarylivingquartersfor
recreational,camping,ortraveluse.
Park trailers:Aparktrailerisalargerversionofatravel
trailer(upto400squarefeetinarea),whichisusedas
temporarylivingquarters.
Thismanualdoesnotaddresspop-upcampertrailers
whosewallsdonotfoldout.Thismanualalsodoesnot
addressmanufacturedormodularhousing,whichis
builtinafactoryinsections,transportedtoabuilding
site,liftedfromthetransportbycrane,restedona
prebuiltfoundation,andthenfastenedtogether.
Whenallfourformsofhousingarediscussed,theterm
manufacturedstructuresisused.
OVERVIEW OF HEALTH AND
SAFETY CONCERNS
Manyhealthandsafetyrisksarecommontoboth
manufacturedandtraditionalsite-builtstructures.In
othercases,healthandsafetyrisksassociatedwith
manufacturedstructuresdifferfromtraditionalsite-
builtstructuresbyvirtueoftheirtransportability,
more-connedspaces,useofdifferentfoundations
andmeansofanchoring,and,insomecases,different
utilityconnectionsandservicesthantraditionalsite-built
structures.
During2006and2007,concernsaroseaboutthe
presenceofformaldehydeintheindoorairoftrailers
providedbytheFederalEmergencyManagement
Agency(FEMA)tosomeGulfCoastresidentsas
temporaryhousingfollowingHurricanesKatrina
andRita.FEMA,theCentersforDiseaseControland
Prevention(CDC),andotheragenciescollaboratedin
addressingtheseconcerns.However,formaldehyde
exposuresareonlyoneofalargersetofpotentialhealth
andsafetyissuesinmanufacturedstructures.Importantly,
manyoftheseconcernsapplytoallbuildings;theyare
notuniquetomanufacturedstructures.
Severalpopulationsmaybeespeciallyvulnerableto
healthandsafetyrisksassociatedwithmanufactured
structuresaswellasotherkindsofbuildings.For
example,fetuses,infants,andchildrenareatspecialrisk
fortoxicexposuresduetotheirdevelopingbrainsand
nervoussystems,andtheelderlyareatgreaterriskof
slipsandfallsandmayhavemoredifcultyescaping
re.Peoplewithdisabilitiesmayhavedifcultywith
accesstoandmobilitywithinmanufacturedstructures
(aswellasanystructurewithstairsandconned
spaces).Peoplewithspecicmedicalconditions,such
asasthmaorchronicobstructivelungdisease,may
beespeciallysusceptibletoindooraircontaminants.
Inpostdisastersettings,whenresidentshavebeen
displaced,therisksofpsychologicaldistress,interrupted
careforchronicdiseases,andothermedicalproblems
maybehigh(Cokeretal.2006;Weisleretal.2006).
Personslivinginpovertylackresourcestomaintain
ormakeimprovementstotheirhomes.Theneedsof
populationsatspecialriskmustbetakenintoaccount
inprotectingoccupantsfromhealthandsafetyhazards.
Theseneedsarediscussedinmultiplesectionsof
thereport.Further,Chapter8containsasummaryof
housing-relatedriskstospecialpopulationslivingin
manufacturedstructuresfollowingadisaster.
Structural Integrity and Building Performance
Incontrasttotraditionalsite-builtstructures,
manufacturedstructuresarebuiltinaplant,transported
totheirpointofuse(insomecases,transported
multipletimes),andusuallyanchoredinplace.Asa
result,structuralintegrityandperformanceissuesdiffer
inmanufacturedstructuresfromsite-builtstructures.
Structuralintegrityprotectsoccupantsfrominjury;
controlspestsandmoisture;andaffectsutilityand
maintenancecostsaswellasthestructuresreliability,
durability,andlong-termvalue.
The2007AmericanHousingSurveyreportedthatof
6.9millionoccupiedmanufacturedhomes,314,000
(4.5%)hadsaggingroofs,209,000(3.0%)hadavisible
holeintheroof,171,000(2.5%)hadavisibleholein
theoor,180,000(2.6%)hadslopingoutsidewalls,
467,000(6.7%)hadbrokenwindows,and98,000(1.4%)
hadfoundationswitheithervisiblecrumblingoropen
cracksorholes(U.S.CensusBureau2007).These
percentagesarecomparabletosite-builthomes,as
showninFigure1-1.Nocomparabledataareavailable
forothercategoriesofmanufacturedstructures.While
inadequatemaintenanceisresponsibleforsome
structuraldeciencies,additionalconsiderationsinclude
designandconstructionstandardsaswellasmethods
oftransporting,storing,mounting,andtethering

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ComparisonofManufacturedandSite-builtHomes
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Manufactured
4
Site-built
3
2
1
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Sagging Hole in Hole in Sloping Broken Foundation
Roof Roof Floor Outside Wall Windows Damage
Structural Deciencies
Figure 1-1: Damage assessment of occupied units of site-built and manufactured homes as reported by the 2007 American Housing Survey
(U.S. Census Bureau 2007).
Access to Safe Utilities
Safeandreliableutilityserviceisessentialtominimize
riskofinjuryfromelectrocutionandprotecthealth
throughsafedrinkingwaterandsafehandlingand
treatmentofwastewater.Forsomemanufactured
structures,themeansofprovidingdrinkingwater,
wastewatertreatment,gas,andelectricitydifferfrom
site-builtstructures.Forexample,manufactured
structurestypicallyreceiveelectricityfromexternal
hookups,althoughsomeunitsuseon-sitegenerators.
The2007 AHSrevealedthat48.3%ofmanufactured
housingunitswereheatedwithelectricity,23.9%with
pipedgas,17.6%withbottledgas,andsmallernumbers
withothersourcessuchasfueloil,kerosene,andwood.
Forcooking,56.4%usedelectricityand40.0%used
gas.Municipalwaterandsewerserviceisprovidedin
manufacturedhousingcommunities,butmorelocalized
servicesareusedinsomesettings,includingpostdisaster
situations.Accesstosafeutilitiesshouldbetakeninto
accountinsitingmanufacturedhousingcommunities
aswellasinthedesign,construction,installation,
maintenance,anduseofmanufacturedstructures.
Fire Safety
In2002,anestimated17,200structureresin
manufacturedhousingoccurredintheUnitedStates,
causing210deathsand$134millionindirectproperty
damage.Whileresafetyhasimprovedinmanufactured
housingsincetheManufacturedHomeConstruction
andSafetyStandards(MHCSS)tookeffectin1976,
manufacturedhomeshaveahigherrateofdeaths
perfrethanotherdwellings(Hall2005).Likeother
residentialsettings,manufacturedhousingshouldhave
smokealarmstoprotectresidentsagainstdeathand
injuryfromres(Istreetal.2001).Otherresafety
featuresincludeamespreadrequirementsforstructural
elementssuchaswalls,forwallandoorcovering,and
forothermaterials.
Moisture and Mold
Moistureisaprobleminmanybuildings,including
manufacturedstructures.Climate(e.g.,warm,wet
conditions),buildingfeatures(e.g.,inadequate
ventilationorairconditioning,orfeaturesthatallow
moisturetoaccumulate),andbehavioralfactors(e.g.,
failingtorepairorcleanupwaterleaks)areallfactors.
Moistureaccumulationislikelytooccurwherehumidity

levelsarehigh,suchasinbasementsorbathrooms,and
nearleaksfromrainwaterorplumbing.Somebuilding
materialsandfurnishingsarepronetoabsorbing
moisture.Indoormoistureaccumulation,inturn,can
facilitatethegrowthofmold,mildewanddustmites.
Theseconditionscancausethedevelopmentofasthma
(dustmites)andalsoaggravaterespiratoryandallergic
symptoms(Fisketal.2007,InstituteofMedicine2000).
Pests and Pesticides
Rats,mice,andinvertebratesareproblemsinmany
kindsofbuildings,includingmanufacturedstructures.
Structuresthatareinsubstandardconditionposea
specialchallenge.The2007 AHSreportedthat70,000
occupiedmanufacturinghousingunits(1.0%)hadsigns
ofratsintheprevious3months,and692,000(10.0%)
hadsignsofmice.SeeFigure1-2foracomparison
betweensite-builthomesandmanufacturedhomes.
Thesepestsmaygnawonelectricalwires,causinga
rehazard,andtheymaydamagestructuresandtheir
contentsbygnawingandburrowing.Ratsandmicealso
mayaggravateallergies(InstituteofMedicine2004);
spreaddisease;bite(babiesincribsareespecially
vulnerable);transporteas,lice,mitesandticks(which
posehealththreats)indoors;andcontaminatefoodwith
urine,feces,andhair.Otherpests,suchascockroaches,
dustmites,andies,alsoposeahealththreatin
buildings.Forexample,cockroachesexacerbateasthma,
dustmitesareariskfactorforasthmadevelopmentand
exacerbation(InstituteofMedicine2000;Platts-Mills
andChapman1987;Rosenstreichetal.1997),andies
Figure 1-2: Signs of rats and mice in the last three months in occupied units of site-
built and manufactured homes as reported by the 2005 American Housing Survey.
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Rats Mice
Manufactured
Site-built
canspreadfoodbornepathogenssuchassalmonella.
Aninfestationofwooddestroyinginsectsmayalso
jeopardizeastructuresintegrity.
Indoor Air Quality
Indoorairmaycontainavarietyofcontaminantsthat
cancauserespiratorydisease,neurodevelopmental
problemsinchildren,andincreasedcancerrisk.The
connedspacesofmanufacturedstructures,andin
somecaseslowerventilationandairexchangerates,
makeindoorairqualityaconcerninmanufactured
structures.Indooraircontaminantsofconcerninclude
Volatileorganiccompoundsemittedfromcleaning
products,personalcareproducts,cookingfuel
combustion,andothersources(Spengleret
al.2001),includingformaldehydeoff-gassed
bymanufacturedwoodproductsandbuilding
furnishings(Breysse1977;Goldetal.1993;
Guptaetal.1982;Hanrahanetal.1984;Liuetal.
1991;Sextonetal.1989;Stoneetal.1981;U.S.
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency1987).
Nitrogendioxidefromgasstoves
(SametandBasu1999).
Carbonmonoxidefromcombustionsources
(CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention
2005;Liuetal.2000).
Pollenandfungalspores(SterlingandLewis1998).
Petdanderandotherallergens(Popeetal.1993).
Smokefromtobaccouseandwoodstoves
(Naeheretal.2007).
Indooraircontaminantshavebeenfoundinportable
classroomsaswellasmanufacturedhomes(Shendellet
al.2004a,2004b).Ina2002studyof156schools(with
180portableclassrooms)inWashingtonandIdaho,
18portableclassroomshadnomechanicalventilation
systemandsystemswereturnedoffin46others;and
carbondioxidelevelsexceeded1,000partspermillion
in66%ofportableclassrooms(Prilletal.2002).
Indoorairpollutantscanbereducedboththrough
sourcecontrolandimprovedventilation.Forexample,
changesinmanufacturingpractices,ventilation,and
similarpracticescanreduceformaldehydeemissions
andformaldehydelevelsinsidehomes(Godishand
Rouch1986).

Siting and Installation
Thesitingandinstallationofmanufacturedstructures
arealsoimportanttooccupantshealth,safety,and
wellbeing.Somelocationsofferphysicaladvantages
suchaslowriskofooding,gooddrainageof
stormwater,andrelativequietfromnoisesourcessuch
ashighways.Inaddition,accesstopublictransportation,
greenspaceandrecreationalfacilities,schools,shopping,
andemploymentallimproveresidentsqualityof
life.Formanufacturedstructuresthatareplacedon
foundations,itisvitalthatfoundationsbeappropriately
located,designedandconstructed,andthatthestructure
beproperlyanchoredtoprotectagainsthighwinds.
Emergency Deployment
Specialconsiderationsarisewhenmanufactured
structuresaredeployedinemergencysituations,such
asafteradisaster.Inthesesituations,protectinghealth
andsafetymayrequireweighingcompetingrisksand
benets.Forexample,anotherwiseexcessivelevelof
crowdingmaybeconsideredacceptableintheshort
termtomeettheurgentneedsofdisplacedfamilies.
Emergencymanagersneedtoconsidertheconditionof
unitsthataredeployed,sincedeteriorationmayoccur
duringstorageoremergencytransport.Theplacement
ofpostdisasterhousingisachallenge,sinceideal
optionsmaynotexistforlocation,utilityhook-ups,
accesstoservices,andothernecessitiestomeetthe
urgentneedsofdisplacedhouseholds.
RELEVANT STANDARDS
AND REGULATIONS
Thissectionexplainsthekeystandardsandregulations
thatapplyto
Manufacturedhousing,
Recreationalvehiclesandcampingtrailers,and
Portableclassrooms.
Manufactured Housing
TheU.S.DepartmentofHousingandUrban
Development(HUD)regulatestheconstructionof
manufacturedhousingundertheNationalManufactured
HousingConstructionandSafetyStandardsActof1974.
MHCSS(24CFRSection3280)andthecompanion
ManufacturedHomeProceduralandEnforcement
Regulations(24CFRSection3282)governthe
constructionofmanufacturedhomesandoutline
regulatoryandenforcementprocesses.Thismanual
referstothesefederalstandardsastheHUDCode.
Manufacturedhomesareaminimumof320square
feetwithapermanentchassistoassuretheinitialand
continuedtransportabilityofthestructure.Allsectionsof
manufacturedhomesbuiltintheUnitedStatesafterJune
15,1976,mustbelabeled,providingamanufacturers
certicationthatthesectionhasbeenbuiltin
accordancewiththeHUDCode.TheHUDCodecovers
structuralintegrity,energyperformance,plumbing,
electrical,reandotherrequirements,andincorporates
byreferencemorethantwodozenindustrystandards
issuedbyorganizationslistedat24CFR3280.4.
TheHUDCodeformanufacturedhousingprimarily
containsperformance-basedrequirementsascompared
tothetypicallymoreprescriptivehousingcodesthat
applytosite-builtstructures.Insteadofmandating
howtherequirementsmustbemet,theHUDCode
allowsmanufacturerslatitudeindetermininghowto
meettheestablishedperformancerequirements.This
givesmanufacturesmaximumexibilitytodemonstrate
compliancethroughengineeringanalysesorphysical
teststhatanassemblyorcomponent(e.g.,wall,roof,
etc.)meetsthespeciedperformancestandard.
HUDislegallyresponsibleformaintainingand
periodicallyrevisingtheManufacturedHome
ConstructionandSafetyStandards.Underfederal
law,therequirementsoftheHUDCodepreempt
stateandlocallaws.HUDhasbroadinvestigatory
authoritytoinspectfactories,issuesubpoenasandissue
orders,andmaybringadministrativeactionsagainst
manufacturersorinspectionagenciesforviolations.
HUDsprogramalsoprovidesasystemforhandling
consumercomplaintsrelatingtofailurestoconformin
theconstructionofhomes.
Recreational Vehicles and Camping Trailers
ThenationalMHCSSexemptsrecreationvehiclesfrom
MHCSSregulationsformanufacturedhousing(24CFR
3280)ifthevehicleortrailerisbuiltonasinglechassis
isunder400squarefeet;self-propelledorpermanently
towablebyalightdutytruck;anddesignedprimarily
astemporarylivingquartersforrecreational,camping,
travel,orseasonaluseandnotasapermanentdwelling
(24CFR3282.8).TheNationalHighwayTrafcSafety
Administrationconsidersmotorhomestobevehicles
andassuch,motorhomescanexceed400squarefeet
andstillbeexemptfromHUDregulation.Motorhomes
areself-propelledvehiclesandcontainatleastfourof
thefollowingsystems:cooking,refrigeration,toilet,
heatingand/orairconditioning,potablewater,separate
electricalpowersupply,and/orLPgassupply.

TheU.S.DepartmentofTransportation(USDOT)sets
vehiclesafetystandardsformotorhomes,recreational
vehiclesandtraveltrailers(49CFR571).Thesestandards
includebumperimpact,seatbelts,headlightsand
taillights,andtrailerweightloads.Inaddition,USDOT
hasammabilitystandardsfortheinteriormaterialsof
vehicles,whichalsoapplytomotorhomes,recreational
vehiclesandtraveltrailers(49CFR571.302).On
theotherhand,traveltrailersandparkmodelsare
consideredconsumerproducts,whicharesubjecttothe
jurisdictionoftheConsumerProductSafetyCommission.
Theindustryhasadoptedconstructionstandardsby
consensusthoughtheAmericanNationalStandards
Institute(ANSI)andtheNationalFireProtection
Association(NFPA).TheANSI119.2Standardfor
RecreationalVehiclesandANSIA119.5Standardfor
RecreationalParkTrailerscoverthecorrectinstallation
ofplumbing,fuel-burning,electrical,andothersafety-
relatedsystems.Twentystatesrequirecompliancewith
thesestandardsforthesaleandregistrationofmotor
homes,recreationalvehicles(RVs),andtraveltrailers.
Campingtrailers,traveltrailers,andtruckcampersare
allconsideredRVs.RVsalsoincluderecreationalpark
trailersthatmeettheANSIA119.5standardandmotor
homesthatmeettheANSIA119.2standard.
Also,ANSI(A119.4)andNFPA(1194:Standardfor
RecreationalVehicleParksandCampgrounds)have
issuedstandardsonminimumconstructionrequirements
forparksandcampgrounds.Thesestandardsdonot
coveroperationalandmaintenancepracticesforparks
andcampgrounds.
Portable Classrooms
PortableclassroomsareusedacrosstheUnitedStates
toprovidetemporaryeducationalspacetoprimary,
secondary,andhighereducationinstitutions.Inplanning
theconstructionofprimaryeducationfacilities,California
requiresconsiderationoftemporaryclassroomsif
declinesinenrollmentarepredicted.Theseclassroom
unitsarealsoreferredtoastemporary,portable,
movable,modularorrelocatableclassrooms.
Therearenofederalconstructionoroperationstandards
forportableclassrooms.TheMCHSSonlyapplies
tomanufactureddwellings.Somestatesconsider
theseclassroomsaspartoftheschoolbuildingand
requiretheunitstomeetthesamebuildingcodesand
operationstandardsasotherschoolfacilities.Other
stateshaveseparatestandardsfortheirconstruction,
installationanduse.Californiahasspecicstandards
forprefabricatedrelocatableclassroomsthatareused
inthebiddingprocess(http://www.chps.net/manual/
documents/RelocatableClassroomSpec.pdf).Inaddition,
Californiaalsohasmaintenanceguidelinesforrelocatable
classrooms(http://www.documents.dgs.ca.gov/opsc/
Publications/Handbooks/RCP_Hdbk.pdf).
FEDERAL AGENCY ROLES
AND RESPONSIBILITIES
InadditiontoHUDsresponsibilityforpromulgatingand
enforcinghealthandsafetystandardsformanufactured
housing,thefollowingfederalagenciesalsoplay
importantrolesinassessingormonitoringsomeaspect
ofmanufacturedstructures:
CDCbearsresponsibilityforpublichealthand
safety,andCDCsagencywidegoalsinclude
identifyingandpromotinghealthyhousing,healthy
schools,andhealthyworkplaces.
TheDepartmentofEducationpromotessafe,
healthyschoolenvironments.
TheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)
regulatestoxicchemicalsandactivelypromotes
healthyindoorairquality.
FEMApurchasesandprovidesmanufactured
housingthathasplayedanimportantrolein
postdisasterrecovery.
TheOccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration
isresponsibleforsafeguardingworkershealth
andsafety.

CHAPTER2:FIRESAFETY
THE DANGER OF FIRE
Fireisaseriousrisktolifeandpropertyinallkindsof
structures.Infact,theUnitedStatesranksnearthetop
oftheindustrializedworldinredeathrates,reporting
13.0deathspermillionpeopleperyearfrom2004-2006
(InternationalAssociationfortheStudyofInsurance
Economics2009).In2009,anestimated515,000structure
reswerereportedtoU.S.redepartments,which
resultedin3,320deathsand16,075injuriesamong
civilians(Karter2009).Aboutfouroutofveresoccur
inresidentialstructures.
Residentsofmanufacturedhousingareatincreased
riskofre-relatedinjuryanddeath(Parkeretal.
1993;Runyanetal.1992).Thedeathratefromresin
manufacturedhomesishigherthaninotherkindsof
homeresanexcessof32%to50%whenmeasuredas
deathsperhousingunit(U.S.FireAdministration2006),
andalmostdoubleintermsofdeathsperre(Hall
2005).Eachyear,resinmanufacturedhousingcause
between210and345deaths,765injuries,and$134
millionindirectpropertydamage(Hall2005,U.S.Fire
Administration2006).
1
Children,peoplewithdisabilitiesandtheelderlyare
especiallyatriskinhomeresbecausetheyareless
abletoescapewhenrestrikes(Flynn2008).Young
childrenaccountedformorethanone-fthofredeaths
inmanufacturedhomes(U.S.FireAdministration2006).
Approximately55%ofchildrenwhowerekilledby
resinresidentialstructureswereasleepatthetimeof
there,and26%diedwhiletryingtoescape(U.S.Fire
1
The re safety data for manufactured housing do not cover other categories
of manufactured structures.

LEADING CAUSES OF FIRE
Cigarettesmokingistheleadingcauseofallre-
relateddeaths(Ahrens2003).Alcoholuseisanother
commonriskfactor,contributingtoanestimated40%of
residentialredeaths(Smithetal.1999).Homeheating
equipment,whichincludesportableandstationary
spaceheaters,chimneys,replaces,heattransfer
systems,centralheatingunits,andwaterheaters,is
anothersignicantcauseofreinU.S.housing(Ahrens
2007).Only2%ofresidentialbuildingheatingres
involveportableheaters,buttheseresaccountfor
25%ofthefatalitiesihresidentialheatingres(U.S.Fire
Administration2010).Electricalsystems,whichinclude
wiring,powerswitchgearorover-currentprotection
devices,transformers,andmeterboxes,areanother
causeofresidentialres(Ahrens2007).
AccordingtotheU.S.FireAdministration,many
oftheresinmanufacturedhomesresultfrom
cooking,heatingandelectricalsystemmalfunctions,
andimproperstorageofcombustibles(U.S.Fire
Administration2006).Together,electricalsystem
malfunctionsandheatingresaccountforone-third
ofmanufacturedhousingres.Thetypicallythinner
insulationinmanufacturedstructuresmayprompt
greateruseofsupplementalroomheaters,suchasspace
heaters,tomaintainacomfortableinteriortemperature
(ManufacturedHousingResearchAlliance2000).
Heatingresinmanufacturedhousingcanbeattributed
totheincreaseduseofavarietyofsupplementalroom
heaters,suchaskeroseneheaters,gasspaceheaters,
andelectricalheaters,especiallywhenimproperly
installed,maintained,orused(CentersforDisease
ControlandPreventionandU.S.DepartmentofHousing
andUrbanDevelopment2006).
AccordingtotheU.S.FireAdministration,resdue
toelectricalcausesoccurnearlytwiceasoftenin
manufacturedhomesasinotheroneandtwofamily
dwellings(U.S.FireAdministration2006).Additional
considerationsrelatedtoresafetyinmanufactured
structuresincludeunitspacingandbuildingmaterials
(NationalFireProtectionAssociation2009).
Whenreoccursinmanufacturedstructures,the
damagemaybemoreextensivethansite-built
structures,becausemanufacturedstructuresaretypically
smallerthanotherkindsofhousingandcontainsmaller
sizedrooms(Hall2005),whichcanleadtoincreased
respreadduetoashover.
EFFECT OF HUDS STANDARDS
HUDsManufacturedHousingConstructionand
SafetyStandards(theHUDCode),whichapplyto
manufacturedstructuresbuiltsince1976,addressre
safetyinseveralrespects.Manufacturedhomesbuilt
between1976and2002wererequiredtohaveatleast
twoexteriordoors,asmokedetectorinthehallway
orspacecommunicatingwitheachbedroomarea,
aswellasanegresswindowineachbedroomthat
providesasecondaryescaperouteforoccupants.In
addition,theHUDCodeincludesame-spreadrating
requirementsforinteriornishmaterialsandre-
stoppingrequirementstosloworlimitthespreadofre.
Manufacturedhomesbuiltafter1976thatmeetthese
constructionandsafetystandardsareissuedaHUD
certifyinglabel.
Thereissomeevidencethatresafetyinmanufactured
homeshasimprovedsinceHUDsstandardstookeffect
torequireincreasedsafetymeasures.Theredeath
rateinpost-1976manufacturedhomes(reportedin
theperiodfrom1989to1998)was54%lowerthan
thedeathratereportedinoldermanufacturedhousing
(Hall2005).Additionally,heatingreshavedecreased
inmanufacturedhousingconstructedafter1976(Hall
2005).Inaddition,thepercentageofres(during1989-
1998)thatwereconnedtotheroomoforiginwas15%
higherformanufacturedhomesbuiltafter1976than
manufacturedhomesbuiltbeforetheHUDstandards
tookeffect(Hall2005).
Althoughthenumberoffatalitiesandinjuriescaused
byresidentialres,includingthoseinmanufactured
structures,hasgenerallydeclinedovertime,many
residentialre-relateddeathsremainpreventableand
continuetoposeasignicantpublichealthproblem.
THE IMPORTANCE OF
SMOKE ALARMS
Giventhenumberoffrefatalitiesassociatedwith
sleepingoccupants,smokealarmsareacritical
lineofdefense.Indwellingsofalltypes,including
manufacturedhomes,smokealarmsreducethedeath
rateperreby40%-50%(Ahrens2004).In1994-
1998,theciviliandeathrateperreinmanufactured
homesbuiltafter1976was31%lessifsmokealarms
werepresent(Hall2005).Since2002theHUDCode
hasrequiredmanufacturedhomestohaveatleast
twoexteriordoorsandhavesmokealarmslocated
ineachbedroom,thekitchen/livingarea,stairwell
andbasement.Thealarmsmustbehard-wiredwith

abatterybackupandinterconnectedunlesstheyare
listedforuseandprovidedwithabatteryratedfora
10-yearlife[24CFR3280.208(d)(ii)].Inaddition,an
egresswindowisrequiredtobeinstalledineach
bedroomthatprovidesasecondaryescaperoute
foroccupants.Theame-spreadrequirementswere
improvedsince2002torequirelowerame-spread
ratingfortheinteriornishofceilingmaterials.
InastudyconductedbytheConsumerProductSafety
Commission(CPSC),hard-wiredalarmswerefound
tobefunctionalagreaterpercentageofthetimethan
battery-poweredalarmswhenbothtypesofalarmswere
powered(Smith1995);however,HUDhaspermitted
theuseofbattery-onlyalarmswithlong-lifebatteries
toencouragethedevelopmentofthistechnology(U.S.
DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment2002).
DespitetheHUDCodesrequirementsforsmokealarms,
approximatelyhalfofallresidentialredeathsoccurin
homeswithoutsmokealarms(Ahrens2004).Inspite
oftherelevantstandardsandtheapparentefcacyof
smokealarms,anassessmentconductedin1999-2002
foundthat45%ofmanufacturedhomesbuiltafter
1976werereportedwithoutsmokealarms(Hall2005).
Anotherrecentstudyofruralresshowedthatsmoke
alarmswerelesslikelytobepresentoroperatingin
manufacturedhomesthanothertypesofhousing(U.S.
FireAdministration2006).
TECHNOLOGIES TO CONSIDER FOR
IMPROVED FIRE SAFETY
In1975theNationalFireProtectionAssociation(NFPA)
introducedStandard13D:StandardfortheInstallation
ofSprinklerSystemsinOne-andTwo-FamilyDwellings
andMobileHomes.
2
Sincethattimetherehavebeen
approximatelytenupdatestothestandardtoreect
practicalexperienceandtoaccommodatesuchthings
asnonmetallicpipingandmultipurposesystems.NFPA
Standard13DandrelatedstandardNFPA13R:Standard
fortheInstallationofSprinklerSystemsinResidential
OccupanciesuptoandIncludingFourStoriesin
Heighthaveevolvedandbeenbalancedtooptimize
systemcostsandresafetyforspecictypesof
residentialoccupancybuildings(NationalFireProtection
Association2009).
Althoughresidentialresprinklersystemsarenota
newtechnology,theInternationalResidentialCode
(IRC)recentlymandatedinstallationsinthe2009edition
ofthecodetotakeeffectJanuary1,2011.Currently,
althoughthe13Dstandardcanapplytomanufactured
2
Mobile Homeswas replaced with Manufactured Homesin the 1994 edition.
homes,theHUDCodedoesnotrequiretheinstallation
ofsprinklersorotherresuppressionsystemsin
manufacturedhomes.Somemanufacturersdoinclude
sprinklerssystemswithintheirmanufacturedhomesor
portableclassrooms.Therehavebeenrecentdiscussions
aboutamendingtheHUDCodetoincorporateare
suppressionsystemrequirement.
FiresuppressionsystemsareavailableforRVengine
andgeneratorcompartments.Astudyconducted
byNationalInstituteofStandardsandTechnology
(NIST)foundthesolidpropellantgeneratorsystem,in
whichgas/particulateefuentisrapidlydeliveredby
pyrotechnicaldevice,tobeeffectiveinextinguishing
enginecompartmentres.Powder,aerosolgenerator,
andtubularsuppressionsystemswereineffectivedue
toinsuffcientdischargemomentum(Hamins2000).RV
resuppressionsystemstypicallycontainamonitorto
triggerthereleaseofthesuppressionmaterial(foam,
powder,orgascompounds)fromalimitednumber
ofnozzles,andavalvetoshutoffthepropane.Such
resuppressionsystemscanbeinstalledbythe
manufactureroraftermarket(CooperativeMotorWorks
undated).Someinsurancecompaniesofferdiscountsfor
theinstallationofresuppressiondevices.
Over18%ofresstartinabedroomorthelivingroom
(U.S.FireAdministration2008).CPSChassetnational
standardsfortheammabilityofmattressesandcarpets,
butCaliforniaisontheonlystatewithstandardsfor
theammabilityofhomefurnishings.TheCPSCis
consideringnewregulationstosetanationalresidential
furnitureammabilitystandard.Upholsteredfurnitureis
easilyignitedandfrequentlycomprisesthemajorityof
aroomsfuelload.Thereareawideassortmentofre
blockingbarriersonthemarketforpadding,batting,
andfabricsthatmeettheCaliforniarequirements.The
useofinherentreresistantberscreateshighlystable
materialsminimizingthebreakdownintohazardous
components,removingthehealthriskstoconsumers,
andreducingtheneedforaddedreretardant
treatments(Zuniga2008).
Newinnovationsarebeingdevelopedtoincorporate
ameretardantsintothematerial.Oneofthese
improvementsinvolvestheuseofnanoparticleswith
ameretardantpropertiesandwaterorstainrepellency.
Anotherinnovationisbarriermaterialsthatmake
polyesterresinanintegratedpartofthefabric
(Betts2008).
Otherretardantsthathaverecentlybecome
commerciallyavailablearenanoclays.Thesenaturally
occurringmontmorilloniteclays,whichareincorporated
intothematerials,resultinaslowerburnwithalow

ametemperature.Plasticmanufacturersndnanoclays
appealingsinceonlyasmallamountisneeded,theyare
inexpensiveandtheydonotaffectfunctionality(Betts
2008).NISTisconductingresearchontheuseofcarbon
nanobers,aloneandincombinationwithnanoclays
(NationalInstituteofStandardsandTechnology2008).
FIRE SAFETY TIPS
Makeandpracticeareescapeplanwithyourfamily.
Makesurefamilymemberscanidentifytwowaysout
ofeveryroom.Also,pickasafemeetingplaceaway
fromyourhomeforeveryonetogotoafterescaping
are.Practicetheescapeplanwithyourfamilyevery
6months.
Smoke Alarms
FollowHUDCoderequiringsmokealarmsto
belocatedineachbedroom,kitchen/livingarea,
stairwell,andbasement(24CFR3280.208).
Forbetterprotection,smokealarmsshouldbe
interconnectedsowhenonesounds,theyallsound
(NationalFireProtectionAssociation2009).
Iflong-lifealarmsarenotavailable,useregular
alarms,andreplacethebatteriesannually.
Testallsmokealarmsatleasteverymonthusing
thetestbuttonoranapprovedsmokesubstitute
andcleantheunits,inaccordancewiththe
manufacturersinstructions.
InstructuresthatarenotregulatedbyHUD,followthe
HUDcodeorifthatisnotpossible:
Installsmokealarmsoneveryfoorofthestructure,
andparticularlyinroomsinwhichpeoplesleep.
Uselong-lifesmokealarmswithlithium-powered
batteriesandhushbuttons,whichallowpersons
tostopfalsealarmsquickly.Iflong-lifealarmsare
notavailable,useregularalarmsandreplacethe
batteriesannually.
Cigarette Smoking
Peoplewhosmokeshouldattempttoquit.TheU.S.
DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices,National
InstitutesofHealth,andNationalCancerInstitute
provideafreehelpline(1-800-QuitNow)forsmokers
whowanttoquitandneedhelpdoingso.
Smokersshouldsmokeoutsidethehome.
Ifsomeonedoessmokeinthehome,large,
nontipashtraysonlevelsurfacesandemptythem
frequently.Whenemptyingcigarettebutts,douse
thebuttswithwaterbeforediscarding.
Cooking
Neverleavecookingfoodunattended,andsupervise
olderchildrenwhocook.
Keepcookingsurfacescleanandplaceanything
thatcanburnwellawayfromtherange.
Electrical Circuits
Ensurethatelectricaloutlets,extensioncords,and
electricalcircuitsareneveroverloaded.
Consultaprofessionalelectricianifelectrical
problemsoccur.
Home Heating
Theincreasedlikelihoodofsupplementalroomheaters
leadingtoresinmanufacturedhomeshasprompted
theUSFAtoofferaseriesofrecommendations,which
includethefollowing:
Useonlythefueldesignatedbythemanufacturer
fortheappliance
Placeventsandchimneystoallow18inchesof
airspacebetweensingle-wallconnectorpipes
andcombustiblesand2inchesbetweeninsulated
chimneysandcombustibles
Ifyouuseaspaceheater,readthemanufacturers
instructionsbeforeusing,andplaceitonarm
out-of-the-waysurfacetoreducetippingoverand
keepitatleast3feetawayfromclothing,bedding,
draperies,orothercombustiblematerial.Whennot
inuse,turnthespaceheateroffandunplugit.
Placenoncombustiblematerialsaroundtheopening
andhearthofreplacesandstorecombustible
materialsawayfromheatsources.
Placewoodstovesonnoncombustiblesurfacesor
acode-speciedorlistedoorsurface
Havehomeheatingsystemsservicedannuallyby
aprofessional.
Other
Installskirtingmaterialsaroundtheexteriorof
manufacturedstructurestopreventleavesandother
combustiblematerialfromblowingundertheunits.

CHAPTER3:MOISTUREANDMOLD
INDOOR MOISTURE PROBLEMS
Excessivemoistureinbuildingsistherootcauseof
multiplehealthandsafetyproblemsinalltypesof
structures,includingmanufacturedstructures.The
leadingcausesofmoistureproblemsinbuildingsinclude
thefollowing:
waterleaksthroughfaultyroofs,doors,and
windows
infltrationthroughcrackedfoundationsandwet
crawlspaces
lackofventilationtoreduceexcesshumidity
condensationofwatervaporoncoldsurfaceswhen
insidehumidityreacheshighlevels
catastrophicevents,suchasafood.
Thegrowthofmoldinbuildingsisadirectresultof
moistureproblems.Waterdamage,othermoisture
problems,andexcessivehumidityalsocancausewood
rotanddeteriorationofbuildingmaterials,dustmites
andotherpests,andbacteria,suchasLegionella.There
arethousandsofspeciesofmold,whichisacategory
offungusthatgrowsintomulticellularlaments.
Moldsreproducethroughspores,andthesespores
arecommonthroughouttheenvironment.Virtually
everyoneisexposedtomoldsporesonadailybasis,but
whetheranindividualisaffectedbymolddependsona
numberoffactors,includingtheintensityandduration
ofexposure,thespeciesofmold,andindividual
susceptibility.
Fromtimetotime,moldsporesencounterthethree
conditionstheyneedtogrow:moisture,warmth,and
nutrients(i.e.,organicmaterialssuchasstarchand
cellulose).Whentheseconditionsoccurinbuildings,
thenmoldmaygrowonsurfacessuchaswallsand
oors.Manykindsofbuildingproductsusedin
manufacturedstructuresprovidenutrientsthatsupport
moldgrowth,includinginsulation,wallpaper,gluesused
toinstallcarpeting,andthebackingondrywall.

MOLD AND MANUFACTURED
STRUCTURES
Althoughmoldmaygrowinanybuildingthatdevelops
warm,moistconditions,manufacturedstructures,
especiallythoseinhot,humidclimates,mayposesome
specialchallenges.Astudyofmanufacturedhousesin
theGulfCoastregion(ManufacturedHousingResearch
Alliance2003)pointedtotwokindsofproblems:
pressure imbalances and vapor retarders and air
barriers.Moisture-relatedproblemsinvolvingpressure
imbalancesoccurwhenthesepressuredifferencesdrive
air(andwatervaporintheair)tomovetolocations
wheremoistureaccumulatesand/orcondenses.These
imbalancesarecausedbyunevendistributionof
conditionedair,ductairleakage,andairleakagethrough
thebuildingshell.Moisture-relatedproblemsinvolved
vaporretardersandairbarriersoccurwhentheair/
watervapormixtureencountersapoorlylocatedvapor
barrier(suchasinsideawallassembly)wheremoisture
condenses,orwhenanairbarrierfailstoadequately
limitairowandtheair/watervapormixtureenters
cavitieswhereitcondenses.Commonlocationsforthese
problemsincludeexteriorwallassemblies,ooring
(bottomboardandgroundcover),andceilings.
Anumberofbuildingmaterialsandpracticesinmanufac-
turedstructureswarrantdiscussionfortheirpotentialrole
inmoldandmoistureissues,asdescribedbelow.
Flooring
Someelementsofooringinmanufacturedstructures
canpromotethegrowthofmold.Forexample,both
thecarpetandthepaddingforwall-to-wallcarpeting,
whichisfrequentlyusedinnewhomes(including
manufacturedstructures),readilyabsorbandholdexcess
moistureandalsocancollectdirt,dander,foodcrumbs,
andahostofothernutrientsthatsupportthegrowthof
microorganisms.Anutrient-richcarpetcombinedwitha
highlevelofmoistureisanidealenvironmentformold.
Underthecarpetingpadisoorsheathing,which
generallyconsistsofasinglestructurallayer,or,less
commonly,atwo-layersystemwithastructurallayer
beneathaseparateunderlayment.Themostcommon
oorsheathingisparticleboard,followedbyoriented
strandboard(OSB),andplywood.Allwoodproducts
absorbmoisturebutOSBtakeslongertoabsorbmoisture
andtodryout.Incontrast,plywoodbothabsorbs
moistureanddriesoutmorequickly(Fisette2005).
Materialsthattakelongertodryoutaremorelikelyto
telegraph,i.e.,putpressureonneighboringwallsor
oors,becausethewetmaterialsremaininanexpanded
statelongerthandryones.
Fiberglassinsulation,whichiscommonlyusedto
insulateoorsystemsinmanufacturedstructures,
ishighlyporousandcanholdasignicantamount
ofmoisture.Ifmoistureinltratestheoorsystem,
condensationmayformintheinsulation,potentially
leadingtomold.Thiscandramaticallyreducethe
insulatingpropertiesoftheberglass(Manufactured
HousingResearchAlliance2000).
Polyethylenemembranesarecommonlyusedin
manufacturedstructurestowraptheoorsystem.If
theoorsystemgetswet,themembranecanprevent
waterfromdrainingawayfromthestructuralmaterials
andslowthedryingprocess.Inthecaseofasignicant
plumbingleak,waterspill,orcondensationinthe
oorframe,itisnotuncommontondwaterpooling
ontopofthebottomboardwithintheoorcavity
Walls and Windows
AlthoughHUDCoderequiresthatexteriorcoveringsbe
weatherresistant,noclearprescriptionsareprovidedfor
ashingandsealingaroundwindowanddooropenings
(24CFR3280.307).Wallsystemsaresusceptibleto
rainleakageatwindowanddoorashingsandat
improperlysealedpenetrations(openingswherewires,
pipes,orotherstructuresenter,orexternalopenings
tocompartmentssuchasthosethatholdhotwater
heaters)(ManufacturedHousingResearchAlliance
2000).OSB,particleboard,andsomepanelproducts
usedonmanufacturedstructuresmaybethinnerthan
comparableproductsusedonsite-builtstructures.
Aswhenusedinoors,thesematerialsmayabsorb
moistureandretainitforlongperiods.
Windowsofferlessresistancetotheowofheatthan
walls.Inwinter,thetemperaturesoninteriorglass
surfacescanfalltonearoutdoortemperaturesand
belowthedewpointoftheindoorair.Thiscancause
watertocondenseandevenfreezeoninteriorsurfaces.
Whenthefrozenwatermelts,itcanpoolonwindow
ledgesandrunontoandpoolonoors.Double-paned,
lowU-factorwindowscanhelpreducethechanceof
condensationonwindows.
Inwarmweather,moisturedamagecanoccurwithin
wallcavitiesthroughasimilarprocess.Whentheindoor
airiscooledbyairconditioning,moisturecondenses
onthebacksideofthewallboard.AsshowninFigure
3-1,usingavaporretarderontheinsideofexterior
wallscantrapthismoisturewithinwallcavities,
settingupconditionsformoldandstructuraldamage

Vinyl-covered wallboard
Swelling due to
moisture condensation
Condensation
Vapor retarder
Hot
humid
air

Figure 3-1: Moisture problems in manufactured homes (Manufactured Housing Research Alliance 2000, used by permission).
Roofs
Theroofsystemisahomesprimaryweatherbarrier
aswellasitsmainthermalbarrier.Theroofassembly
consistsofshinglesorothernishmaterialtypically
nailedoverarainscreen,sheathing,arooftrussframe
thatprovidesanatticcavity,theceilinginsulationlayer,
and,fnally,theinteriorceilingboard.Leakscandevelop
aroundroofpenetrations,suchasventsandskylights.
Moisturefromthelivingspace,e.g.,fromthekitchenor
bathroom,alsocaninltrateintotheroofsystem,and
condenseorfreeze.Whenthisfrozenwaterlatermelts,it
dripsontotheceilingmaterial.
Icedamsarecommonformanufacturedhomesand
site-builthomesinclimatesthatgetalotofsnow.They
occurwheneitherinsulationisinsufcientorwarm
homeairenterstheroofcavitythroughpenetrationsin
theceiling.Inbothcases,theroofsheathingiswarmed
enoughtomeltsnowrestingaboveitontheshingles.
Themeltedwatertricklesdowntothecoldersurfaces
attheedgeoftheroof,whereitrefreezesandformsan
icedamontopoftheshingles.Eventually,additional
meltwaterbacksupandseepsthroughthebottom
edgeoftheshinglesandintotheroofcavity,then
dripsontheceilingorwallsurfacesandincavities.
Icedamscanbecombatedbyprovidingadequate
atticventilation,adequateinsulation(especiallyover
thetopplateofexteriorwalls),providingadouble
layerofroongunderlaymentattheeavestoextendat
least24incheshorizontallyfromtheinsidesurfaceof
exteriorwalls,removingaccumulatedsnowmanually
andensuringthatguttersarenotblockedbyice,snow,
ordebris(CanadianAsphaltShingleManufacturers
Association2001).
Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning Systems
Controllingtherelativehumiditylevelinahomecan
minimizethegrowthofsomebiologicalcontaminants.
Standingwater,water-damagedmaterials,orwet
surfacesserveasabreedinggroundformold,mildew,
bacteriaandinsects.Housedustmitesthriveinhumid,
warmenvironments.Arelativehumidityintherange
of30to50%isrecommendedtominimizethegrowth
ofmoldanddustmitesinthehome.Reducingthese
twoindooraircontaminantsisessentialtomanaging
thenegativehealthimpactstheycanhaveonoccupants
(discussedbelow).
Manufacturedstructurestypicallycomewithheating,
ventilationandairconditioning(HVAC)system
components.Typically,theevaporatorisinstalledatthe
manufacturingplantinsidetheairhandler,whilethe
condenserisinstalledonsite.Heatedorcooledairis
distributedthroughaductsystemlocatedintheooror
atticspace.Inmostmanufacturedstructures,airreturns
tothefurnacethroughanintakegrilleinthedooror
walloftheequipmentcloset(ManufacturedHousing
ResearchAlliance2000).

Duringtheheatingseason,itisnotuncommontond
manufacturedstructureswithunventedpropaneor
keroseneheatersusedasauxiliaryheat,despitenearly
universalwarningsbymanufacturersagainstthepractice.
Unventedheaterscanadd515gallonsofwateraday
totheair.Akeroseneheaterthatburns2gallonsoffuel
perdaycanraisetherelativehumidityfrom55%to70%,
whichissufcienttocausecondensationonbuilding
surfaces(U.S.DepartmentofEnergy2008,Manufactured
Airconditioningequipmentisoftenassociated
withmoistureproblemsduetoimpropersizing.Air
conditionersaredesignedtodehumidifyinsideair
aswellascoolit.Moistureproblemscanarisefrom
oversizedunitsthatcycleonandofftooquickly,
coolingtheairwithoutreducingthehumidity.Moisture
problemscanalsoariseifanairconditioningsystem
cannotproperlydisposeofthecondensateitremoves
fromtheairorifairthatconditionedcoolsthesurface
ofbuildingmaterialsenoughtocausecondensation.
Whenanairconditionerisoperatingproperly,the
condensedwaterproduceddripsintoacollectingpan
atthebottomofthecoilandowsfromthereintoa
condensateline,aslopedpipethatdrainswateroutside
thehome.Onahot,humidday,acentralcoolingsystem
candischarge10gallonsormoreofcondensatewater
throughitsdrainline(ManufacturedHousingResearch
Alliance2000).Foranytypeofhome,ifthecondensate
linebecomesclogged,thewaterinthedrainpan
overowsintothefurnaceorontotheoor,orboth.
Materialssuchasdust,animaldander,sedimentand
moldgrowthcanaccumulatetoblockacondensate
line.Todrainproperly,condensatelinesalsorequirea
trap,similartothetrapunderasink.Condensatelines
withoutawater-lledtrapwillsuckinair,preventing
waterfromdrainingwhilethefanisoperating.Thissets
upconditionsforcondensatetooverowthecollecting
pan.Eitherofthesesituationscanresultinextensive
soakingofinteriorbuildingmaterialsthatisfavorablefor
moldgrowth(ManufacturedHousingResearchAlliance
2000).
Filterscleantheairtakenupbyheatingandcooling
equipment.Inanytypeofhome,ifltersarenot
changedfrequentlyenough,theywillclogwithdirtand
restrictthevolumeofairreachingtheheatingorcooling
elements.Starvedforair,thefanmaybeginpullingair
fromaroundtheedgesofthecoilandthecondensate
pan,preventingthewaterfromrunningoutofthe
condensatedrainandcausingittospillover.Sincean
airhandlerisnotwatertight,thespilledwateroften
makestheequipmentclosetoorwet.Suchproblems,
particularlyinequipmentclosetswithdifcult-to-access
screw-onpanels,maygounnoticedforlongperiods
oftimeandcontributetomoldgrowth(Manufactured
Wetanddampductsarelinkedtomanybuilding
moistureproblems,whetherinsite-builtor
manufacturedhomes.Ductshavedarkinteriorswith
highrelativehumidityandofferanidealenvironment
formoldgrowth.Watercangetintoductsandcollectat
lowspotsthroughcondensatepanoverowsorother
spillsthatndtheirwayintotheairdistributionsystem.
Inaddition,aoodedductcanreadilyoverwhelmthe
dehumidicationcapacityofanairconditioner,thereby
signicantlyraisingtherelativehumidityandinitiating
moldgrowththroughouttheinterior(Manufactured
HousingResearchAlliance2000).Whenlocatedwithina
conditionedspace(i.e.,withinthepressureandthermal
boundary),specicationofamastic-sealed,insulated,
metalductsystemforbothsupplyandreturnducts
representsthegoldstandardforhealthyairdistribution
fromacentralsystem.
Moisturecanalsoenterbuildingsthroughoperation
ofmechanicalventilationsystemsduringhumid
weatherconditions.Thisisparticularlyaproblemin
humidclimatesforsite-builtormanufacturedhomes
withoutsupplementaldehumidicationsystemsor
independentdehumidicationcontrol.Withoutproper
dehumidication,ventilationrequirements(24CFR
3280.103)intendedtoimproveindoorairqualityand
removemoistureduringcooldryperiodscanhavethe
oppositeeffectduringwarmhumidweather,witha
resultingincreaseinhumidityinthehomeandincreased
likelihoodofmoldgrowth(ManufacturedHousing
Crawl Spaces
Acrawlspaceisthespacebetweenahomesooring
andtheground.Thegroundinthecrawlspaceshould
becompletelycoveredwithapolyethylenesheetor
othervaporbarrierandslopedtoshedrainwateraway
fromthehome.Notallmanufacturedhomesmaybe
suitedforgutters,butifahomeis,installationofgutters
anddownspoutstodirectwaterawayfromthehome
canbeusefulforkeepingthefoundationdryandsound
(24CFR3285.203).Evenwiththeseprecautions,crawl
spacescanbeasignicantsourceofmoisture(see
Figure3-2).Crawlspacemoisturecomesfromwater
vaporevaporatingfromthesoil,inltrationofhumid
outdoorairthroughventedcrawlspacewalls,rainwater
runoff,andspillsandotherwaterleaks(Manufactured

Gaps in
polyethylene sheets
Crawlspacefoundationsaretypicallyventilatedtoallow
watervaportoescapefromtheareaunderthedwelling.
Inhumidclimates,however,crawlspaceventilation
canactuallyincreasemoisturelevelsinthecrawlspace
because,duringthehot/humidmonthsoftheyear,the
ventsallowmoistairtoenterfromoutdoors.Humidityin
thecrawlspaceairthencondensesoncoolsurfaceslike
air-conditioningductsorthecoolundersideoftheoor
sheathing.Thiscondensationcanaccumulatetocause
mold,rot,andattracttermitesandotherpests.Soaked
insulationfromthecondensationmayalsofalloutof
theoorsystem,leavingtheoorsystembothwetand
uninsulated.
Besideshumidventilationfromoutdoors,other
problematicsourcesofmoistureincrawlspace
foundationsincludegroundmoisturethatescapeswhen
theplasticgroundcoverismissingortorn;waterfrom
plumbingleaksinthecrawlspacearea;andclothes
dryerventsthatareterminatedinthecrawlspaceand
thusdumptheirmoisturethere.Theseitemsareshown
inFigure3-2.
HEALTH EFFECTS OF MOLD
Moldcanthreatenapersonshealthinseveralways
(Bushetal.2006;InstituteofMedicine2004;Seltzer
andFedoruk2007).First,somemoldsproducevolatile
organiccompounds,suchasalcohols,ketones,and
esters,whichcausethemustyodoroftenassociated
withmoldgrowth.Approximately6%-10%ofthe
generalpopulationand15%-50%ofpersonswho
aregeneticallypronetoallergiesareallergictomold
(InstituteofMedicine2000).Themostcommon
symptomsincluderunnynose,eyeirritation,coughing,
congestion,andexacerbationofasthmainpersonswho
havethedisease.
Second,moldcanalsoadverselyaffecthealthby
triggeringimmuneresponses.Someimmuneresponses,
suchasallergies,arefamiliarandsymptomsinclude
sneezing,cough,runnynose,redeyes,andaskin
rash.Asthmacommonlyhasanimmunecomponent,
andexposuretodampindoorspacescanaggravate
thisconditionascanexposuretomold(Instituteof
Medicine2000,2004).Moresevereimmuneresponses,
suchasalungdiseasecalledhypersensitivity
pneumonitis,arefarlesscommon.
Drain pipe leaks Dryer vent
not connected
Figure 3-2: Moisture problems in the crawl space (Manufactured Housing Research Alliance 2000, used by permission).

Third,somemoldscancauseinfections.Thevictimsof
suchinfectionsaretypicallypeoplewithcompromised
immunesystems,suchastransplantpatients,
chemotherapypatients,orpeoplewithinfectionssuchas
HIV.Aspergillosis,whichiscausedbyAspergillus,isthe
bestknownsuchinfection.
Finally,moldsmayalsoproduceanotherclassof
chemicals,calledmycotoxins.Mycotoxinsaremetabolic
byproductsofmoldsandaretoxictohumansand
animals.Mycotoxinsaresuspectedofcausingdisease
frommoldexposuresinbuildings,butscientistsremain
uncertainaboutthenatureandextentofmycotoxin-
relateddisease(BennettandKlich2003;Instituteof
Medicine2004).
ASSESSING MOLD PROBLEMS
Methodsforassessingthepresenceofmoldinclude
visualinspectionandlaboratorytestingofairanddust
(InstituteofMedicine2004;Macher1999;NewYork
CityDepartmentofHealth2000).Visualinspectionby
aknowledgeablepersonisthesimplest,fastest,and
least-expensiveassessmentmethod.Suchaninspection
includeslookingfordampspots,evidenceofwater
stains,moldgrowth,andthepresenceofmustyodors
(Macher1999).
Becauselaboratoryanalysisiscostlyandproducesresults
thatoftenaredifculttointerpret,currentguidance
discouragesanalysisofenvironmentalsamplesformold
inmostsituations(CentersforDiseaseControland
Prevention2006;InstituteofMedicine2004).However,
suchanalysismaybeappropriateifamold-associated
diseaseissuspectedorifvisualinspectioncannotbe
done(arareoccurrenceinamanufacturedstructure)
(NewYorkCityDepartmentofHealth2000).Guidelines
tointerpretingsuchtestresultsareavailable(http://
pollen.utulsa.edu/Rostrum.pdf)(Horneretal.2008).
Aportablemoisturemeter,whichdirectlymeasures
moisturelevelsinbuildingmaterials,mayhelpidentify
waterleaksandareasofpotentialmoldgrowththatare
notobviousbyvisualinspection.Amoisturemeteralso
canbeusedtodirectlymeasuremoisturecontentafter
waterdamageoccurs.Finally,moisturemeterscanbe
usedtomonitorthedryingofwaterdamagedmaterials.
Dependingonthedesign,moisturemetersmayhavea
thinprobethatisinsertedintothematerialtobetested
ormaybepresseddirectlyagainstthesurfaceofthe
materialforanoninvasivereading.Moisturemeters
canbeusedonmaterialssuchascarpeting,wallboard,
wood,brick,andconcrete(U.S.Environmental
ProtectionAgency2001).
CLEANING UP MOLD PROBLEMS
Whenmoldisfoundinanystructure,tworesponsesare
needed:cleanupthemoldandeliminatethemoisture
sourcethatfacilitatedthemoldgrowth.EPAsBrief
Guide to Mold, Moisture and Your Home(http://www.
epa.gov/mold/pdfs/moldguide.pdf)providespractical
tipstooccupants.Theapproachtoamoldclean-up
effortdependsonsite-specicfactorssuchasthe
surfacecontaminated(porousornonporous),extentof
thecontamination,andpresenceofhighlysusceptible
occupants(Macher1999,Morey2000).
Forrelativelylimitedareas,suchassupercialmoldon
theoornearabathroomleak,individualscanperform
thecleanupthemselves.Fornonporoussurfaces,
suchashardsurfaceoorsandcountertops,cleanup
isaccomplishedusingadetergent.Forcontaminated
porousmaterials,suchasceilingtiles,wallboard,carpet,
orupholsteredfurniture,replacingthematerialrather
thancleaningitisoftenthebestmitigationoption
(NewYorkCityDepartmentofHealth2000,U.S.
Differenttypesofbiocidesareusedtokillmold,
includingalcohols,aldehydes,halogens,hydrogen
peroxide,phenolicsandquaternaryammonium
compounds(Foarde1998).However,biocidescan
poseapotentialhazardtohumanhealth(Foarde1998;
Macher1999;U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency
1997),anddeadmoldmaterialoftenstillretains
allergenicortoxicproperties(InstituteofMedicine
2000;Foarde1998).CDCrecommendscleaningmoldy
areaswithdetergentandwater;ifthatdoesnotwork,
thenCDCrecommendsusingbleach,whichdoesget
ridoftheallergenicandtoxicpropertiesofmold.Note:
Ammoniaandbleachshouldneverbemixed,asthis
mayproducechlorineandotherpoisonousgases,or
leadtoanexplosion.
Becausecleanup,replacementwork,orboth
especiallyforlargerjobsmightdisturbmoldand
releasefungalsporesintotheair(U.S.Department
ofHousingandUrbanDevelopment2006),some
authoritiesrecommendhiringacontractortrainedin
moldremediationtodothiskindofwork.
Evaluating Health after Exposure to Indoor Mold
Peoplewhodevelopsymptomsfollowingexposureto
moldshouldseekapropermedicalevaluation.While
somemedicalproblems,suchaswheezing,coughing
andsneezing,havebeenassociatedwithexposureto
moldandmoisture,thesesymptomsmayalsoresult
fromothercauses,soafullevaluationisnecessary.

PREVENTING AND CONTROLLING
MOLD PROBLEMS
Thetwokeystocontrollingmoldinbuildingsare
keepingexteriormoistureoutofthebuildingand
controllingmoisturefrominternalsources(U.S.
DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment
2005).Controllingmoistureandmoldproblemsin
manufacturedstructuresrequiresnotonlydesignand
manufacturingstrategiesbutalsocertainactionsand
behaviorsbytheoccupantsofmanufacturedstructures.
Design and Construction Issues
First,ensuringthebuildingenvelopeisweathertight
isessentialtoavoidwaterleaksintheroof,windows,
anddoors.Exteriorwaterintrusioncanbeprevented
bygoodashingtechniquesaroundwindows,roof
penetrations,anddoors.Thisallowsthebuilding
envelopetoshedrainwaterdownthebuilding.Once
thiswaterreachestheground,sitedrainagesystems
shouldchannelwaterawayfromthedwellingandnot
letwatercollectorpoolunderneaththeunit.
Second,manufacturersshouldconsiderenhancementsin
designandbuildingmaterialstoreducethepotentialfor
moldandmoistureproblemsinmanufacturedstructures.
Afewexamplesarenotedbelow.AdditionallyChapter
9discussesmoreopportunitiesforenhancedindoorair
qualityanddurabilityofmanufacturedstructures.
Installmoisture-resistantfooringforareassuch
asbathrooms,laundries,andutilityroomswhere
oorsarelikelytogetwet.Currently,HUDCode
advocatesformoistureresistantooringinthese
areas(24CFR3280.305)butthecodelanguage
leavesaloopholethatpermitsmanufacturersto
installnon-moisture-resistantoorcoveringsover
moisture-resistantorsealedsuboors.
Whileexhaustfansaregenerallyrequiredin
bathroomsandkitchensbyHUDCode(24CFR
3280.103),performancecanbeenhancedby
installingexhaustfanswitheldcapacitythattracks
closelywithratedcapacity(moreoftenachieved
byhigherqualityfansand/orfanswithminimum
6-inch-diameterducts).Exhaustfanscontrolledby
ahumidistatswitchorahumiditysensorinthefan
itselfalsohelptoreducemoistureandhumidity
indoors.
PlaceHVACductsintheceilinginsteadofthe
oortoreducetheriskofwatercollectingin
ductsfromleaks.
Third,differencesinclimateandhumidityneedto
betakenintoaccountincontrollingcondensationin
manufacturedstructures.TheHUDCodeoffersguidance
tomanufacturedhousingmanufacturersforcontrolling
condensation.Onemethodisusingavaporbarrier
orvaporretarder.Vaporretardersarematerialswith
apermeanceof1.0,meaningthatthesematerialswill
slowtherateofmoisturediffusionthroughthebuilding
envelope.Vaporretardersincludecommonconstruction
materialssuchaskraftpaperfacingoninsulationbatts
andplasticsheeting,aswellasproductslikespecial
paintsoravinylcoatingadheredtogypsumwallboard
Deployedproperly,vaporretardersshouldminimize
theamountofwatervaporthatdiffusesintoexterior
wallassemblies,therebypreventingcondensationand
moistureproblems.
Installationofvaporretarderslikeplasticsheetingon
thelivingsideofthebuildingenvelope(suchasjust
behindthedrywall)iswellsuitedtopreventwintertime
condensationproblemsincoldclimates,becausethe
plasticpreventshumidityfromtheindoorairfrom
gettingintothecolderpartsofthewallcavitywhere
itwouldcondense.However,vaporretardersmustbe
approacheddifferentlyinair-conditionedhomesin
hot,humidclimates.Inthesehomes,moisturefrom
humidoutdoorairmaydiffuseintothewallcavityand
eventuallyreachtheplasticsheetingifitisstillinstalled
justbehindthedrywall.Inthisscenario,theplastic
sheetingandthedrywallitisnexttowilloftenbecool
becausetheyareadjacenttothecool,air-conditioned
interiorofthehome.Thecoolsurfaceoftheplastic
sheeting(thevaporretarder)willcreateacondensation
pointfortheairbornemoisturefromoutdoors.Since
thevapordiffusiondifferentialwillcontinuetopush
humidityfromtheoutdoorstowardsthedryerindoors,
moreandmorecondensationwilltakeplaceand
accumulateinthewallcavity.Thisaccumulationof
moistureandwaterinthewallwillleadtomold,rot,and
otherproblems.Seasonaldryingofthewallmaytake
placeiftheclimateismixed,andduringthecolderpart
oftheyearvapordiffusesbacktowardstheoutdoors.
Thisproblemscenarioisduetoaninappropriate
locationofthevaporretarderinthewallconsidering
theclimate.HUDCodenowpermits,butdoesnot
require,avaporretardertobeinstalledontheexterior
ofwallinsulationinhumidclimatesormixedclimates.
Manufacturerswhospecifyanexteriorvaporretarderin
lieuofaninteriorvaporretarderintheseclimatesare
expectedtoreducemoistureandmoldproblemsintheir
units(24CFR3280.504).

Moistureinmanufacturedhomesisalsoreduced
ifstepsaretakentoreducetheshellandductair
leakagelevels.Thesesteps,combinedwithacontrolled
ventilationsystemthatprovidestheopportunityto
condition(dehumidify)airdrawnintothehomebefore
itreachesthelivingspaces,willdecreasethechancesof
condensation(U.S.DepartmentofHousingandUrban
Development2003).
HUDCoderequiresthatceilingsbedesignedtocontrol
condensationandspecifyusingaceilingvaporretarder
forhomesincoldclimates(24CFR3280.504).This
vaporretarderisoptionalinwarmerclimates.These
provisions,however,donotnecessarilyprotectthe
roofsystemfrommoisturetransportedbyairmoving
throughholesintheceilingmadetoaccommodate
lights,speakers,plumbingstacks,orotherdevices
(ManufacturedHousingResearchAlliance2000).Aswith
site-builthomes,itisimportanttoreduceairinltration/
exltrationacrosstheceilingplanetoreducethe
likelihoodofmoisture.
Preventingicedamsonmanufacturedstructuresisalso
relatedtocontrollingairleakagefromthehousetothe
atticarea.Tocontroltheescapeofheatfromthehome
upwardintotheattic(whichthentriggerstheicedam),
atticinsulationshouldbetherequiredthicknessand
evenlydistributed,andacontinuousairretardershould
beusedacrosstheceilingplanebetweenhouseand
attic.Thesetwomeasuresminimizetheamountofhome
heatthatcanentertheatticcavity.Athirdmeasureis
toproperlyventilatetheattic.Ventilatingtheatticcavity
helpsdissipateatticheatthatcontributestoicedamming
Technologies to Prevent Moisture and Mold Problems
Drywallmanufacturershavecreatedgypsumboardwith
coresthatretardmoistureabsorptionandareeither
coveredwithantimicrobial-treatedpaperorpaper-
freecoverings.TheAmericanSocietyforTestingand
Materials(ASTM)isconsideringrevisingASTMC1396
/C1396M- 06aStandardSpecifcationforGypsum
Boardtoincludeastandarddefnitionformoldresistant
gypsumboard(http://www.astm.org/DATABASE.CART/
WORKITEMS/WK17338.htm).Tomaketheassembly
trulymoldresistant,thedrywallshouldalsobenished
withinorganictapesandglues.
Theincorporationofantimicrobialsinbuilding
materialsseemstoofferpromiseinreducingthe
potentialformoldgrowthwithinastructure.Vinyland
rubberooringhasalsorecentlybecomeavailable
withembeddedantimicrobialpropertiestoprevent
thegrowthofmoldandbacteria.AnEnvironmental
ProtectionAgency(EPA)studyontheeffectivenessof
antimicrobialencapsulantpaintstopreventtheregrowth
ofmoldongypsumwallboardsuggeststhatthesepaints
offeraviableoptionwhenremovalofcontaminated
wallboardisnotfeasible(Menetrezetal.2008)
Tips to Reduce Moisture and Mold Problems
Peoplewholive,play,study,orworkinstructures
ofanytype,includingmanufacturedstructures,can
takethefollowingstepstoreduceandavoidmoisture
andmoldproblems(seehttp://www.epa.gov/mold/
mold_remediation.html)(U.S.EnvironmentalProtection
Agency2001).
Checkforandpromptlycorrectanywaterleakage
problems,includingtheroof,windows,doors,HVAC
system,andplumbing.
Watchforcondensationandwetspots.Fixsources
ofmoistureproblemsassoonaspossible.Cleanand
drywetordampspotswithin48hours.
Usedehumidiferstoreducehumiditytotherange
of30%-50%.
Ensureexhaustventilationinkitchensand
bathroomsthatareventedtotheoutsideare
exhaustingatratesrequiredbyHUDCode(24CFR
3280.103,50cfmforbathroomsand100cfmfor
kitchen).
Ventmoisture-generatingappliances,suchasdryers,
totheoutsidewherepossible(notedryersare
requiredtobeexhaustedtotheoutsidein24CFR
3280.708andarenotpermittedtobeexhausted
beneaththehome)
InspectandmaintainHVACsystems,includingthe
condensateline,whichshoulddrainoutsidetoan
appropriateplace(andnotintothecrawlspace)and
drippans,whichshouldbecleanandunobstructed.
Maintainguttersanddownspoutsingoodcondition
andslopesoilawayfrombuildingfoundations(24
CFR3285.203).
Sealductswithmastic,insulate,andcoverwith
acontinuousvaporbarrier.Insulatingtheduct
itselfinadditiontoensuringthattheductiswithin
theconditionedthermalboundaryandpressure
boundaryofthehomewillreducethechance
ofcondensation.HUDCodeprovidesminimum
requirementsforinstallationofcrossoverducts(24
CFR3285.606)andsupplyandreturnducts(24CFR
3280.715).
t
-
BACKGROUND
y contain
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vels of indoor

The air people breathe while indoors ma
many contaminants from many different sources (http://
DPNQPVOET
1998) may expose occupants to higher le
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CHAPTER 4: INDOOR AIR QUALITY
www.arb.ca.gov/research/indoor/indoor./htm). In many
instances, contaminants reach higher levels in indoor air
than outside. Accordingly, the quality of indoor air in
homes, schools, and workplaces can have a signicant
impact on health (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
and U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission 1993).
While many types of buildings may pose indoor air
quality (IAQ) problems, some manufactured structures
may raise special concerns. Those with small interior
volumes, limited ventilation, and/or extensive use
of components that emit volatile or semivolatile
BJS DPOUBNJOBOUT -JGFTUZMF DIPJDFT PG QFSTPOT MJWJOH JO
these units also can have a signicant effect on indoor
air quality.
No comprehensive data are available on the quality of
air in manufactured structures. However, several studies
have addressed indoor air quality in manufactured
structures in both home and school settings. While some
studies assess overall air quality, most focus on specic
contaminants. In general, manufactured structures with
relatively less air circulation may develop higher levels
of indoor contaminants.
Safety and Health in Manufactured Structures | Page 25

Thehealtheffectsofthesecontaminantsvarydepending
onthecontaminant,thelevelofexposure,individual
susceptibilityandotherfactors.Somepeoplemaybe
especiallysensitivetoindoorcontaminantsbecauseof
geneticfactors,underlyingallergiesorotherdiseases,
beingveryyoungorold,andotherreasons.Notethat
Chapter8includesasummaryofthehealtheffectsof
manyIAQcontaminantstoSpecialPopulationssuchas
youngchildrenandpeoplewithasthma.
INDOOR AIR CONTAMINANTS
OF CONCERN
Awidevarietyofcontaminantsarecommonlyfound
inindoorairinalltypesofstructures.Thismanual
addressesmajorcontaminantsofconcerninthe
followingcategories:
volatilechemicalsemittedfrombuildingmaterials,
cleaningproducts,furnishings,personalcare
products,cookingfuelcombustion,andother
sources
biologicalcontaminants,suchaspollenandmold
spores,petdander,cockroachanddustmite
particles,andotherallergens
combustionbyproducts,suchascarbonmonoxide,
nitrogendioxide,andparticulatematter
pesticidesusedindoorstokillrodents,insects,
andotherpestsandtrackedinfromoutdoor
applications
smokefromtobaccouseandwoodstoves
radoninfltrationfromthegroundintolivingspaces
Inadditiontocontaminantsthatareairborne,household
dustandresiduesonindoorsurfacescanalso
containpollutantssuchassemivolatilechemicalsand
combustionbyproductsthatcanberesuspendedand
inhaled.Pollutantsinthesereservoirs,includingheavy
metalssuchaslead,canalsobeingestedviahand-to-
mouthactivity.
Volatile Organic Compounds
Volatileorganiccompounds(VOCs)areemittedasgases
fromcertainsolidsandliquids.Organicchemicalsare
widelyusedasingredientsinthousandsofhousehold
products,includingpaints,varnishes,andwaxaswell
asmanycleaning,disinfecting,cosmetic,andhobby
products.Carpetingandthepaddingandadhesives
usedtoinstallthemcanalsoreleaseVOCsinto
indoorair.Alloftheseproductscanreleaseorganic
compoundsduringuseand,tovaryingdegrees,during
storage(U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyand
U.S.ConsumerProductSafetyCommission1993).
OthersourcesofindoorVOCsincludecigarettesmoke,
dry-cleanedclothes,androomdeodorizers(Torn
andHermansson1999)(Table4-1).Commonorganic
pollutantscanbe2to5timeshigherinsidehomesthan
outside,regardlessofwhetherthehomeswerelocated
inruralorhighlyindustrialareas(U.S.Environmental
ProtectionAgencyandU.S.ConsumerProductSafety
Commission1993).
IndoorexposuretoVOCsatlowlevelsmaycause
symptoms(Hodgsonetal.2000;Wolkoff1999).Aswith
otherpollutants,thehealtheffectsofVOCsdependon
manyfactors,includinglevelofexposure,adequacy
ofventilationandlengthoftimeexposed.Immediate
symptomscanincludeeyeandrespiratorytract
irritation,headaches,dizziness,visualdisorders,and
memoryloss(Mendell2007;U.S.ConsumerProduct
SafetyCommissionetal.1998).Forexample,theuse
ofaerosolcleaningproductshasbeenassociatedwith
anincreasedincidenceofasthmasymptomsoveran
averagefollow-upperiodof9years(Dalesetal.2008).
Inaddition,someVOCsmayincreasetheriskofchronic
healtheffects.Forexample,theInternationalAgency
forResearchonCancer(IARC)classiesformaldehyde
asaprobablehumancarcinogen,althoughthereare
uncertaintiesinestimatingformaldehydescancerrisks.
Formaldehyde
Oneorganicchemicalthatisusedinmanybuilding
materialsandotherhouseholdproductsisformaldehyde,
acolorless,pungent-smellinggas.Formaldehydeisan
irritantthatmaycontributetorespiratoryandallergic
symptoms(Mendell2007).Inmanufacturedstructures,
themostsignicantsourcesofformaldehydearetypically
compositewoodproductsmadeusingadhesivesthat
containurea-formaldehyderesins.Compositewood
productsincludeplywood,particleboard(usedas
subooringandshelvingandincabinetryandfurniture),
hardwoodpaneling,andmedium-densityberboard
(usedfordrawerfronts,cabinets,andfurnituretops).
Thetightbuildingenvelopesandrelativelylowair
exchangeratesinsomemanufacturedstructures
combinedwithformaldehydeoff-gassingcancause
indoorlevelstorise.Thiseffecthasbeenrecognizedfor
decades(Breysse1977;Guptaetal.1982;Hanrahanet
al.1984;Liuetal.1991;Stoneetal.1981).Therateat
whichproductssuchaspressedwoodortextilesrelease
formaldehydecanchangeovertime.Forexample,high
indoortemperaturesorhumiditycanincreaserelease
offormaldehyde.Ingeneral,formaldehydeemissions
generallydecreaseasproductsage.

Reference Study/Description Location KeyAnalyses Summary
Hodgson et al. 2000 VOCs measured in four
new manufactured
houses over 2-9.5
months following
installation; compared
with seven new site built
houses 1-2 months after
completion.
Eastern and
Southeastern
United States
Concentrations of
54 volatile organic
compounds (VOCs)
In both manufactured and site-built houses,
the predominant airborne compounds
were alpha-pinene, formaldehyde, hexanal,
and acetic acid. Major identied sources
included plywood ooring, latex paint and
sheet vinyl ooring. Generally, the ratios of
emission rates at the low and high ventilation
rates decreased with decreasing compound
volatility. Changes in VOC emission rates in
the manufactured houses over 2-9.5 months
after installation varied by compound. Only
several compounds showed a consistent
decrease in emission rate over this period.
Hodgson et al. 2002 Source identication
study
Manufactured house in
Florida
Formaldehyde, less
volatile aldehydes, and
terpene hydrocarbons
Several cabinetry materials, passage
doors, and the plywood suboor were the
predominant sources of formaldehyde and
other aldehydes. The plywood suboor was
the predominant terpene source.
Hodgson et al. 2004 Comparison between
conventional and
alternative products
used in relocatable
classrooms (RCs)
Newly constructed RCs
in California
Fifteen target VOCs,
including formaldehyde,
acetaldehyde, vinyl
acetate, phenol, toluene,
and naphthalene
Concentrations of six of ten VOCs were
signicantly lower in modied RCs though
average dierences were mostly less than
1 part per billion (ppb). Only formaldehyde
had average adjusted indoor concentrations
above 5 ppb.
Table 4-1: Key Studies of Indoor Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Concentrations in Manufactured Structures
Indoorcombustionprocesses,suchasgasstoveuse
andtobaccosmoking,canalsoproduceformaldehyde
(U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyandU.S.
ConsumerProductSafetyCommission1993).Outdoor
sourcesofformaldehyde,bothfromprimaryemissions
andfromphotochemicalreactions,canalsocontribute
toindoorconcentrations.
Studiesinthe1980sshowedformaldehydelevels
inmanufacturedhousingthatwerehighbycurrent
standards.A1981study(Stoneetal.1981)ofmobile
homesinWashington,Wisconsin,andMinnesota
distinguishedbetweenunitslessthan2yearsoldand
thosethatwereolder.Innewerhomeswhoseresidents
hadsymptomaticcomplaints,meanlevelsranged
between720and840partsperbillion(ppb),andin
newerhomesrandomlyselectedwithoutregardto
ownercomplaints,themeanlevelwas530ppb.Inolder
homeswithownercomplaints,meanlevelsranged
between280and470ppb.Another1981study(Dally
etal.1981)of65Wisconsinmobilehomeswithowner
complaintsshowedamedianformaldehydelevelof
480ppb.In1984studyof430mobilehomesin
Washingtonstate(Breysse1984),4%hadformaldehyde
levelsabove1,000ppb,18%hadlevelsbetween
490and990ppb,64%hadlevelsbetween100and
490ppb,and14%hadlevelsbelow100ppb.And
ina1984studyof65mobilehomesinWisconsin,
formaldehydelevelsaveraged160ppb,andrangedas
highas800ppb(Hanrahanetal.1984).
Laterstudieshaveshownsubstantiallylower
formaldehydelevelsinmanufacturedhousingbuilt
sinceHUDstandardslimitingformaldehydeemissions
tookeffectin1985.A2000study(Hodgsonetal.2000)
offournew,unoccupiedmanufacturedhomesinthe
easternandsoutheasternU.S.foundgeometricmean
(GM)formaldehydelevelsof34ppbinmanufactured
homes,withnomeasurementsexceeding50ppb;these
ndingswereclosetolevelsseeninsite-builthomes.An
Australianstudyfoundaverageformaldehydelevelsof
100ppbinunoccupiedtrailersand29ppbinoccupied
trailers,witholderunitshavinglowerlevels(Dingleet
al.2000).TheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencys
(EPA)NationalHumanExposureAssessmentSurvey
foundamedianformaldehydelevelof17ppb,witha
maximumof332ppb,in189Arizonahomes(Gordonet
al.1999).AndtheRIOPAstudy(RelationshipsofIndoor,
Outdoor,andPersonalAir)of184single-familyhomes
inthreemetropolitanareas,including31mobilehomes

(28inHoustonand3inLosAngelesCounty),found
meanformaldehydelevelsof1625ppbintrailers,only
slightlyhigherthanlevelsfoundinconventionalhouses
(Weiseletal.2005).
ACDCstudyof519traveltrailers,parkmodels,and
mobilehomesintheGulfRegionfollowingHurricane
Katrinashowedelevatedformaldehydelevels.The
geometricmeanwas77ppb,twoorthreetimesthe
typicallevelinconventionalU.S.houses,andrangedas
highasseveralhundredppb.Certainfactorspredicted
higherlevelsofformaldehyde,suchassmallsize
(traveltrailersasopposedtomanufacturedhomes),
hightemperatures,andclosedwindows.Because
formaldehydelevelstendtobehigherinnewly
constructedmanufacturedstructuresandduringwarmer
weather,CDCcautionedthatthelevelsobservedlikely
underestimatedlong-termexposures;manyoftheunits
wereapproximately2yearsoldwhentested,andthe
studywasconductedduringthewinter(Centersfor
DiseaseControlandPrevention2008).
Otherstudieshavefocusedonairqualityinportable
classrooms.TheCaliforniaPortableClassroomStudy,
completedin2004(http://www.arb.ca.gov/research/
indoor/pcs/pcs.htm),showedthathalfofportable
classroomssampledhadformaldehydelevelsabove
27ppb,and4%ofportableclassroomshadlevelsabove
76ppb.Theselevelswerehigherthanthoseseenin
traditionalclassrooms,buttheelevatedlevelswereseen
onlyinnewerportableclassrooms.Otherclassroom
factorslinkedwithhigherformaldehydelevelsincluded
warmerweather,thepresenceofpressedwoodcabinets,
newcarpet,andooring,andthepresenceofchemicals.
Since1985,theDepartmentofHousingandUrban
Development(HUD)haslimitedtheformaldehyde
emissionratefromplywood(0.2ppm)andparticleboard
(0.3ppm)usedintheconstructionofmanufactured
housing(24CFR3280.308).CongressdidnotgiveHUD
authoritytoregulatetraveltrailersinthisway.In2008,
theCaliforniaAirResourcesBoard(CARB)issuedafnal
ruletofurtherreduceformaldehydeemissionsfrom
hardwoodplywood(0.05ppmby2012),particleboard
(0.09ppmby2012),andmediumdensityberboard
(0.11-0.13ppmby2012)thataresoldorsupplied
inCalifornia(CaliforniaAirResourcesBoard2008).
TheEPAiscurrentlypursuingrulemakingtoaddress
formaldehydeemissionsfrompressedwoodproducts
onanationallevel(notlimitedtomanufacturedhome
applications)andisconsideringadoptingtheemissions
limitsimposedbyCARB(U.S.EnvironmentalProtection
Agency2008a).Amongothergroups,theComposite
PanelAssociationhaspubliclyendorsednationalization
oftheCARBstandards(Ehrlich2008).
ManufacturedhomessubjecttotheManufacturedHome
Standardsand(MHSCC)areexemptfromtheCARB
standard(http://www.arb.ca.gov/toxics/compwood/
engfabricator.pdf).TheRecreationalVehicleIndustry
Association(RVIA)membershaveagreedtobuildall
unitswithwoodproductsthatcomplywiththeCARB
standardsemissionlimitsbyJanuary1,2009,and,by
July1,2010,allthewoodtheyusewillbecertiedbyan
appropriatethirdpartyasmeetingtheCARBstandard.
Allergens
Inmanufacturedstructuresaswellasotherkindsof
structures,peoplemaybeexposedtoawiderange
ofallergensfrompets,dustmites,pestssuchas
cockroachesandrodents,andmold.Thesebiological
agentscancontributetoallergicsymptoms,suchas
sneezing,runnyeyes,andnose.Furtherdustmite
allergenincreasestheriskofbothasthmadevelopment
andasthmasymptoms(InstituteofMedicine2000).
Chapter5providesadditionalinformationonpests,
pesticidesandIntegratedPestManagement(IPM).
Chapter3providesadditionalinformationonmold
andmoisture.
Combustion Byproducts
Appliancesthatburnfuelssuchasnaturalgas,
liqueedpetroleum,kerosene,oil,coalandwood
canalsocontributetoindoorairpollution.Common
combustionappliancesincludespaceheaters,ovens,
stoves,furnaces,waterheaters,andclothesdryers,
whicharefrequentlyusedinmanufacturedhousingas
wellasothertypesofhousing.Thetypesandamounts
ofpollutantstheseappliancesproducedependsupon
thetypeofappliance;thekindoffuelituses;andhow
welltheapplianceisinstalled,ventedandmaintained;
(U.S.ConsumerProductSafetyCommissionetal.
1998).Improperadjustmentofburners,oftenindicated
byapersistentyellow-tippedame,causesincreased
pollutantexposure.Usagepatternsandthephysical
characteristicsofthehomearealsokeydeterminantsof
indoorconcentrations.
Combustionappliancescommonlyproducesuch
indoorpollutantsascarbonmonoxide,nitrogendioxide,
particles,sulfurdioxide,unburnedhydrocarbonsand
aldehydes(U.S.ConsumerProductSafetyCommission
etal.1998).Otherimportantpotentialsourcesof
combustiongasesandparticlesincludevehiclesidling
inattachedgarages,andportablegenerators,which
shouldneverbeoperatedindoors,and,whenoperated
outdoors,shouldneverbeplacednearopendoors
andwindows.

Somestudieshaveexaminedtheimpactofcombustion
sourcesonindoorairqualityinmanufacturedstructures.
Forexample,studies(Mumfordetal.1991;Williamset
al.1992)examinedtheroleofkeroseneheatersineight
mobilehomes.Useoftheheaterswasassociatedwith
increasedlevelsofcarbonmonoxideandorganicmatter,
includingpolycyclicaromatichydrocarbons.
Combustionproductsinindoorairmaycausesuch
healtheffectsasheadaches,dizziness,sleepiness,
breathingdifculties,andevendeath(U.S.Consumer
ProductSafetyCommissionetal.1998).Acutehealth
effectsmaydevelopimmediately,andchroniceffects
mayoccurafterlong-termexposure.Theeffectsdepend
uponthelevelanddurationofexposure.
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
COisacolorless,odorlessgasthatinterfereswiththe
deliveryofoxygenthroughoutthebody.COmaycome
fromgasfurnaces,woodstoves,replaces,andportable
generators(Dalesetal.2008)aswellasoutdoorsources
suchascarsandportablegenerators.In2005inthe
UnitedStates,therewereanestimated195unintentional
non-recarbonmonoxidedeathsassociatedwith
consumerproducts(overall,notjustinmanufactured
structures);theestimatedannualaveragefrom2003-
2005was171deaths(U.S.ConsumerProductSafety
Commission2008).AthighconcentrationsCOcancause
unconsciousnessanddeath.Lowerconcentrationscan
causearangeofsymptomsfromheadaches,nausea,
shortnessofbreath,light-headedness,andweakness
(Shimeretal.2005)toepisodesofchestpaininpeople
withchronicheartdisease.Vulnerablepopulations,
suchasinfants,elderly,andthosewithchronicillnesses,
areespeciallysensitivetocarbonmonoxideexposures
(CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention1997;Ernst
andZibrak1998;Raub1999;Varonetal.1999).
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO
2
)
NO
2
,acolorless,odorlessgas,isanothercombustion
byproduct(Brunekreef2001;Willersetal.2006).A
studyofnitrogendioxideinmobilehomesinCalifornia
showedthatlevelswerequitevariable,butuseofagas
stove,smallsizeoftheunit,andhighoutsideNO
2
levels
predictedhigherlevelswithintheunits(Petreasetal.
1988).Thisworkbuiltonnumerousstudiesofindoor
nitrogendioxidethathaveshownthatidentiedindoor
fuelcombustionsources,particularlygasstoves,and
tobaccosmokingasprincipalsources.Modifyingfactors,
suchastheuseofstovesforsupplementalheating,
dwellingsize,ventilationrates,andambientlevels
havebeenshowntocontributetoindoorNO
2
levels
(Gillespie-Bennettetal.2008;Zotaetal.2005).
NO
2
canirritatethemucousmembranesintheeye,
nose,andthroatandcausesshortnessofbreathafter
exposuretohighconcentrations(U.S.ConsumerProduct
SafetyCommissionetal.1998).Highconcentrations
orcontinuedexposuretolowlevelsofnitrogen
dioxidemayincreasetheriskfororexacerbateexisting
respiratorydisease(BelangerandTriche2008;Keller
etal.1979;Meliaetal.1977).Peopleatparticularrisk
fromexposuretonitrogendioxideincludechildrenand
individualswithpre-existingrespiratorydiseasesuchas
asthma(U.S.ConsumerProductSafetyCommissionet
al.1998;U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyandU.S.
ConsumerProductSafetyCommission1993).
Particles or Particulate Matter (PM)
PMisreleasedwhenfuelsareincompletelyburned.
Keyindoorsourcesarefuel-burningdevices,including
replacesandwoodstoves,andtobaccosmoking
(Wallace1996).Automobileemissionsandother
outdoorsourcescancontributesignicantlytoindoor
particulatelevels.Particulatematterthatisinhaledmay
causeirritationordamagetolungtissueandnegatively
impactcardiopulmonaryhealth(PopeandDockery
2006).Inaddition,particlessuspendedintheaircan
causeeye,nose,andthroatirritation.(Dockery2009;
Lebowitz1996;Suhetal.2000;U.S.ConsumerProduct
SafetyCommissionetal.1998;Wigleetal.2007).Studies
haveshownindoorPMlevelstobeheavilyaffectedby
variationsinoutdoorautomobiletrafccongestion,so
operationofmechanicalventilationsystemsinhomes
nearcongestedareascouldstandtobenetfromlters
and/orcontrolsthattaketheselevelsintoconsideration
(Diapoulietal.2008).
Pesticides
Apesticideisanysubstanceusedtokill,repel,or
controlformsofplantoranimallifethatareconsidered
tobepests.Itisestimatedthat75%ofU.S.households
useatleastonepesticideproductindoorsoverthe
courseofayear,and80%ofmostpeoplesexposure
topesticidesoccursindoors(U.S.Environmental
Commission1993).Theamountofpesticidesfoundin
homesappearstobegreaterthancanbeexplainedby
recentpesticideuseinthosehouseholds;otherpossible
sourcesincludecontaminatedsoilordustthatoatsor
istrackedinfromoutside,storedpesticidecontainers,
andhouseholdsurfacesthatcollectandthenreleasethe
pesticides(U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyand
U.S.ConsumerProductSafetyCommission1993).
Pesticideexposurecanresultineye,nose,andthroat
irritation;damagetothecentralnervoussystemand

kidneys;andincreasedriskofcancer,reproductive
damage,andotherconditions(U.S.Environmental
Commission1993).Bothactiveandinertagentsin
pesticidescancausenegativehealtheffects.Inert
agentsinpesticidesarenottoxictothetargetedpest;
however,someinertagentsarecapableofcausing
healthproblemsinpeople(U.S.Environmental
Commission1993).Inadditiontochroniceffects
oflow-levelexposurestopesticides,thousandsof
pesticidepoisoningsoccurannuallyintheUnitesStates
throughaccidentalingestionoflargedoses,especially
inchildren.
Chapter5providesadditionalinformationonpests,
pesticides,andintegratedpestmanagement(IPM).
Environmental Tobacco Smoke
Environmentaltobaccosmoke(ETS),whichisa
commonindoorpollutant,isthemixtureofsmokethat
comesfromtheburningendofacigarette,pipe,or
cigar,andsmokeexhaledbythesmoker.Itisacomplex
mixtureofover4,000compounds,manyofwhichare
knowntobecarcinogenic(Hackshawetal.1997).In
2006,theU.S.SurgeonGeneralcompletedamajor
assessmentoftherespiratoryhealthrisksofETS,which
concludedthatfornonsmokingchildrenandadults,the
predominantexposuretosecondhandsmokeoccurs
inthehome,andthisexposurecanleadtopremature
diseaseanddeath(CentersforDiseaseControland
Prevention2006).
Infantsandyoungchildrenwhoseparentssmokein
theirpresenceareatincreasedriskofchildhoodcough
andwheeze,admissiontohospitalforrespiratoryillness,
andsuddeninfantdeathsyndrome(Dalesetal.2008).
EPAestimatesthatpassivesmokingcontributestothe
occurrenceof150,000and300,000lowerrespiratory
tractinfectionsannuallyininfantsandchildren
youngerthan18monthsofage,resultingin7,500to
15,000hospitalizationseachyear(U.S.Environmental
ProtectionAgency1992).Asthmaticchildrenareat
increasedrisk.Researchsuggeststhatexposureto
secondhandsmokecanincreasethenumberofepisodes
andtheseverityofsymptomsinasthmaticchildren.
Someestimatesindicatethateachyearexposureto
secondhandsmokeworsenstheconditionof200,000
to1,000,000asthmaticchildren(U.S.Environmental
Radon
Radonisacarcinogenic,naturallyoccurringradioactive
gasthatcannotbeseen,smelledortasted.Itisthe
secondleadingcauseoflungcancerinAmericaand
claimsabout20,000livesannually(U.S.Environmental
ProtectionAgency2003).Radonlevelsarefoundin
dangerousconcentrationsinmanyareasoftheU.S.due
toinltrationofthissoilgasintothehomeslivingspace.
Radonlevelsinhomesshouldbemeasuredwithbasic
testkitsfromhomeimprovementstores.Iflevelsaretoo
high,activemitigationsystemsuseafanandventpiping
toexhaustsoilgasfromunderneaththefoundationslab
tooutdoors.Innewconstruction,passivesystems
whichincludetheventpipingandverticalstackbut
notthefancanbeinstalledandlaterupgradedtoan
activesystemifnecessary.Inanyhome,cracksand
jointsintheslabornishooronthelowestlevel,like
thosearounddrainpipes,shouldbesealedtoisolate
thehouseairfromsoilgasesbeneaththeunit.
CONTROLLING SOURCES OF
INDOOR AIR CONTAMINANTS
Improvingindoorairqualityinmanufacturedstructures,
asinallkindsofbuildings,isbasedontwogeneral
principles:controllingsourcesofindoorpollutantsand
ensuringadequateventilationandmoisturecontrol.
Signicantopportunitiesexisttoadvanceeachofthese
strategiesthroughchangesindesignandmanufacturing,
maintenanceandoccupantsday-to-dayuse.
Manufacturerscanhelpreducesourcesofindoor
pollutantsinmanyways,including
Ensuringtheintegrityofthestructurestoavoid
cracksandcrevicesthatcangivepestsaccessor
leadtowaterdamageandmoistureproblems.
Choosingmaterialsthataredurable,cleanableand
low-ornon-emitting.
Eliminatingcarpetinginkitchensandbathroomsto
reduceallergenandmoldreservoirs.
Expandingthehomeownermanualtoinclude
informationoncontrollingpollutantsatthesource
(e.g.,storageanduseofchemicalsandcleaners).
Ensuringthatallinstalledcombustionappliancesare
properlyvented.
Usingonlycompositewoodproductsthatmeet
thenewCARBstandardsforreducedformaldehyde
emissions.

Formoreinformationaboutimprovingindoorair
quality,particularlyinportableclassrooms,see
http://www.epa.gov/iaq/schooldesign/portables.html.
Design Changes to Improve Ventilation
Manufacturerscanimproveventilationbyensuringthat
manufacturedstructuresmeetANSI/ASHRAEStandard
62.2-2007,VentilationandAcceptableIndoorAirQuality
inLow-RiseResidentialBuildingsandthecompanion
ASHRAEGuideline24-2008,VentilationandIndoorAir
QualityinLow-RiseResidentialBuildings(http://www.
ashrae.org).Thesestandardsprovidespecicguidance
forspotventilationandwhole-houseventilation.For
example,itisimportantthatexhaustfansinkitchens
andbathroomsbeproperlysizedandventedtothe
outsidetoreduceaccumulationsofpollutants,smoke
andmoisture.
Inaddition,CaliforniarecommendsfollowingASHRAEs
Standard62-1989VentilationforAcceptableIndoor
AirQualityfordesigningHVACsystemsforportable
classrooms.Otherdesignfeaturesrecommendedfor
portableclassrooms(U.S.EnvironmentalProtection
Agency2008b)includethefollowing:
Operablewindowsforuser-controlledventilation
installedondifferentwalls,
Atleastonesupplyairoutletandreturnairinletfor
eachenclosedareawithexhaustfansonopposite
sideofclassroomthanthefreshairsupply,
Localexhaustventilationforspecial-useclassrooms
(e.g.,forchemistry,biology,nearts,etc.),
Correctlycalibratedcarbondioxide(CO
2
)controlled
ventilationsystemstodecreaseoperationduring
unoccupiedperiodsandbuildupofCO
2
,
HVACandairhandlerunitslocatedasfarawayas
possiblefromteachingareastoreducenoise,and
HVACductsandplenumsaccessibleforinspection
andcleaning.
Carpetstypicallyhaveoff-gassingissuesthatcanrelease
chemicalsintotheairformanyyears.Thecarpets
canaccumulatedust,insects,andpossiblymold.An
alternativetocarpetscouldbelaminatedoors,which
areeasiertomaintainandlastlonger.Manylow-VOC
laminatesarebecomingavailable,whichcanreduce
indoorexposures.Theoorsthemselvesareeasyto
cleanand,unlikeacarpet,donotretaindust,mold,
allergensorinsects.
Paintsusedtodayreleaseavarietyoflow-levelvolatile
organiccompounds(VOCs).Zero-VOCpaintsoffer
lowodorduringapplicationandhavenooffgassing,
allowingfasterreoccupationofpaintedareasand
reducedVOCexposuresovertime.
Decisionsonmechanicalventilationsystemsthat
determinethehomesoverallairexchangerateandthe
useofspotventilationshouldalsotakeenergycosts
andcomfortintoaccountaswellasindoorairquality
concerns.Inltrationofoutdoorpollutantsshouldalso
beconsideredinareaswithsignicantambientsources.
MoreproductsthatareVOCandformaldehydefree
haverecentlybecomeavailable.VOCfreelinoleum,urea
formaldehydefreeadhesiveswoodproducts,VOC-free
paintsandnishesarenowreadilyobtainableandmake
adramaticimprovementinindoorairquality.
Airventilationinastructurecanbeimprovedby
reducingpressuredifferencesbetweenroomsbyeither
openingdoorsorinstallingventsbetweenrooms.These
ventscanincreasetheeffciencyoftheHVACsystem.
Productsareavailablethatallowtheairtopassthrough
themthatreducethelightornoisebetweentherooms.
Chapter2onFireSafetyprovidesadditionalinformation
aboutensuringthesafetyofcombustionappliances.
Tips to Occupants for Improving Indoor Air Quality
General:
ReadtheInstructionmanualprovidedbythe
manufacturerandkeepithandyforreadyreference.
Givepreferencetogreenalternativeswhenbuying
cleaningandpersonalcareproducts.
Whenusinghouseholdchemicals,ensuretheunit
iswellventilatedbyusingexhaustfansoropening
windows.
Carefullyreadthelabelscontaininghealthhazard
informationandcautionsontheproperstorage,
useanddisposaloftheseproductsandfollowthese
instructions.
Usedehumidifersandairconditioningtocontrol
indoorrelativehumidity(intherangeof30%-50%)
Maintaininsidetemperatureatmoderatelevels.
Airoutstructurespriortooccupancytoremove
excessiveodorsfrominsidethehomecaused
fromoffgassingeitherthroughleavingscreened
windowsanddoorsopenorwithtwopointexhaust
fansystem.

ReadtheEPA,WashingtonState,andCalifornia
recommendationsandchecklistsforthe
commissioningofnewportableclassrooms.
o http://www.epa.gov/iaq/schooldesign/
commissioning.html
o http://www.energy.wsu.edu/ftp-ep/pubs/
building/project/nal_portcls.pdf
Combustionappliances:
Makesurethattheburnersongasstovesandranges
areproperlyadjusted(producingablueame,asa
yellow-tippedameindicatesaproblem).
Ensurethatspaceheatersarewellmaintained.
Havegasoroil-fueledfurnacesareinspected
annually.
Alwaysusekitchenexhaustfanswhencookingand
bathroomexhaustfanswhenshoweringtoremove
excessmoisturefromthehome.
Ifyoususpectacarbonmonoxideproblemin
yourhome,getfreshairimmediatelybyopening
windowsanddoors,turningoffanycombustion
appliancesandleavingthehouse(U.S.Consumer
ProductSafetyCommissionetal.1998).Toprevent
thisoccurrence,installcarbonmonoxidedetectors
toprovideearlywarningofelevatedCOlevels.
Combinationsmoke-COdetectorsarecommonly
availableforprotectionagainstreaswellasCO.
Allergens:
Keepthehouseclean,sinceregularcleaning
reducesdustmites,pollens,animaldander,other
allergens,andfoodthatmayattractpestinsects(U.S.
ConsumerProductSafetyCommissionandAmerican
LungAssociation1990).
Usedehumidifersandairconditioningtocontrol
indoorrelativehumidity(intherangeof30%-50%)
Cleananddrywater-damagedcarpetsandbuilding
materials,ideallywithin24hours.Considerremoval
andreplacementwhencompletedryingmaybe
difcultordelayed,orifvisiblemoldgrowthhas
occurred,especiallyonsoftmaterials.
Regularlywashpetsthatarekeptindoors,sincethis
hasbeenshowntodecreaseallergenlevelsfora
fewdays(Avneretal.1997).
Ifresidentshaveallergiestofurrypets,consider
optionssuchaskeepingthepetoutsidewhere
possible,keepingthepetoutoftheallergicpersons
bedroom,orifnecessary,ndingthepetanew
home(Dalesetal.2008).
Environmentaltobaccosmoke:
Donotsmokeinyourhome.Infantsandtoddlers,
aswellasasthmaticsandotherswithrespiratory
problems,areespeciallyvulnerabletothehealth
risksfromsecondhandsmoke.Tryingtoseparate
smokersfromnonsmokersindifferentroomsisnot
effectiveateliminatingexposuretosecondhand
smoke,particularlyinmanufacturedstructures.The
bestapproachtoreduceexposuretotobaccosmoke
isforsmokerstoquitsmoking.Ifyouorothersin
yourfamilysmoke,donotsmokeinyourhomeor
car,anddonotallowfamilyandvisitorstodoso.
Ifsmokingispermittedindoors,provideasmuch
ventilationaspossible,particularlyinmanufactured
structures.

CHAPTER5:PESTSANDPESTICIDES
OVERVIEW
Apestisananimalorinsectthatthreatenshumanhealth
andwellbeingorcausesstressanddiscomfort.Animal
andinsectpestsarecommonproblemsinalltypesof
buildings,includingmanufacturedstructures,because
peoplewholive,work,andplayinthesespacesprovide
thefood,water,andshelterthatpestsneedtothrive.
Pesticidesaresubstancesusedtokillandcontrolpests.
Pesticidescanalsobeharmfulorfataltohumansand
candamagetheenvironmentandecosystem.Human
exposuretopesticidesisincreasedbyimproper
handlingorapplicationofinsecticidesandrodenticides,
heavyrelianceonaerosols,andwidespreadapplication
ofliquidsprays.
Thischapterreviewsseveralcommonpestsand
providespracticaladvicetoownersandoccupantsof
manufacturedstructuresaboutpestcontrol.Because
thesepestscancausedifferentdiseasesandthe
methodstocontroltheirpopulationscandiffer,they
arediscussedseparately.Thischapteralsodescribes
integratedpestmanagement(IPM),therecommended
controlapproachthatusesavarietyofstrategiesto
managepestswhileminimizingtheuseofpesticides.
IPMhasbeenshowntoeffectivelycontrolcockroaches
throughreducingfoodsourcesinthekitchen,sealing
cracksandcrevicesandusinglowertoxicitygelsand
baits(WangandBennett2006).

HEALTHRISKSPOSEDBYPESTS
Dust Mites
Dustmitesaremicroscopicpeststhatfeedoffhuman
andanimaldanderandhair.Dustmitesareparticularly
importanttomanagebecauseexposuretohousedust
miteallergenisariskfactorforthedevelopmentof
asthmainsusceptiblechildren(InstituteofMedicine
2000),anddustmitestriggerasthmasymptomsand
respiratoryirritationamongsomeindividuals.
Cockroaches
Manydisease-causingorganismscangrowinthegutof
cockroachesandcanbedepositedonfoodandeating
utensils(MackerrasandPope1948).Forexample,
cockroachescanpickupdisease-causingbacterialike
Salmonellaontheirlegsanddepositthemonpreviously
uncontaminatedfoodproducts,possiblycausing
foodborneillnesses.
Cockroachallergenscancauseallergicreactionsor
triggerasthmasymptomsinsomepersons.TheNational
AcademyofSciencesfoundsufcientevidenceto
establishacausalassociationbetweencockroaches
andseveralrespiratoryconditions,includingasthma
exacerbation.Thereisalsolimitedevidencethatlinks
developmentofasthmainpreschool-agedchildrento
exposuretocockroachallergen.
Heavycockroachinfestationsinmanufacturedstructures
maycreatereservoirsofallergensincarpets,rugs,and
difcult-to-reachareasaroundappliancesandfurniture.
Cockroachesareattractedtowaterandareoftenfound
nearleakingplumbingorcondensatedrainpipesfrom
airconditioners.Highhumidityinahomemayalso
contributetoinfestationsofsomecockroachspecies.
Daytimesightingsofcockroachesmayindicateaheavy
infestationbecausetheyareprimarilynocturnal.Live
anddeadcockroaches,castskins,eggcapsules,and
droppingsareevidenceofinfestationandcanaidin
speciesidenticationthatwillhelponemaketargeted
controldecisions.Forexample,woodcockroaches,
whicharesometimesbroughtinsideonrewood,will
notinfestanddonotwarrantpesticides.Nontoxicsticky
trapmonitorsofferthebestmethodofmonitoring
cockroachpopulationsandevaluatingtheeffectiveness
ofcontrolstrategies.
Rats and Mice
CommensalrodentsNorwayrats,roofrats,andhouse
miceareagreatconcernintheUnitedStates.More
than9,000personsaretreatedinemergencydepartments
annuallyforratormousebites(ONeiletal.2007).Rats
andmicecarryavarietyofparasitesthatcausediseasein
humans.Rodentscantransmitdiseaseintwoways:
Directlythroughfood,water,andaircontaminated
byurineorfeces(e.g.,hantavirus,lymphocytic
choriomeningitis,rat-bitefever,leptospirosis,and
salmonellosis);and
Indirectlythroughfeas,mites,andticksthatliveon
rodents(e.g.,plague,murinetyphus,scrubtyphus,
andtularemia)(Buchmeieretal.1980;Lehmann-
Grube1975;Nowak1999).
Housemicecantransmitlymphocyticchoriomeningitis,
whichcausessevereillnessinpeoplewithcompromised
immunesystemsandcancauseseverebirthdefectswhen
contractedduringpregnancy(Ammanetal.2007;Fischer
etal.2006).Inaddition,hantavirus-infectedrodentshave
beenidentiedthroughouttheUnitedStates.
Rodenturineanddandercontainallergensthatcancause
allergicreactionsortriggerasthmasymptomsinsensitive
persons.Severalstudieshaveshownthatrodentallergens
mayaffectinner-cityandsuburbanchildrenwhohave
asthma(Matsuietal.2004).Highlevelsofallergenshave
beenfoundconsistentlyinhomesthatreportedmiceand
cockroaches(Chewetal.1998;Cohnetal.2004;Matsui
etal.2003;Phipatanakuletal.2000;Rauhetal.2002).
Theallergenscanbesmallparticlesthatremainairborne
forlongperiods.Accordingtothe2005American
HousingSurvey,morethan10%ofmobile-homeowners
reportedseeingrodentsaroundtheirhomewithinthe
last3months(U.S.CensusBureau2008).
Indicationsofthepresenceofrodentsasidefrom
seeingeitherliveordeadonesarerodentdroppings,
runways,rubmarks,andtracks.Othersignsinclude
burrows,nests,gnawings,foodscraps,rathair,urine
spots,rodentnoises,insectsthatareassociatedwith
rodents,odorsfromurine,ordeadrodents.Ratsand
micearedifferentanimalsandmethodsusedtocontrol
themwilldiffer.Properidenticationisanimportantrst
steptoanycontrolprogram.
Mosquitoes
IntheUnitedStates,mosquitoestransmitEasternequine
encephalitis,Westernequineencephalitis,St.Louisen-
cephalitis,andLaCrossencephalitis.Morethan21,000
personsaretreatedinemergencydepartmentsannually
forratormousebites(ONeiletal.2007).Theyalsoare

carriersofwestNilevirus,asometimesdeadlyinfection
thatcancauseencephalitisinhumans(Hayesetal.2005).
Althoughmosquitobornediseasessuchasmalariaand
denguearerareintheUnitedStates,mosquitoesfound
throughoutthecountryarecapableoftransmittingthem.
Standingwaterfromlackofdrainage;outsidestorage
ofbuckets,tarps,plantpots,andtiresaroundthe
home;andfailingseptictanksystemsprovideready
breedingsitesformosquitoes.Mosquitoesarefound
throughouttheworldandmanytransmitpathogens
thatcausedisease.Diseasecarryingmosquitospecies
arefoundthroughouttheUnitedStates,especially
inurbanareasandcoastalorininlandareaswhere
oodingoflowlandsfrequentlyoccurs(Centersfor
DiseaseControlandPreventionandU.S.Environmental
Assessingrisksofmosquitobornediseasesrequires
routinemonitoringofbothdiseasefrequenciesandthe
distributionandabundanceofmosquitoes.Standardized
methodsforsurveillanceexist(Service1993)andconsist
primarilyoflarvalsamplinginbreedingsitesaswellas
adulttrappingusingdryice,light,baited,gravid,and
ovipositiontraps.
Ticks
Ticksareblood-feedingexternalparasitesofmammals,
birds,andreptiles.Tickstransmitawidevarietyof
pathogens,includingbacteria,rickettsiae,protozoa,and
viruses,andcaninfecthumanswithsuchdebilitating
illnessesasLymedisease,ehrlichiosis,babesiosis,
RockyMountainspottedfever,tularemia,andtickborne
relapsingfever.Morethan47,000personsaretreated
inemergencydepartmentsannuallyforratormouse
bites(ONeiletal.2007)Eachyearmorethan16,000
AmericanscontractLymedisease,themostcommon
tickbornediseaseinNorthAmerica.Deerticksthatare
broughtintothehomeonpetsoftencarryLymedisease.
Activesurveillanceforticksrequirespurposefulsampling
intheirhabitats;activesurveillancefortick-borne
diseasesrequiressamplingofwildordomestichosts
orexaminationofhumans(Lindenmayeretal.1991;
NicholsonandMather1996).Tickbornediseasesthatare
reportableintheUnitedStatesincludeLymedisease,
RockyMountainspottedfever,humanmonocytic
ehrlichiosis,humangranulocyticanaplasmosis,Qfever,
andtularaemia(Grosecloseetal.2004).
Bed Bugs
Bedbugsrelyentirelyonbloodforfood,andseek
shelterincracksandcreviceswhennotfeeding.
Infestationsusuallybeginnearwherepeoplesleep,
butmayspreadastheinfestationgrows.Bedbug
bitescanaffectindividualsdifferently.Biteresponses
canrangefromanabsenceofanyphysicalsignsof
thebite,toasmallbitemark,toaseriousallergic
reaction.Bedbugbitesareresponsiblefornumerous
secondaryinfectionssuchasimpetigo,ecthyma,and
lymphanigitis(AndersonandLeffer2008;Thomasetal.
2004).Bedbugsbitescancausewelts,inducenervous
anddigestivedisorders,andinitiateallergicreactions.
Allergicreactionscanrangefromlocalizedurticariato
inrarecases,anaphylaxis.Otherreportedhealtheffects
includeanxiety,insomnia,andsystemicreactions
(Burnettetal.1986).
Properidenticationistherststepincontrolling
bedbugs.Whenbedbuginfestationisidentied,
seekprofessionalassistanceandtakestepstokeep
theinfestationcontainedinoneareauntiltheyare
eliminated.Itisimportanttonotethatwhilebedbugs
havenotbeenimplicatedasadiseasevector,theyare
clearlyapestofpublichealthimportance.
PESTICIDE RISKS TO
HUMAN HEALTH
Useofpesticidesinmanufacturedstructuresandother
buildingscanposesignicantriskstooccupantshealth.
Thethreemainroutesofhumanexposuretopesticides
areoral,dermalandinhalation.Theoralrouteincludes
ingestingfoodorwaterthatcontainspesticidesas
wellassmokingandotherhand-to-mouthcontacts.
Inhalationexposureoccursbybreathingairthat
containspesticidesasvapor,aerosol,ordust.Dermal
exposureoccurswhentheskinoreyescomeincontact
withpesticides.
TheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)
estimatesthatbetween10,000and20,000medically
treatedpesticidepoisonings,includingsuicides,
attemptedsuicides,andunintentionalpoisonings,occur
eachyearintheUnitedStates(Blondell1997).The
earlysymptomsofacutepoisoningincludeheadache,
hypersecretion,muscletwitching,nausea,anddiarrhea.
Moreseverepoisoningcancauserespiratorydepression,
lossofconsciousness,anddeath.Personswhosurvive
acutepoisoningmaydevelopweaknessorparalysis
ofthearmsandlegs,ormayexhibitanintermediate
syndromecharacterizedbyrespiratorydepressionand
muscularweakness.

Therisksofchronicexposuretolowerlevelsof
pesticidesisagrowingconcernasstudiesshow
pesticideexposureisassociatedwithhigherriskfor
severalcancers,includingnon-Hodgkinslymphoma,
multiplemyeloma,soft-tissuesarcoma,pancreatic
cancer,lungcancer,ovariancancer,breastcancer,
testicularcancer,andHodgkinslymphoma.Chronic
pesticideexposuremayhavelong-termeffectsonthe
nervoussystem,whichcanbemanifestedbyarange
ofsymptomsthatincludedecitsinneurobehavioral
performanceandabnormalitiesinnervefunction.
Neurotoxicitycanresultfromhigh-levelexposureto
mosttypesofpesticides.Chronicpesticideexposure
isalsoassociatedwithlong-termneurodegenerative
diseases,especiallyParkinsonsdisease.
Exposuretopesticidesduringpregnancycanhave
potentialadverseeffectsonfetalgrowthandchildhood
neurodevelopment(Landriganetal.1999).Children,
especiallyintherst612monthsafterbirth,areat
higherriskoftoxiceffectsfrompesticideexposure
becausetheirbodiesarelessabletometabolizeand
detoxifychemicals.Inaddition,exposuretopesticides
candisruptdelicatedevelopmentalprocessesininfants
andchildren.
Dermalandinhalationexposuresarethemostcommon
routesofnonoccupationalexposuretopesticides.
Unintentionaloralexposureoccursmostoftenwhen
toddlerscrawlovertreatedsurfacesortouchpetsand
thenputtheirngersintheirmouths(Maronietal.
2008).In2000,EPAestimatedthat80%ofpesticide
exposureoccurredindoorsandthat75%ofU.S.
householdshadusedatleastonepesticideindoors
duringthepreviousyear.Pesticidescanbefoundin
indoorair,carpetdust,andsettleddustonsurfaces,and
maypersistintheindoorenvironmentforyearsafteruse
hasstopped.
EXISTING CODES
AND REGULATIONS
Stateandlocalgovernmentshavebuildingcodesthat
addresspests.Forexample,mostlocalcodesspecify
requirementsforrefusecollectionandstorage,which
cancontributetoeffectivepestmanagementby
minimizingsourcesoffoodandshelter.Suchcodesare
designedtomeetlocalneedsandvarybyjurisdiction.
EPAhasauthorityforregulatingpesticidesnationally
undertheFederalInsecticide,Fungicide,and
RodenticideAct(FIFRA).UnderFIFRA,EPAreviews
applicationsandregisterspesticidesforspecied
uses,cansuspendorcanceltheregistrationofa
pesticide,developsnewapproachestohazardandrisk
assessment,regulatespesticideusebyconsumers,and
restrictscertainpesticidestolicensedapplicators.
Since1993,theAmericanAssociationofPoisonControl
Centershasreceivedannualreportsof12,00015,000
rodenticideexposurestochildrenyoungerthan6years.
Secondarytoxicitytowildlife,especiallyfromsecond-
generationanticoagulantrodenticides,posesasignicant
risktowildlifethroughouttheUnitedStates,especiallyto
birdsofpreythatfeedoncommensalrodents.Because
oftheserisks,EPAhasproposedbanningthesaleof
loosebaits(e.g.,pelletsandmeal),greatlyrestrictingthe
useofsecond-generationanticoagulantbaitsandlimiting
theamountofrodenticidethatcanbepurchasedbyan
unlicensedperson.
Eachofthe50statesregisterspesticidesatthestate
level,andstatescanimposemorerestrictivestandards
thanEPA.Stateandlocaljurisdictionsenforcepesticide
regulationsandpesticideapplicatortrainingand
licensing.Lesstoxicandconcentratedpesticidesare
approvedforconsumerstouseinhousesandyards.
Onlyprivatermsthatareregisteredaspestcontrol
businessesbytheappropriatestateagencyarepermitted
tousemoretoxicandconcentratedpesticides.
PREVENTING PEST PROBLEMS
Overthelastcentury,pestcontrolhasincreasingly
involvedchemicals.Theidealpesticideissafein
termsofbothhumanandecosystemhealthaswellas
effectiveatcontrollingthetargetspecies(Robsonand
Hamilton2005).
Theprimarymethodofavoidingpesticideexposures
inthehomeistolimittheiruseindoorsandreducethe
likelihoodoftransportingsecondarysourcesindoors
(e.g.,contaminatedshoes,soil,andclothing).Thiscan
beaccomplishedthroughtheuseofIPM,asystem
ofpestcontrolfocusedonchangingthehabitatthat
abuildingprovidestopestsbyeliminatingsources
offood,water,andharborage;limitingaccesspoints
andnestingareas;usingpesticidesjudiciouslyto
avoidunnecessaryhumanexposure;andbydenying
pestsaccesstohomesbysealingcracks.IPMrelieson
targeteduseoflowertoxicitygelsandbaitinsteadof
aerosolfoggersandroutine,widespreadsprayingof
highertoxicityliquids.FormoreinformationaboutIPM,
visithttp://www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/ipm.htm.
Currentpestcontrolseekstomovebeyondexclusive
relianceonpesticidesbyusingIPM,ascience-based,

decision-makingapproachtomanagingpests.IPM
combinesbiologic,cultural,physical,low-impact
chemicaltoolsandavailabletechnologytoreducepest
populationsinaneffective,environmentallysensitive,
andsustainablemannerwhileminimizingeconomic,
humanhealth,andenvironmentalrisks.
Sincemanypestandrodentinfestationsinhomes
beginoutdoors,thefollowingpreventionstrategiesare
recommendedforpest-proongandsanitation:
Removingabandonedmanufacturedhomes,sheds,
andvehicles.
Reducingpotentialshelterssuchaspilesofbricksor
lumberandleaflitter.
Keepinggroundcoveratleast18inchesfromthe
structuresfoundation.
Trimmingtreesandshrubssotheydonottouchthe
home.
Avoidingshiningexteriorlightsontothebuilding
neardoorsorwindows.
Usingexterioryellowbuglightstoavoidattracting
insects.
Ensuringthatgarbagereceptacleshavetight-ftting
covers.
Ventilatingspacesunderdecksandsheds.
Keepingguttersuncloggedandrepairinganyareas
withpoordrainage.
Correctingwaterleaksandavoidingexcessmoisture
andhighhumidityindoors.
Denyingpestsaccessbysealingholesandcracksin
thehomesexteriorandpipeandwiringentrances.
Coarsecopperwool,wirescreen,andlightweight
sheetmetalareexcellentmaterialsforsealinggaps
andholes.
Screeningwindowsadequately.
Storingpetfoodinsealedcontainersandremoving
uneatenpetfood.
Eliminatingpotentialbreedingareasformosquitoes
byremovingormodifyingareasthatcanholdwater
suchasgutters,tarps,emptycans,andusedtires.
PEST CONTROL STRATEGIES
Whenpestinfestationoccurs,developinganeffective
controlstrategyrequiresassessingthepopulationsize
andlocationofinfestationinordertocarefullydesign
targetedcontrolmeasures.Whenpesticidesareneeded
tocontrolinfestation,theIPMapproach,usingthe
smallestamountoftheleasttoxicpesticideiseffective
intheleastdispersivemannerpossible.Itisvitalto
understandthatpesticideapplicationsarealmost
nevereffectiveasastandalonestrategy,becausepests
arelikelytoreinvadeaslongasahabitatsuitableis
available(i.e.,food,water,andshelter).Changingthe
conditionsthatpromotedtheinfestationisessentialto
avoidfutureinfestations.
Dust Mites
Controllingdustmitesisfairlystraightforward.Control
methodsincluderegularcleaningusingaHEPA
vacuum,launderingbedding,useofpillowandmattress
encasements,andkeepingtherelativehumidityinthe
homebelow50%.
Cockroaches
Controlstrategiesforcockroachesincludereducing
sourcesoffood,water,andshelter.Occupantsshould
Washanddrydishesnightly.
Vacuumorcleanfoorsandfurniturewhere
peopleeat.
Keepstovetops,exhaustvents,and
appliancesclean.
Minimizesourcesofwater(e.g.,drippans,pipes
withcondensation,andpuddles).
Usealiddedtrashcanandemptyitregularly.
Keepfoodinresealablebags,liddedcontainers,or
intherefrigerator.
Notstoreemptycans,paper,orcardboard
inthehome.
Minimizeclutterinthehome.
Fillorfxcracksandcrevices.
Ifneeded,supplementtheabovepracticeswith
least-toxicpesticides(oneswithCAUTIONon
thelabel).Donotusefoggers.
Commensal Rodents
Controlstrategiesforratsandmiceincludereducing
sourcesoffood,water,andshelter.Occupantsshould
Washanddrydishesnightly.
Vacuumorcleanfoorsandfurniturewhere
peopleeat.
Keepstovetops,exhaustvents,andappliances
clean.
Minimizesourcesofwater(e.g.,drippans,pipes
withcondensation,andpuddles).
Usealiddedtrashcanandemptyitregularly.
Keepfoodinresealablebags,liddedcontainers,or
intherefrigerator.

Notstoreemptycans,paper,orcardboardinthe
home.
Minimizeclutterinthehome.
Fillorfxcracksandcrevices(amousecanft
throughanyspaceinchorlarger).
Installdoorsweepsonexteriordoors.
Fillgapsaroundpipesandwiresthatpenetratethe
buildingenvelope.
Avoidplantsthatofferratsplacestohide(e.g.,
ground-huggingbushes).
Usemetaltrashreceptacleswithatightly-ftting
coveroutdoors.
Keeppilesoffrewoodatleast20feetawayfrom
thestructure.
Usenontoxictraps(readthemanufacturers
directionssincetrappingpracticeswilldifferforrats
andmice).
Ifneeded,supplementtheabovepracticeswith
least-toxicrodenticides.Personswithoutapesticide
applicatorslicenseshouldonlyusebaitintamper-
resistantstationstominimizetheriskofpoisoning
non-targetorganisms.
Mosquitoes
Themaincontrolstrategyformosquitoesisreducing
breedingsites.Occupantsshouldminimizestanding
waterfromlackofdrainage;outsidestorageofbuckets,
tarps,plantpots,andtiresaroundthehome;andfailing
septictanksystems.Whenspendingtimeoutdoors
duringmosquitoseason,usearepellantaccordingto
labelinstructions.
Ticks
Minimizetheriskoftickexposureusinghabitat-
reductionandclothingchoice.Homeownersshould
keepgrassmowedandprunebushesthatpeopleare
likelytobrushagainst.Whenspendingtimeoutdoors
especiallyinwoodsoreldswearlightcolored
clothing(foreasydetectionofticks),tuckshirtinto
pantsandpantsintosocks,andavoidbrushingagainst
bushes.Launderclothesassoonasyoucomeinfrom
beingoutsidebeingcarefultoinspectforticksasyou
undress.Forpets,considerusingatopicaleaandtick
pesticide.
Bed Bugs
Regularlaunderingofbeddingandcleaningaround
areaswherepeoplesleepwillincreasethechanceof
ndingbedbugsbeforetheinfestationgrows.Ifbed
bugsarefound,involveanexperienced,licensedpest
controlprofessionalbeforetryinganycontrolstrategies.
Minimizethechanceofbringingbedbugshomeby
inspectingbedswhensleepingawayfromhome,
keepingbelongingsinluggagewhiletraveling,
launderingallclothesimmediatelyuponreturntohome,
andstoringluggageawayfromthebed.
Whenusingpesticides,
Alwaysreadpesticideproductlabelsandfollowthe
instructionswhenpurchasing,using,storing,and
disposingoftheproduct.
Usepesticidesonlyinthemanufacturers
recommendedquantitiesandmixordilute
pesticidesoutdoors.
Takechildrenorpetsoutsidewhenapplying
pesticides.
NeverusepesticideslabeledOutdoorUseOnly
indoors.Increaseventilationindoorsduringand
afterapplicationofpesticides.
Onlyusepesticidesthatlistthetargetpeston
thelabel.
Donotstoreunneededpesticidesinside
Limittheuseofchemicalpesticidesoutdoorsas
wellasindoors,toavoidunnecessaryenvironmental
contamination.
Thefollowingresourcesprovidedetailedadviceonhow
topreventandcontrolvariouspests.
Cockroaches:http://nysipm.cornell.edu/publications/
roach/default.asp
Mosquitoes:http://nysipm.cornell.edu/publications/
mosquitobro/les/mosquito.pdfTicks
Dust mites:http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/2000/2157.
html
Bed bugs:http://nysipm.cornell.edu/publications/bed_
bugs/les/bed_bug.pdf

CHAPTER6:SITINGANDINSTALLATION
Keepingsafeandhealthyinmanufacturedstructures
dependsnotonlyonhowtheunitsarebuilt,
maintained,andusedbutalsoonwheretheunitsare
placedandhowwelltheyareinstalledandanchored.
TheSurgeonGeneraldefneshealthyhomesas
thosethataresited,designed,built,renovated,and
maintainedinwaysthatsupportthehealthofresidents
(U.S.DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices2009).
COMMUNITY SETTING
Manufacturedhousingunitsareoftenlocatedtogether
bothforlong-termresidenceandfortemporaryhousing
followingdisasters.Whenmanufacturedhousing
communities(MHCs)aredesignedwithhealthin
mind,theypromotephysicalandmentalhealthby
encouraginghealthybehaviors,enhancingqualityoflife,
reducingcrime,andbuildingsocialconnectedness.
Manufacturedhousingiscommonlyfoundinthesethree
typesofcommunities:
1. Recreationalvehicleparks:Whiletheseparksare
typicallydesignedforusebytravelersforshort-
termstaysgenerallylastingdaysorweeks,residents
maystayforlongerperiodsinpostdisastersettings,
duringpooreconomicconditions,orasaseasonal
residence.
2. Long-termMHCs:Thesecommunitiesaredesigned
forlong-termresidentsandaresometimesinformally
referredtoastrailerparks.
3. PostdisasterMHCs:Thesecommunities,typically
developedquicklyafteradisastersuchasHurricane
Katrina,aredesignedforusemeasuredinmonths
butmaybeusedforlongerperiodsthanoriginally
intended.

1. Select a healthy and sustainable site

Smart Growth Community Design Principles
2. Provide utility services
3. Incorporate mixed land uses
4. Create walkable neighborhoods
5. Provide a variety of transportation choices
6. Provide access to parks, greenspace, and recreational facilities
7. Ensure safety and security
8. Involve stakeholders in community design decisions
9. Give residents a sense of place
10. Provide a range of housing choices
11. Provide post disaster social services as needed
Figure 6-1: Smart Growth Community Design Principles.

DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR MHCS
ThedesignprinciplesforhealthyMHCsaresimilar
totheSmartGrowthprinciplesusedtodesign
communitiesthatconsistofpermanentsite-builthomes
andotherbuildings(http://www.smartgrowth.org/
about/principles/default.asp)(EwingandHodder1998;
InternationalCity/CountyManagementAssociation
andSmartGrowthNetwork2006;U.S.Environmental
ProtectionAgency2008).Theseprinciplesarelistedand
discussedbelowinFigure6-1.
Select a Healthy and Sustainable Site
Sitesshouldnotexposecommunityresidentsto
hazardouswastesandemissionsfrombusyhighways
andindustrialplants.Floodplains,swampyland,
andsiteswithpoorstormwaterdrainagealsoare
notsuitableforresidentialcommunities.Siteswith
goodconnectednesstoexistingcommunitiesallow
MHCresidentstoaccessexistinginfrastructure,better
goodsandservices,andlocalcommunityactivities.
Finalsiteselection,especiallyinapostdisastersetting,
needstobalancemultipleconsiderationsincluding
costs,landavailability,accessibilitytoexistingnearby
communities,andzoningrequirementsand/or
variances.Additionalinformationaboutstormwater
managementisprovidedbelow.
Localzoningrequirementsgovernland-usetypes,
buildingdensity,parking,andrelatedrequirements.
Zoningalsogovernsthesizeofthebuildingpermitted
inrelationtothesizeofthelot;therequiredopenspace
forresidentialusesonthelotorthemaximumamount
ofbuildingcoverageallowedonthelot;thenumber
ofdwellingunitspermittedonthelot;thedistance
betweenthebuildingandthestreet;thedistance
betweenthebuildingandthelotline;andtheamount
ofparkingrequired.
Provide Utility Services
Preferably,MHCsshouldbeconnectedtoexisting
municipalwaterandsewersystemsandelectricservice
iftheseareavailablewithinapracticaldistanceand
havesufcientcapacity.Alternatively,smallonsite
water-andwastewater-handlingsystemsmaybebuilt
foranewMHC.Individualwellsandsepticsystemsare
generallynotappropriateforMHCswithahighdensity
ofdwellingunitsperacre.Inapostdisastersetting,
potablewatermaybetruckedinandwastewaterhauled
awayuntilmoresustainablewaterandwastewater
servicescanbeestablished.Ifelectricalserviceisnot
providedandgeneratorsareused,residentsmustinstall
andusegeneratorsproperlytoavoidtheriskofcarbon
monoxideinhalation(http://www.cdc.gov/co).Provision
oftrainingforresidentsintheusegeneratorsby
buildersand/ordeveloperswouldbebenecialinthis
case.Chapter7providesadditionalinformationabout
safeaccesstoutilities.
Incorporate Mixed Land Uses
AnMHCthatoffersmorethanjusthomespostofce,
stores,schools,libraries,placesofworship,andother
facilitiesincloseproximityprovidesresidentswith
easyaccesstoessentialgoodsandservices.Ready
accesstoaneighborhoodgrocerystorethatsellsfruits
andvegetablesfacilitatesimprovednutritionforMHC
residents.Nearbyretailandofcespacemayprovide
employmentforsomeMHCresidents.Aresidentwho
isself-employedorwhotelecommutesmaybenet
fromhavinglivingandworkingspacewithinthesame
manufacturedhousingunit.
Create Walkable Neighborhoods
CarefulMHClayoutandstreetandsidewalkdesign
canhelptoensurethatimportantdestinations,such
asshopping,recreation,andschools,arewithineasy
walkingdistance.Well-plannedsidewalksandpaths
allowresidentstovisitfriends,runerrands,andreach
manyoftheirdailydestinationsbywalkingand
bicycling.Suchactivetransportationprovideshealthy
physicalactivity,improvesairquality,reducestheriskof
motorvehiclecrashes,andsavesmoneybyreducingthe
needtodrive.Walkableneighborhoodsalsofacilitate
interactionamongneighbors,whichincreasesthe
communityssocialcapital.

Provide a Variety of Transportation Choices
LocatingMHCsnearexistingpublictransitisespecially
importantforlow-incomeresidentswhomaynothave
carsforaccesstoemployment,healthcare,shopping,
andotherneeds(Turner2007).Similarly,residentswho
areunabletodriveorwhosimplyprefertowalkbenet
fromtransportationalternativessuchaswalkingand
bicycling.Ananalysisofwalking,biking,andtransit
routestovariousdestinationsshouldbeconsidered
duringthesiteselectionanddesignphaseoftheMHC;
improvementsforsidewalks,pedestrianstreetcrossings,
bikelanes,andbusroutesshouldbeconsideredduring
theconstructionphase.Forexample,inmanyplaces,
sidewalksareinstalledandturfareascanbemonitored
afteroccupancyforfoottrafctodetermineMHCneeds
foradditionalwalkingpaths.
Provide Access to Parks, Greenspace,
and Recreational Facilities
Parks,greenspace,andrecreationalfacilitiesprovide
opportunitiesforphysicalactivityandcontributeto
mentalhealth.Theyalsoprovidevenuesinwhich
residentscangettogetherandsocialize.MHCsoften
arebuiltwithhigh-densitylayouts.Onedesignoption
istoincludesmallopenspacesorplaygroundsamong
themanufacturedhomes,andlargergreenspaces
withinwalkingdistanceattheedgesoftheMHC.
Anotheroptionistohavealargeopenspaceinthe
interioroftheMHC.Alloftheseoptionscanbeused
withinasingleMHC.Communitygatheringplacesare
particularlyimportantforhigh-densityresidentialareas.
Suchplacesaresaferandmoreheavilyusedwhenthey
arehighlyvisibleandgroupedwithothercommunity
facilities.Inexpensivefacilitiesthatcanincrease
qualityoflifeforchildrenandadultsinMHCsinclude
playgroundswithsandboxes,swingsets,andbasketball
hoops;picnicareas;communitygardens;andopen
lawnspaceforinformalrecreation.
Ensure Safety and Security
Residentsarenotlikelytotakewalksorsocializeif
theydonotfeelsecure.MHCscanbedesignedto
incorporateelementsofCrimePreventionthrough
EnvironmentalDesign(CPTED)(http://www.
cptedtraining.net/cpted.htm).ThegoalofCPTEDisto
reduceopportunitiesforcrimethatmaybeinherent
inthedesignofstructuresorneighborhoods.CPTED
strategiesincludenaturalsurveillance(eyesonthe
street),territorialreinforcementtoclearlyseparate
publicandprivatespace,effectivelighting,natural
accesscontrol,andtargethardening.Formore
informationonthesestrategies,visittheCPTEDWeb
site(http://www.cpted-watch.com/).
Involve Stakeholders in Community Design Decisions
WhileMHCsmaybebuiltbeforemanyofitsfuture
residentshavebeenidentied,designdecisionsonce
thecommunityhasbeenestablishedshouldinclude
activeinputfromaffectedresidents.Theprocessof
involvingstakeholdersmaybeginearlierwheremanyof
theresidents(orlikelyresidents)areknown,suchasin
disasterreliefMHCs,possiblyevenbeforeresidentshave
movedintotheMHC.EstablishinganMHCresidents
associationfacilitatessuchinput.
Give Residents a Sense of Place
Insteadofresidentsfeelingdisconnectedandasif
theyarelivinginatemporarylocation,theymay
feelmoreinvestedinmaintainingthequalityoftheir
communityifithasdistinctivecharacteristicsand
attractivefeatures.Itisdesirablethattherebedesign
variationwithinanMHCanddesigndifferentiation
fromotherMHCs.
Provide a Range of Housing Choices
MHCsoftenmustaccommodatehouseholdsranging
fromsingleindividualstoextendedfamilies.While
manufacturedhomesmaybeavailableinalimited
numberofsizesandmodels,theycanbeassembledand
conguredtoaccommodatehouseholdsofvaryingsizes.
MHCsthatcanaccommodateawiderangeoftenants
encouragebroadersocialinteractionsandmayhelp
increasethecommunityssocialcapital.
Provide Postdisaster Social Services as Needed
PersonsmovingintoanMHCafterarecentdisastermay
needmoreservicesthanusualsuchasphysicaland
mentalhealthcare,employmentassistance,childcare
fortheiryoungerchildren,andactivitiesfortheirolder
children.Makingtheseservicesavailableinproximityto
theMHCwillhelpprovidestabilitytoresidents(Turner
2007).Inaddition,assistancetohelpresidentsreturnto
theirhomesortomoveintonewpermanenthousing
shouldbeprovidedaspromptlyaspossible.
Stormwater Management
Goodstormwatermanagementanddrainageare
importantforMHCs.Ifstormwaterisnotproperly
drainedawayfromastructure,itcancausearangeof
problems,including
Erosionaroundstructuresleadingtostructural
instability,
Floodingormoistureinfltrationinhomes
contributingtomoldconcerns,

Increasedriskofcontaminatingdrinkingwater
throughstormwatercontactwithwell-headsor
throughinltrationandinowintopipes,and
Increasedloadingonthewastewaterdisposalsystem
andpotentialforwastewatertreatmentfailure.
Precipitationrunsoffimpervioussurfacestowardlower
elevationsuntilitslowstopermeateintothegroundor
encountersabodyofwater.Therefore,ifwells,water
pipes,wastewaterleachelds,roads,ormanufactured
structuresareatlowpositionsinthesurrounding
landscape,theyarelikelytocollectstandingwateror
experienceerosionatsensitivepoints.
Thefoundationsofmanufacturedstructuresoften
canbemorevulnerabletosoilerosionandooding
thanotherstructures,whichcanunderminestructural
stability.Incoastalregions,oodingandhighwinds
fromhurricaneshaveapropensitytodamageand
destroymanufacturedstructures,sometimesrequiring
recommendationsforevacuationofmanufactured
structuresbeforeotherstructuresincoastalareasduring
tropicalstorms.Manufacturedstructuresarealsomore
susceptiblethansite-builthousingtodamagefromother
naturaldestructiveforces,suchastornadoes.
Avoiding Stormwater Problems
Thereisnoone-size-ts-allapproachtostormwater
managementanddrainage.Theoptimalapproach
dependsonlocalconditions,includingtopography,soil,
adjacentstructures,andtheavailabilityofstormwater
managementfacilities.Thegreatertheextentof
impervioussurfacesnearby,suchasbuildings,roads,
andparkinglots,thegreatertheneedforstormwater
management.EPAsstormwaterguidance(http://cfpub.
epa.gov/npdes/home.cfm?program_id=6)provides
guidelinestoprotectlocalwaterwaysundertheClean
WaterAct,andmanystatesandlocalitiesrequirenewly
constructedstructurestomeetstormwatermanagement
regulations.Becausesomemanufacturedstructuresare
notconsideredpermanentstructureswithfoundations,
theymaynotreceivefullscrutinywithregardto
stormwatermanagement.
Ingeneral,stormwatershouldbedirectedawayfrom
structures,aswellasfromwells,leachelds,androads
orsidewalks.Guttersshoulddrainintoagravelareafrst
topreventsoilerosionandchannelingintheyard,and
landscapingshouldbeusedtoavoidlowspotsinthe
yardthatcancollectstandingwater.
Visualinspectionoftheareaaroundthestructure,
especiallyduringsevereweather,canrevealarange
ofstormwatermanagementanddrainageproblems,
includingerosion;cloggedgutters,downspouts,and
drains;andstandingpoolsofwater;cracksinthe
foundation;andbindingdoorsandothersignsofsettling
thatmayindicatemoreseriousstructuralproblems.
Stormwateranddrainageproblemsthatmaybeaffecting
thestructuralstabilityofahomeshouldbeevaluatedby
alocalbuildinginspectororengineer.Lesserissueswith
drainagecanbeaddressedsimplybyredirectingwater
awayfromstructures,wells,andleachelds.
CDCswestNileguidelines(http://www.cdc.gov/
WestNile/)providedetailedinformationaboutarange
ofstrategiestopreventmosquitoproductionfrom
stormwaterandothersourcesofstandingwater.
FOUNDATION OPTIONS FOR
SITING UNITS
Thefoundationsystemplaysavitalroleinthestructural
integrityofeverybuilding,includingmanufactured
structures.Theabilityofastructuretomaintainits
integrityisaffectedbyforcesduetowinds,snowloads,
andseismicactivity,aswellastheprevalenceoftermites
andotherstructurallydamagingpests.Foundationtypes
differandchoosingthecorrectonedependsonmany
factors,includingbudget,installationtimes,sitelocation,
soilconditions,anduseofthestructure.
Soil Conditions
Certainsoiltypeshavelittleabilitytosupportweight
(bearingcapacity);othersoiltypesmaybecomemore
orlesssupportivewhenwetordry.Somesoilscompact
wellandothersdonot,whilesomesoilsexpandwhen
waterispresentandothersshrink.Soilconditionsand
classicationsshouldbetakenintoaccountinselecting
afoundationsystemtoprovideadequatesupportfor
thestructure.
Seismic Activity
Earthquakescanposeaseriousrisktothestructures
integrity.Theriskofearthquakeshouldbetakeninto
accountinselectingthetypeoffoundation,sincesome
foundationsystemswithstandseismicactivitybetter
thanothers.

Wind Zones
Highwindareasaffecthowahomeissupportedand
anchored.Overturning,uplift,andslidingforcesshould
becalculatedtodetermineifafoundationsystemis
abletowithstandexpectedwindspeeds.Building
foundations,roofs,walls,andoorsshouldallbe
designedtowithstandtheseforces.
Snow Loads
Snowfallcanimposeaheavyloadonaroof,transferring
theforceoftheweightthroughthewallstothe
foundation.Theroofselectedmustbeabletosupport
theincreasedloadduetosnowandice.Similarly,
thefoundationselectedmustbeabletosupportthe
structurewiththeincreasedweightofsnowandiceon
theroof.
Frost Heave
Frostdepthisthedepthinthegroundtowhichwaterin
thesoilisknowntofreeze.Whenthewaterinthesoil
freezes,itexpandsandmaycausethestructureabove
toshiftorheave.Therearevariouswaystoavoidfrost
heave,suchasextendingthefootingbelowthefrost
line,replacingproblematicsoilbelowthefootingswith
coarsesandand/orgravel,andusinganinsulatedslab
orbuildingcrawlspacethatdoesnotextendbelowthe
frostline.
Termites
Termitesrepresentathreattowoodandthereforeare
animportantconsiderationwhenselectingafoundation
thathaswoodasitsmainbuildingmaterial.Concrete,
steel,andpressure-treatedwoodscanbeusedto
minimizetheimpactoftermites,andcanactasthe
cornerstonetoanintegratedpestmanagementsolution
forpestcontrol(seeChapter5formoreinformation).
Inareasdeemedtermite-prone,thefoundationdesign
shouldensurethatthereisnocontactbetweenuntreated
woodandtheground.
FoundationsforHUDCodemanufacturedhomesare
subjecttoafederalpreemptiveregulation,butother
buildingstructuresmaybesubjecttorequirements
imposedbylocalorstatebuildingoffcials.Local,
state,ornationalrequirementsforfoundationdesigns
shouldbeconsideredwhenselectinganddesigninga
foundationsystem.
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS AND
ANCHORING SYSTEMS
Pier-anchor Systems
Pier-anchorsystemsarethemostcommonlyused
foundationsystemsformanufacturedstructures.The
pier-anchorsystemusespierstosupportthestructure
andanchorswithstrapstoholdthestructuredownand
resisttheforceofwinduplift.Thetwomostcommon
typesofpiersarehollowcoremasonryblocksstacked
verticallyandpyramid-shapedsteeljackstands.Piersare
placedonfootersthataremadeofconcretetospread
theload.Thedesignandweightofthestructureand
thetypeofsoilandsitecharacteristicswilldetermine
therequiredspacingandpositioningofthepiersand
footers.Auger-typeanchorsorscrew-insoilanchors
aremostcommonlyused,andstrapsattachtheanchors
tothebuildingsupports.Thesize,number,and
congurationofanchorsarebasedonthewindzone
andsoilcharacteristicsoftheconstructionsite.
Manufacturedhomesarevulnerableduringhighwinds,
especiallytornadoesorhurricanes.Foundationsystems
thatcanbeplacedquicklywithlittlepreparationtime
areidealinholdingsemipermanentstructuresinplace.
Thistie-downsystemcanbeanchoredtothestructure
andactasboththefoundationandasolidpointof
contactbetweenthegroundandthestructure.
Helicalpilesareatie-downsystemwithaseriesof
pitchedsteelplatesweldedtosteelshafts.Thepilesare
screwedintothegroundandcansupportupto25tons.
Aseriesofpileswillsupportamanufacturedhomeand
offersstabilityduringhighwindevents.
Slabs-on-grade
Slabs-on-gradearecontinuousconcreteplatformsor
padsthatsupportastructure.Unlikeslab-on-grade
foundationsforsite-builthomesthatprovideboththe
structuralsupportandserveasthesuboorsurface
withinthelivingspace,slabfoundationsundera
manufacturedhomedonotserveastheunitsoor
andonlyactasthestructuralplatformunderthehome.
Withmanufacturedhomes,thedwellingunitwith
itsownnishedooristypicallyelevated abovethis
slab,creatingwhatismorelikeacrawlspacearound
betweentheslab-on-gradeandthedwellingunitabove.
Whatdistinguishesthisfoundationsystemfromacrawl
space,however,isthepresenceoftheslab-on-gradeand
thefactthatthisslabwillsitabovethefrostlineevenin
coldclimates.

Thefactthattheslabsunderneathmanufactured
structuresdonotgobelowfrostdepthallowsthem
tobeshallowerandcheaper,butraisesthepossibility
ofslabmovementduetofrostheave.Forthisreason
slabfoundationsformanufacturedstructuresmaybe
insulatedoruninsulated.Insulateddesignsincorporate
insulationaroundtheslabsperimetertokeepthe
groundundertheslabwarmer,essentiallycapturing
heatlossfromthehousetothegroundandkeeping
thisheatundertheunit.Tohelpcapturethisheat
effectively,ventsthatventilatetheareaunderneaththe
dwelling(andabovetheslab)shouldbethermostatically
controlledsothattheycloseduringthewinter,helping
tokeepanyheatlossfromtheunitfromescapingtothe
outdoorair.Bykeepingthespaceunderthedwelling
warmer,thesoiliswarmerandwillnotexperience
frostheave.Thisdesignisoftencalledafrost-protected
shallowfoundation,andismoreadvantageousincolder
areaswherebuilding-to-frostdepthrequiresadeeper
foundation.
Ontheotherhand,uninsulatedslabfoundations
formanufacturedhomesdonottrytokeepthe
groundundertheunitwarmertopreventfrostheave.
Thisdesignreliesonproperdrainagearoundthe
unit(e.g.,draintiles,sumppump)toavoidexcess
moisturelevelsinthesoil.Reducingsoilmoisture
helpstoreducetheextentofanyfrostheavethat
doesoccur,whichinturnminimizesoreliminates
movementoftheslabitself.
Proprietary Systems
Proprietarysystemsusetechniquessimilartothose
describedinthepier-anchorsystemforwhichthe
manufacturerhaspatentedauniquefeature.Some
ofthesesystemsarelistedandpreapprovedforuse
inmanufacturedhomes.Thosethatarenotlisted
mayneedtobeveriedbyalocalorstatebuilding
ofcialforusewithamanufacturedstructure.Mostof
thesesystemsaregoodalternativestothetraditional
pier-anchorsystemsthatarewidelyusedinthe
manufactureofhomefoundationdesigns.
Additionalinformationanddetailsonfoundations
formanufacturedhomescanbefoundinthe
Guide to Foundation and Support Systems for
Manufactured Homes(ManufacturedHousing
RELOCATINGMANUFACTUREDHOMES
Manufacturedhomesareuniquefromotherformsof
housinginthattheymaybemovedfromonelocation
toanother.Forthesmallnumberofhousemovesthat
dooccur,thesemovestendtoinvolvesingle-wide
unitsasopposedtohomeswithtwoormoreunits.
Andwhilemovingamanufacturedhousingunitis
technicallyfeasible,thereareseveralimportantissues
toconsidertomakethemovereasonablyefcient
andtomaintaintheabilityofthedwellingtoprovide
asafeandhealthyhometotheresidents.Severalkey
issuesarediscussedbelow.
Transporting the Manufactured Home
Whenplanningtomoveamanufacturedhome,usea
transportcompanythatisfamiliarwiththelawsand
necessarypermittingformovingmanufacturedhomes.
Thetransportrmshouldalsoevaluatetheproposed
routeformovingthestructure,checkingforadequate
roadwidth,overheadclearance,sharpturnsordips
intheroad,steepgrades,time-of-userestrictions,
andadequateaccesstothesite.Theremayalsobe
requirementsforpilotcarsandpolecarstocheck
whetherhomesaregoingtotunderoverpasses.
Whentransportingtheunit,followthetransportrms
directionsregardingpreparingtheunitfortravel.It
isparticularlyimportantforutilitiestobeproperly
disconnectedattheoldsiteandthatanyhazardousor
explosivematerialsbehandledappropriatelypriorto
themove.
Oncethehomeissitedatthenewlocation,allinstallation
stepsshouldbecarefullyfollowedsuchasutilityhook-
upsandductconnections.Thehomeshouldalsobe
thoroughlyinspectedtocheckfordamagesincurred
fromtransportoranyproblemswiththenewinstallation
measures.Cracksoropeningsinthebuildingshell,for
example,shouldberepairedorsealedimmediately.
Thishelpstopreventintrusionofwaterleakagefrom
outdoorsandcanalsopreventtheinltrationofairborne
contaminantsintothelivingspace.

Ensuring the Adequacy of the Dwelling
for Its New Location
Manufacturedhomesaredesignedforspecic
locationsintermsofstructuralsystems(wind,seismic,
snowloads),moisturemanagement(vaporretarders,
dehumidication),andenergy(insulatingvaluesof
assemblies,furnacecapacity).Whenamanufactured
homeisgoingtobemovedtoanewlocation,itis
essentialthattheseparametersbereviewedtoensure
thatthedwellingisadequateforthenewlocation.
Generally,aunitshouldnotbemovedtoamore
restrictivezoneintermsofwind,thermal,orroofload
requirements.Thedwellingsdataplatecanbechecked
forzoneinformation.
Itmaybetemptingtoassumethatarelativelyshort
moveperhaps100mileswouldnotintroduceany
newdesignconditionssignicantenoughtohavean
impact.However,wind,seismic,andthermaldesign
conditionscanchangedramaticallyacrossdistancesof
muchlessthan100miles.
Healthandsafetyrisksthatcouldbeintroducedby
movingamanufacturedhometoanewlocation
forwhichitisnotadequatelydesignedincludethe
following:
Structuralfailures(e.g.,rooftearoff)duetowind,
seismic,orsnowloads;
Moistureproblemsduetoimpropervaporretarder
designorinsufcientinsulation,whichcanthenlead
tomold,dustmites,andpestinfestationsandtheir
associatedhealthriskstoresidents;and
Uncomfortableindoorconditions,suchasexcessive
humidityorcoldtemperatures,becausetheunits
energysystems(e.g.,HVAC,insulation)arenot
appropriateforthenewlocation.
Insomecases,proposedrelocationsofmanufactured
homesarechangedduetothelocation-related
complicationsandtheexpenseoftransportingthe
home.Inthesesituationsitissometimesmorepractical
toselltheexistinghomeandpurchaseanotherunitat
thenewlocation.

CHAPTER7:UTILITIES
UTILITY SERVICES FOR
MANUFACTURED STRUCTURES
Manufacturedstructures,likeothertypesofbuildings,
requireseveralkindsofutilityservice,typicallyincluding
drinkingwater,sewageservice,electricityandgas.
Manyissuesassociatedwithutilitiesaffectmanufactured
structuresinthesamewayassite-builtstructures.
However,inmanycases,utilityconnectionsandservices
formanufacturedstructuresdifferfromtypicalsite-built
structures.Forexample,somemanufacturedstructures
accesselectricservicedifferentlythansite-builtstructures
andrelyonpropaneinsteadofnaturalgas.
Asagroup,manufacturedstructuresmaybeatincreased
riskofwaterandwastewaterproblemsbecause
thesestructuresaremorelikelytodependonsmall,
unregulateddrinkingwatersystemssuchasprivatewells
andononsitewastewaterdisposalsystems,whichare
morepronetoproblemscomparedtopublicutilities.
Inaddition,temporarydwellingsandvehicles,suchas
traveltrailersorrecreationalvehicles,mayusewater
andwastewatertanksservicedbywaterandwastewater
stationsortrucks,whichcanpresenttank-basedhealth
risks,similartocruiseships.
Hot Water
Scalds,whichareburnsattributedtohotliquidsor
steam,accountfor33%58%ofallpatientshospitalized
forburns(AmericanBurnAssociation2006;Centers
forDiseaseControlandPrevention2009;Ehrlichet
al.2005).Youngerchildrenaremorelikelytosustain
injuriesfromscaldburnsthatarecausedbyhotliquids
orsteam,whileolderchildrenaremorelikelytosustain
injuriesfromameburnsthatarecausedbydirect
contactwithre.Adultsaged65yearshaveaworse
prognosisthanyoungerpatientsafterscaldburns
becauseofage-relatedfactorsandcomorbidmedical

conditions(Aldenetal.2007).During20012006,there
wereanestimated51,700visitsfornonfatalscald-
relatedburnsbypersonsaged65years(Hunderford
etal.2009).
Thewaterheaterthermostatshouldbesetto120F
orlower.Otherwaystopreventburnsandscalds
includeinstallinghotwatertemperaturelimitersatthe
faucet;usingroll-upcordsforelectriccoffeepots;and
usingpots,pans,andkettlesdesignedtobelesslikely
totipandspillhotliquids.
Drinking Water
Manufacturedstructuresmaydrawdrinkingwater
fromanonsitewell,asmallcommunitysystem,alarge
regulatedwatersystem,oramunicipalorotherpublicly
ownedwatersystem.Smallwatersystemssuchas
privatewellsarenotsubjecttotherequirementsofthe
SafeDrinkingWaterAct(SWDA)andthereforearenot
regulated.Approximately45millionpeople,orabout
15%oftheU.S.population,areservedbysuchwater
systems,andtheproportionofmanufacturedhomes
servedbyanunregulatedwatersystemislikelytobe
higherthansite-builtstructures.Thesesmallwater
systemsareoftennotsampledandcanexposeresidents
tomicrobialandchemicalcontamination(RhodeIsland
DepartmentofHealthandUniversityofRhodeIsland
CooperativeExtensionWaterQualityProgram2003).
Sources of Drinking Water Contamination
Watercontaminationhasmanysources,including
naturallyoccurringchemicalsandminerals(e.g.,
arsenic,radon,uranium),localland-usepractices
(fertilizers,nitrates,pesticides,concentratedanimal
feedingoperations),manufacturingprocesses,sewer
overow,andmalfunctioningwastewatertreatment
systems(e.g.,septicsystems).Heavyrainfallexacerbates
contaminationroutesandisanestablishedriskfactor
forwaterbornediseaseoutbreaks(Currieroetal.2001).
Wellscanbecontaminatedbychemicals,someofwhich
canthreatenhumanhealth.Forexample,pesticides
cancausereproductiveproblems(CasarettandDoull
1991),polychlorinatedbiphenyls(PCBs)andleadcan
causeneurologicaldisorders(Chevrieretal.2007),
andnitratescancausemethemoglobinemiaorblue
babysyndrome(GreerandShannon2005).Wellsalso
canbecontaminatedwithmicrobialagentssuchas
Cryptosporidium,E.coliO157:H7,andnoroviruses,
allofwhichcausegastrointestinalillness.TheU.S.
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)estimatesthat
168,000viralillnessesand34,000bacterialillnesses
occurfromconsumingdrinkingwaterfromuntreated
groundwater(U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency
2002).Continuingstudiesareevaluatingexposureto
cryptosporidiumforpeopleservedbyprivatewells
andonsitewastewaterdisposalsystems.Preliminary
evidencesuggeststhatcryptosporidiumexposurerates
maybehigheramongpeoplewhousewellsandonsite
wastewatersystems.
Becausewatermaybecomecontaminatedatanypoint
fromitssourcetothefaucet,assuringsafedrinking
waterrequiresattentiontothesource,themethodof
extractingwaterfromthesource,thedistributionsystem,
andplumbingxtures.
Waterqualityinitiallydependsonthewaterssource.
Surfacewater(lakes,reservoirs,streams,andrivers),
thedrinkingwatersourceforapproximately50%ofour
population,isgenerallyofpoorqualityandrequires
extensivetreatment.Groundwater,thesourceofthe
other50%,istypicallyofbetterquality.However,
groundwatermaybecontaminatedbyagriculturalrunoff
orsurfaceandsubsurfacedisposalofliquidwaste,
includingleachatefromsolidwastelandlls.Other
sources,suchasspringwaterandrainwater,areof
varyinglevelsofquality,butcanbetreatedtorender
waterpotable.
Varioustypesofdrinkingwaterwellsexistthroughout
theUnitedStates.Wellconstructiontypesincludedrilled,
bored,driven,ordug.Themostcommontypeofwell
usedintheUnitedStatestodayisthedrilledwell.
Thesetypesofwellstypicallydrawwaterfromdeeper
sourcesandarethemostprotectivetypeofwellfrom
externalcontaminationsources.Wellsthatarebored,
driven,ordugusuallyreceivewaterfromshallower
sourcesanddonotoffertheprotectivebenetsofa
properlyconstructeddrilledwell.Althoughstatesand
localitiesgenerallyhavewellconstructionstandards,
laxenforcementandinfrequentinspectionleavesmost
wellconstructionessentiallyunregulatedinmanystates.
Moreinformationregardingprivatewellscanbefound
ontheEPAWebsite(U.S.EnvironmentalProtection
Agency2006).
Wellsmaybecomecontaminatedthroughseveral
routes:surfacewaterenteringdirectlyintothetopof
thewell,surfacewaterenteringthespacebetweenthe
wellcasingandsurroundingsoil,andgroundwater
enteringbelowgroundlevel.Eachcontaminationroute
canbecontrolledbyproperdesignandmaintenance.
Frequently,onsitewellsorsmallcommunitysystemsdo
notdisinfectwaterbeforeitisconsumed.Inadditionto
anymicrobialriskassociatedwiththesource,failureto
useanacceptabledisinfectantleaveswatervulnerable
tofurthercontaminationduringstorageordistribution.

Bacterialcontaminationintheabsenceofdisinfection
mayresultinbacterialgrowthinpipesandwatertanks
andexacerbatebiolmdevelopment.
Inadditiontocontaminationatitssource,watercan
becomecontaminatedasitowsthroughthewater
distributionsystemintheyardandhome.Such
contaminationcanoccurfrombiologicmaterials,toxic
debrisfromconstruction,orunsuitablematerialsused
inwaterpipejoints.Disruptionsinoworlossof
pressureinwaterlinescancontaminatedrinkingwater
throughinltrationandinowintotheplumbingsystem.
Thesecontaminationrisksareexacerbatedbyrunning
drinkingwaterandwastewaterlinesinthesametrench,
poormaintenanceorcrackedpipes,oodingevents,
orperiodicstandingwaterproblems.Waterowing
backwards(backow)inthepipescansuckpotentially
harmfulmaterialsback(back-siphonage)intothewater
distributionsystem,creatingserioushealthhazards.
Finally,plumbingxturesmaycontainleadorcopper,
andcorrosivewatermayleach(pickup)leadand
copperfromhouseholdplumbingpipes.Thisissueis
abiggerprobleminolderstructures(i.e.,thosebuilt
before1981thathaveoriginalplumbingsystems).Water
utilitiesaddcorrosioninhibitorstominimizecorrosion
ofpipesinthedistributionsystemandavoidundue
exposuretoleadandcopper.TheEPALeadandCopper
Rule(40CFRPart141)requiresallregulatedwater
systemstoperiodicallymonitorforleadandcopper.
Protecting Drinking Water
Problemswithpubliclysuppliedwatershouldbe
handledbylocalmunicipalities.Concernsshouldbe
addressedtothemunicipality,localhealthdepartment,or
stateenvironmentalprotectionagency.Privatewellsand
smallcommunitywatersuppliesaretheresponsibility
ofthewellowner;however,theenvironmentalhealth
divisionofthelocalhealthdepartmentshouldbeable
toassistandoffersite-appropriateadvice.Moredetailed
informationcanbefoundintheEPAguidetoprivate
wells(http://www.epa.gov/safewater/privatewells/pdfs/
household_wells.pdf).
Wellsshouldbedrilledintoanaquiferfreeof
contamination,locatedatadepthsufcienttoprevent
surfacewaterinteractions,andoutttedwithcasing
andwell-headprotectiontopreventinltrationfrom
runoff.Becausegroundwatercontaminationisusually
localized,thebestwaytoidentifypotentialcontaminants
istoconsultalocalexpertortheenvironmentalhealth
divisionofthelocalpublichealthagency.Because
thepotentialforpollutiontoenterawellisaffected
byitsplacementandconstruction,localagricultural
andindustrialactivitiesaswellastheareasgeology
andclimateshouldbetakenintoaccount.Wellsshould
alwaysbelocatedtoprovideaccessformaintenance,
inspection,andpumporpipereplacement.
Tips to Help Protect Groundwater Quality
Hireacertifedwelldrillerfornewwellconstruction,
modication,orabandonmentandclosure.
Slopetheareaaroundwellstodrainsurfacerunoff
awayfromthewell.
Installawellcaporsanitarysealtoprevent
unauthorizeduseorentryintoawell.
Periodicallyinspectexposedpartsofwellsfor
cracked,corroded,ordamagedwellcasings;broken
ormissingwellcaps;andsettlingandcrackingof
surfaceseals.
Testwellwateratleastonceayearandafterfooding
eventsforcoliformbacteria,nitrates,andother
contaminants,suchaspesticides,organics,andmetals.
Keepaccuraterecordsofanywellmaintenance,such
asdisinfectionorsedimentremoval,thatrequirethe
useofchemicalsinthewell.
Avoidmixingorusingpesticides,fertilizers,
herbicides,degreasers,fuels,andotherpollutants
nearwells.
Donotdisposeofwasteindryorabandonedwells.
Changesintheodor,taste,orcoloroftapwatermay
indicatecontamination.EPAsguidetoprivatewells
providesadditionalinformation(http://www.epa.gov/
safewater/privatewells/pdfs/household_wells.pdf).
Responding to Drinking Water Contamination
Cleaningupwatercontaminationrequiresthorough
understandingofthesourceandrouteofcontamination.
Onceanaquiferiscompromised,restoringitsqualityis
extremelydifcult;usually,anothersourceofwatermust
befound.Ifcomponentsofthewellconstructionfailand
allowcontaminatesintothesystem,xingorevendrilling
anewwellmaybeappropriate.Shockchlorinationofthe
wellisnotconsideredapermanentsolutiontomicrobial
contaminationbutmayhelpreduceexposureduringan
outbreakoracutesituation.Onsitewatertreatmentsuch
asultraviolet(UV)orchlorinationcanaddressspecifc
contaminationconcerns,butisnotwidelyrecommended
forroutineuseasaneffectiveprotectivemeasurebecause
ofsignicantmaintenancerequirements.Foradditional
information,contacttheEnvironmentalHealthDivisionof
yourlocalhealthdepartmentandconsultEPAsguideto
privatewells(http://www.epa.gov/safewater/privatewells/
pdfs/household_wells.pdf).

Sewage Service
Background
Safe,sanitary,nuisance-freedisposalofwastewateris
apublichealthpriorityinallsettings,smallandlarge,
ruralorurban.Severalmethodsofmanagingwastewater
exist,bothintraditionalsite-builtstructuresandin
manufacturedstructures.Wastewatercanbepipedaway
fromthestructuretoacommunitytreatmentsystem,
treatedonsiteusingseptictanksystems,orstoredin
tanksorcomposttoiletsforlaterdisposal.One-third
ofnewhomesuseonsitewastewatertreatmentand
disposal,whilemorethanhalfofallmanufactured
homesareconnectedtoonsitesepticsystems(U.S.
Inanyevent,wastewatershouldbedisposedofina
mannertoensurethat
Communityorprivatedrinkingwatersuppliesare
notthreatened;
Directhumanexposureisnotpossible;
Wasteisinaccessibletovectors,insects,rodents,or
otherpossiblecarriers;
Odororaestheticnuisancesarenotcreated;and
Allenvironmentallawsandregulationsare
compliedwith.
Toooften,thesegoalsarenotmet.Septictanksystems
arethesecondgreatestthreattogroundwater(after
leakingundergroundfueltanks).AccordingtoEPAs
Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual(U.S.
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency2002),approximately
10%20%ofonsitewastewatersystemsarefailing.The
failurerateisprobablyhigherformanufacturedhousing
becauseonly17statesregulatethesesystemsastheydo
otherstructures.
Septic System Problems
Themostcommonmethodofonsitewastedisposal
istheseptictanksystem.Thesesystemsaregenerally
composedofaseptictank,distributionbox,and
absorptioneld(alsoknownasthedraineldorleach
eld).Theseptictankservesthreepurposes:itallows
forsedimentationofsolidsinthewastewater,storageof
solids,andanaerobicbreakdownoforganicmaterials.
Theabsorptioneldiswherenaltreatmentand
disposalofwastewateroccurs.
Septictanksystemscanfailinanumberofways.
Theactualseptictankcanllwithsolids(becauseof
inadequatemaintenanceandpumping),resultingin
failurewhensolidsaredischargedintotheabsorption
eld.Thisdamagessoilporosityandcanresultinsurface
failure.Failurescanalsobecausedbyushinghazardous
householdchemicalslikedraincleanersintothetank
thatdestroyanaerobicbacterianeededfordigestionof
solidsinthetank.Thiscanresultininadequateprimary
treatmentintheseptictankandcausessoildamage.
Mostcritically,manysitesaresimplyunsuitableforany
typeofonsitewastewaterdisposalsystembecauseof
severetopographiclimitations,ahighgroundwater
table,overlyporoussoilthatallowssewagetoreach
groundwaterwithoutadequatetreatment,orimpervious
soilthatwillnotallowwastewatertopercolatethrough
thesoilandresultsinsurfacingofsewageefuent.
Followingaresignsofserioussepticsystemproblems:
Sewagebackupindrainsortoilets(oftenablack
liquidwithadisagreeableodor).
Slowfushingoftoilets.Manydrainswillclear
muchslowerthanusual,despiteusingplungers
ordrain-cleaningproducts.Thisslowmovement
mayalsoresultfromacloggedplumbingventora
nonventedxture.
Surfacefowofwastewaterwithliquidrangingin
colorfromcleartoblackseepingalongtheground
nearsepticsystemswithadisagreeableodor.
Lushgreengrassovertheabsorptionfeld,even
duringdryweather,mayindicatethatanexcessive
amountofliquidfromthesystemismovingup
throughthesoil,insteadofdown,asitshould.
Althoughsomeupwardmovementofliquidfrom
theabsorptioneldisgood,toomuchcould
indicatemajorproblems.
Thepresenceofnitratesorbacteriainanearby
drinkingwaterwellmayindicatethatliquidfrom
theseptictanksystemmaybeowingintothe
wellthroughthegroundoroverthesurface.Water
testsavailablefromthelocalhealthdepartmentwill
indicatewhethernitratesorbacteriaarepresentin
thedrinkingwater.
Buildupofaquaticweedsoralgaeinnearbylakes
orpondsmayindicatethatnutrient-richseptic
wasteisleachingintothesurfacewater,possibly
creatinghealthrisks.
Unpleasantodorsaroundthehouse.Often,an
improperlyventedplumbingsystemorafailingseptic
systemcausesabuildupofdisagreeableodors.
MoreinformationcanbefoundintheEPAHomeowners
Guide to Septic Systems(U.S.EnvironmentalProtection
Agency2005).

Avoiding Health Risks from Septic Systems
EPAsHomeowners Guide to Septic Systemsprovides
detailedinformationaboutlocating,installing,and
maintainingsepticsystems(U.S.Environmental
Siting Septic Systems
Septictanksandabsorptioneldsmustbelocated
toavoidcontaminatingwaterwells,groundwater,or
streams.Ataminimum,thesystemshouldbe10feet
fromthehouseandotherstructures,5feetfromproperty
lines,50feetfromwaterwells,and25feetfromstreams.
Totakeintoaccountsoilporosityandgroundwater
issues,localhealthorcodeauthoritiesshouldbe
consulted.
Drinkingwaterandwastewaterlinesshouldbelaidin
separatetrenchesleadingtothestructure.Regulations
varybystatebuttypicallyrequirebetween3and10feet
ofhorizontalseparation.Drinkingwaterandwastewater
linesshouldbeplacedabovethewatertable,awayfrom
areasofdrainageorstandingwater.
Connections and Piping
Therearemanytechniquesanddevicesforpreventing
backow,back-siphonage,andcross-contamination
betweenwaterandwastewater,includingvacuum
breakers(nonpressureandpressure);backow
preventers;surgetanks;andcolorcodinglinestoavoid
cross-connectingdrinkingwaterandsewagesystems.
Inspection
Septictanksneedtobeinspectedfromtimetotime,
asdescribedintheEPAHomeowners Guide to Septic
Systems(U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency2005).
Addressing Septic System Failures
Failureofonsitewastewatersystemsmaybeaddressed
throughpumpingandmaintenanceoftheseptic
systembytrainedcontractors.Wheresoilsorterrain
areinsufcienttohandlewastewaterloads,extension
ofleachelds,orotheracceptableseptictanksystem
repairsmaybeappropriatewherelandisavailable.
Ultimately,providingthestructureaccesstoapublicly
ownedwastewatertreatmentsystemisthebestwayto
addresswastewaterproblems.
Electricity
Manufacturedstructuressharemanypotentialelectrical
safetyconcernsincommonwithtraditionalsite-built
structures.Somemanufacturedstructuresmaypose
specialelectricalsafetyissues.Electricshockscan
causeburns,andsevereshockscandisrupttheheart,
potentiallycausingdeath.Anoccupantmayexperience
suchshockswhencomingincontactwithfaultywiring,
appliances,orshortcircuitsorwhenconnectingsome
kindsofmanufacturedstructurestoapowersource.
Electricalproblemscanalsostartres(seeChapter3
onFireSafety).The2007AmericanHousingSurvey
reported40,000manufacturedhousingunits(0.6%)have
exposedelectricalwiring(U.S.CensusBureau2008).
Electrical Safety
Thesafetyrequirementsforoutdoor,countertop,and
bathroomelectricalreceptacles(outlets)arethesamefor
manufacturedstructuresassite-builtstructures,although
thesafetyrequirementsforhookingtoelectrical
servicemaydifferdependingonthetypeanduseof
manufacturedstructures.Manufacturedhousingmust
meetTitle24Sec.3280andpartAofArticle550ofthe
NationalElectricalCode(NEC)(NFPANo.70-1993).
Theseregulationscovertheelectricalconductorsand
equipmentinstalledwithinoronmanufacturedhomes
andtheconductorsthatconnectmanufacturedhomes
toasupplyofelectricity.Localelectricalcodesmayalso
apply,andtheauthorityhavingjurisdictionmayenforce
speciceditionsoftheNECorInternationalResidential
Code(IRC).Ingeneral,externalelectricalfeed
connectionsmustbewithin30feetofthemanufactured
homeandprovidegroundingandinsulatedconductors,
andthedistributionpanelmustbelocatedwithinthe
home.Installingthepowerhookupmaybehazardous
andshouldbeperformedbytrainedpersonnel.
ForrecreationalvehiclesusingRVparks,electrical
serviceisprovidedthroughapowerpedestal.
Installationandmaintenanceofthesepedestalsmustbe
performedbyalicensedelectricianandareregulatedby
localorstateelectricalcodes(Trout2001).
Residentialelectricalwiringsystemstudiesperformedor
sponsoredbytheFireProtectionResearchFoundation,
theU.S.ConsumerProductSafetyCommission(CPSC),
theNationalInstituteofStandardsandTechnology,
andtheU.S.FireAdministrationhavefoundthree
contributingfactorstoelectricalwiringres:theeffect
ofnaturalagingovertimeontheelectricalsystem
wiringandequipment;misuseorabuseoftheelectrical
systemcomponentsinthehomebytheoccupants;and
non-code-compliantinstallations,upgrades,orrepairs
(Dini2008).Thesestudiesindicatethattherewould
beasignicantreductioninthenumberofelectrical
wiringhomeresifelectricalsystemsareinstalledand
maintainedinaccordancewithNFPA70(theNational

Electrical Code)andinspectedinaccordancewithNFPA Electrical Safety Tips Outside Manufactured Structures
73(Electrical Inspection Code for Existing Dwellings).
Electrical Safety Tips Inside the Home
Usearcfaultcircuitinterrupters(AFCIs),ground
faultcircuitinterrupters(GFCIs),andTROs(tamper-
resistantoutlets)tohelpprotectagainstreand
shockhazards.Thesedevicesshouldbeinstalled
whererequiredbycodesandwhereadditional
safetyisdesired(Seehttp://www.es.org/cms/
homesafety).ForadditionalinformationonAFCIs
orGFCIs,seehttp://www.cpsc.gov/volstd/afci/afci.
htmlorhttp://www.cpsc.gov/volstd/gfci/gfci.html.
Useonlyappliancesandequipmentapprovedby
UnderwritersLaboratories(lookfortheULlistingon
thelabel)orotherrecognizedtestinglaboratories.
Makesureappliancesareingoodconditionand
thattherearenobreaksorcracksinpowercords,
plugs,orconnectors.
Keepappliancessuchashairdryers,radios,and
curlingironsawayfromwater-lledtubsandsinks.
Donotoverloadoutletswithcords.Usemultiple
plugoutlets(deviceswiththreetosixreceptacles,
acircuitbreaker,andasurgeprotector)asa
morepermanentsolutionwhentherearetoofew
electricaloutlets.
Useextensioncordsasatemporarysolution.Ifthe
televisionpictureshrinksorickerswhenmajor
appliancesgoon,oriffusesorcircuitbreakersblow
frequently,haveyourcircuitsandwiringchecked.
Useextensioncordsasatemporarysolution,and
donotruncordsundercarpetsorfurniturebecause
thecordscanoverheatandcauseare.
Unplugsmallapplianceswhennotinuse.Always
unplugappliancesbeforecleaning.Neverunplugor
carryanythingbyitscord.Unpluganddonotuse
anappliancethathasgivenyouanelectricalshock.
Useallthreeprongsofelectricplugs.Neverforcea
plugintoanoutletifitdoesntt,andnevernailor
tackcordstowallsoroors.
Useplugcoversorsafetycaps.Teachchildren
nottopokethingsintoelectricaloutlets,toasters,
orotherappliances.Keepelectricalcordsoutof
childrensreach.
Ifyouhaveoverheadelectricalservice,watchout
forthedroplinefromtheutilitypole.Keepladders,
tools,andchildrenawayfromtheelectricalservice
equipment.Beparticularlycarefulwhenyouare
unloadingmaterialsfromyourcarortruck.
Keeptelevisionandradioantennasawayfrom
powerlines.Antennasshouldbefarenoughaway
soifblownovertheyremainclearofthelines.
Ifworkmustbedonenearpowerlines,contactthe
localelectricalutilityrstforspecicadviceorto
de-energizethelines.
Placeoutdooroutletsonacircuitprotectedbya
GFCI.GFCIscanbeaddedasatemporaryplug-
inadapter,addedasareplacementoutlet,oreven
installedasacircuitbreaker.Electricianscanprovide
options.ForadditionalinformationonGFCIs,see
http://www.cpsc.gov/volstd/gfci.html.
Makesurethatanyelectricalproductsusedoutside
areintendedforoutsideuse.
TeachchildrentorecognizeDangersigns,toavoid
climbingintreesclosetopowerlines,andtoavoid
playingaroundpad-mountedtransformers(metal
cabinetsonconcretepads).
TheElectricalSafetyFoundationInternational,theFire
ProtectionResearchFoundationandCPSCWebsites
havemoretipsforusingelectricalappliancesandspace
heatersforindentifyingpotentialelectricalhazards
bothinsideandoutside.Formoreinformation,seethe
following:
http://esf.org/cms/node/184
http://www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/pubs/463.pdf
http://www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/pubs/513.pdf
http://www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/pubs/elec_sfy.html
http://www.usfa.dhs.gov/downloads/pdf/fswy5.pdf
ElectricalSafetyinManufacturedHomes.USFA,
HUD,NIST,2000(http://www.usfa.dhs.gov/
downloads/pdf/electrical-mh.pdf).
Gas
Manymanufacturedstructuresusepropane(alsoknown
asliquefedpetroleumgasorLPG),forcooking,water
heatingand/orinteriorheating.Whenusedproperly,
propaneappliancesaresafe.

Health Risks Associated with Propane
Threekindsofhazardsarisewiththeuseofpropane.
First,propaneisaammablegas,soreandexplosion
mayoccurifitbuildsupandisignited.Second,propane
candisplaceoxygeninenclosedspaces,causingarisk
ofasphyxiation.Third,iffurnacesorothergas-powered
appliancesmalfunctionorburnwithoutadequate
ventilation,theycangeneratecarbonmonoxide(CO),a
poisonousgas,whichcanbuildupwithinstructures.
Tips for Safe Use of Propane (LPG)
Ventilation
Ventilatewell.Properventilationisakeytosafe
propaneuse.Makesurethatadequateventilation
isprovidedinaccordancewiththeappliance
manufacturersinstallationinstructions.
Neverblockventilation,combustionairopenings,or
returnairducts.
Knowyoursystem
Knowwhereyourgasservicelineandshutoffvalve
arelocatedandhowtoshutoffthegas.
Recognizethesmellofpropane,whichistreatedto
smelllikesulfur(rotteneggs).
Keepyourownersmanualnearyourappliance.
Ensurethatoverfllprotectiondevicesareinstalled
onallpropanecontainers.
Maintainyourappliances
Makesureappliancesareinstalledandoperated
accordingtothemanufacturersinstructionsand
localbuildingcodes.Mostappliancesshouldbe
installedbyqualiedprofessionals.
Havetheheatingsystemprofessionallyinspected
andservicedannuallytoensureproperoperation.
Theinspectorshouldalsocheckchimneysand
uesforblockages,corrosion,partialandcomplete
disconnections,andlooseconnections.
Neverservicefuel-burningapplianceswithout
properknowledge,skill,andtools.Alwaysrefer
totheownersmanualwhenperformingminor
adjustmentsorservicingfuel-burningequipment.
Cleanappliancesregularlytoremovedlintand
dirt.Contactyourlocalpropanesupplierfortips
onpropercleaningandfollowthemanufacturers
instructions.
Donotcoverthebottomofnaturalgasorpropane
ovenswithaluminumfoil.Doingsoblocksthe
combustionairowthroughtheapplianceandcan
produceCO.
Duringhomerenovations,ensurethatappliance
ventsandchimneysarenotblockedbytarpsor
debris.Makesureappliancesareinproperworking
orderwhenrenovationsarecomplete.
Haveyourcookingrangeservicediftheburner
ameisnotblue.Theblueameindicatescomplete
combustion.Ayellowameindicatesairinletsare
cloggedorburnersneedadjustment.Contactyour
propanesuppliersservicedepartmentimmediately.
Watercandamagetheinternalsafetymechanismin
thegascontrolsofanappliance.Ifyoususpectthat
yourappliancegascontrolsmayhavegottenwet
(becauseofooding,forexample),haveatrained
technicianreplacethemimmediately.
Generalsafetypractices
Neverstorepropanecylindersinsideyourhome.
InstallandmaintainaCOalarmthatmeetsthe
requirementsofthecurrentUL2034orCSA6.19
safetystandards.ACOalarmcanprovidesome
addedprotection,butitisnosubstituteforproper
useandupkeepofappliancesthatcanproduce
CO.InstallaCOalarminthehallwaynearevery
separatesleepingareaofthehome,andmakesure
thealarmcannotbecoveredupbyfurnitureor
draperies.
Installandmaintainaresidentialpropanegas
detectorthatmeetstherequirementsofthecurrent
versionofUL1484,StandardforResidentialGas
Detectors.Apropanegasdetectorcanprovide
addedprotection,butitisnosubstituteforproper
useandupkeepofpropane-fueledappliancesthat
canmalfunctionandallowunburnedpropaneto
leakintothedwelling.Installapropanegasdetector
inaccordancewiththemanufacturersinstallation
instructions.Makesurethedetectorcannotbe
coveredupbyfurnitureordraperies.
Neveroperateaportablegeneratororanyother
gasolineengine-poweredtooleitherinornearan
enclosedspacesuchasagarage,house,orother
building.Evenwithopendoorsandwindows,these
spacescantrapCOandallowittoquicklybuildto
lethallevels.

Neveruseportablefuel-burningcampingequipment
insideahome,garage,vehicle,ortentunlessitis
specicallydesignedforuseinanenclosedspace
andprovidesinstructionsforsafeuseinanenclosed
area.
Neveroperateunventedfuel-burningappliancesin
anyroomwherepeoplearesleeping.
Keepfammableandcombustiblematerialsaway
fromopenamesandappliances.
Keepchildrenandpetsawayfromallheatersto
avoidaccidentalburns.
Neverusegasrangesordryersforhomeheating.
Neverplaceyourheadnearordirectlyoverthe
valvesonyourstoragetank.
Neverleaveacarrunninginanattachedgarage,
evenwiththegaragedooropen.
Incaseoftrouble:Ifyousmellgas,assumethereisa
seriousproblemandrespondimmediately.Insteadof
attemptingtoidentifythesourceoftheleak,
Makesurethateveryoneleavesthestructure
immediately,andleavethedooropen.
Donottouchanyelectricalappliances
(includinglights).
Shutoffthegasatthepropanetank.
Callthelocalfredepartmentorthelocalpropane
dealerforassistance,butmakethecallfromoutside
thehouse.

CHAPTER8:POSTDISASTERHOUSING:
KEEPINGSAFEANDHEALTHY
Inthewakeofadisaster,manufacturedstructureswill
provideinterimhousingformanydisplacedpeople.The
housingenvironmentforpeopleinthissituationisvery
unsettledbecausetheyndthemselvesinunfamiliar
housingafterlosingtheabilitytoliveintheirhomewith
theirnormalfurnishingsandpossessions.Besidesthe
absenceofmanypossessionsthatpeopleareusedto,
thehousingunititselfwillintroducemajordifferences
toresidents.Themanufacturedstructuremayhave
justbeenrecentlysitedatitslocationnearthedisaster.
Thebuildingsystemsinthedwellingmightbenewor
differentfortheoccupants.Livingspacesmaybesmaller
andmayincludemorepeople.Andthepatternofhow
tooperateahometobestprovideforthesafetyand
healthoftheresidentsmustoftenberelearnedtosome
extentinthisnewenvironment.
Withthisscenarioinmind,thischapterprovides
practical,action-orientedguidanceforpeoplelivingin
amanufacturedstructureintheaftermathofadisaster.
Theinformationisintendedtoprovidesimple,direct
guidanceonhowtostaysafeandhealthyinthe
emergencyhousingduringthetimepeopleareliving
there.Whilemanyoftheserecommendationsaresimilar
tohealthandsafetyguidanceforpermanentresidentsof
manufacturedstructures,therearesomekeydifferences
fortemporarilyhousedresidentsfollowingadisaster.
Thisisduetothefactthatthesetemporaryresidentsare
livinginaveryunsettledandunfamiliarenvironment,
tryingtocopewiththeaftermathofthedisasterwhile
alsoestablishingasafehomeenvironment.
Therecommendationsgenerallyfallintothesame
categoriescoveredintherestofthisreport,including
aseparatediscussiononrisksandhazardsforspecial
populationslikepregnantwomenandasthmatics.
Therecommendationsbelowarestatedinbrief
terms,sothattheycanserveasachecklistforpeople
toconsiderastheytemporarilyadapttolivingina
manufacturedstructure.

FIRE AND ELECTRICAL SAFETY Electrical Circuits
Smoke Alarms
Makesurethedwellinghasworkingsmokealarms:
FollowHUDCoderequiringsmokealarmsto
belocatedineachbedroom,kitchen/livingarea,
stairwell,andbasement(24CFR3280.208).
Useinterconnectedsmokealarmsforbetter
protectionsowhenonesounds,theyallsound.
Combinationsmoke-carbonmonoxide(CO)
detectorsarecommonlyavailableforprotection
againstreaswellasCO.
Useregularalarmsiflong-lifealarmsarenot
availableandreplacethebatteriesannually.
Testallsmokealarmsatleasteverymonthusing
thetestbuttonoranapprovedsmokesubstitute
andcleantheunits,bothinaccordancewiththe
manufacturersinstructions.
Cigarette Smoking
Peoplewhosmokeshouldattempttoquit.TheU.S.
DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices,National
InstitutesofHealth,andNationalCancerInstitute
provideafreehelpline(1-800-QuitNow)forsmokers
whowanttoquitandneedhelpdoingso.
Smokersshouldsmokeoutsidethehome.
Ifsomeonedoessmokeinthehome,providelarge
nontipashtraysonlevelsurfacesandemptythem
frequently.Whenemptyingcigarettebutts,douse
thebuttswithwaterbeforediscardingthem.
Cooking
Neverleavecookingfoodunattended.Supervise
olderchildrenwhocook.
Neveruseanoutdoorgrill/BBQunitinside.
Keepcookingsurfacescleanandplaceanything
thatcanburnwellawayfromtherange.
Havegasstovesorrangescheckedifthefamehas
yellowtips:ayellow-tippedameonagasstoveor
rangeindicatesaproblem.
Candles
Avoidtheuseofcandlesforlightingduring
blackoutsituations.Usebattery-orcrank-powered
ashlightsorlanternsinstead.
Avoidoverloadingelectricalcircuits.Ifbreakersare
frequentlytripping,trytakingmajorloadsoffthat
circuit.
Keepappliancessuchashairdryers,radios,and
curlingironsawayfromwater-lledtubsandsinks.
Useextensioncordsasatemporarysolution,and
dontruncordsundercarpetsorfurnitureasthe
cordscanoverheatandcauseare.
Unplugsmallapplianceswhennotinuse.Always
unplugappliancesbeforecleaning.Neverunplugor
carryanythingbyitscord.Unpluganddonotuse
anappliancethathasgivenyouanelectricalshock.
Useallthreeprongsofelectricplugs.Neverforcea
plugintoanoutletifitdoesntt,andnevernailor
tackcordstowallsoroors.
Useoutletcoverstokeepyoungchildrenfrom
playingwithoutlets.
Stayclearofanylooseelectricalconnectionsor
wiresthatappeartohavecomeloosefroma
connection,andconsultanelectrician.
Burns/Scalds
Setthewaterheaterthermostatto120Forlower.
Installhotwatertemperaturelimitersatthefaucet.
Escape Plan
Makeandpracticeafreescapeplanwithyour
family.Makesurefamilymemberscanidentifytwo
waysoutofeveryroom.Also,pickasafemeeting
placeawayfromyourhomeforeveryonetogoto
afterescapingare.
HEATING, COOLING,
AND VENTILATION
Operating Your Heating/Cooling System
Keeptheindoortemperatureatreasonablelevels.
Keepingittoocoldinthewinterortoowarminthe
summercanactuallycreatemoistureandindoorair
quality(IAQ)problems.
Inspectandreplaceairfltersinthesystemregularly.
Inexpensiveberglasslters(whicharecommon)
shouldbechangedmonthly,especiallyifthereare
petsinthehome.
Ifnormaloperationofyourair-conditioningsystem
cannotkeepindoorhumiditybelow50%,usea
separatestandalonedehumidieralsotoreduce
indoormoisture.Simpledigitaltemperatureand

relativehumiditymonitorsareavailablefor$10or COMBUSTION SAFETY
lessathomeimprovementanddepartmentstores.
Makesurethatwaterfromtheindoorair-conditioner
unitdrainsoutsidethehome,andnotintothecrawl
spacebelowthehouse.
Space Heaters
Readtheproductinstructionsbeforeusingaspace
heater,andplaceitonarm,out-of-the-way
surfacetoreducetippingover.Keepitatleast3feet
awayfromclothing,bedding,draperies,orother
combustiblematerial.Whenitsnotbeingused,turn
thespaceheateroffandunplugit.
Donotrunspaceheatersusingpropaneorkerosene
forlongerthantheinstructionsspecify.Longerrun
timescanreleasetoomuchwatervaporandharmful
combustiongasesintothehome.
Avoidtheuseofunventedpropaneorkerosene
heaterstheyaddlotsofmoisturetotheindoorair
andcancreateotherIAQproblems.Ifsuchheaters
mustbeused,besuretousetheproperfuelforthe
unit,followthetimelimitsonhowlongtheunit
shouldrun,andprovideventilationtotheindoor
spacewhereitisused.
Ventilating the Building
Ventilateyourdwellingwhenoutsideconditions
aremildanddrybyopeningupwindows.Thisis
especiallyhelpfulifthedwellingisnew;hasbeen
closedupforalongperiodoftime;orhasnew
furnishingslikecarpet,furniture,orcabinets.
Usekitchenexhaustfanswhenboilingthings
onthestove.
Turnonbathroomexhaustfanswhenevershowering
andforafewminutesafterwards.
Bothkitchenandbathexhaustfanscanbeused
morefrequentlytohelpreducegeneralodors
andpollutantsfromthehome.Asthesefanspull
airandodorsoutofthehome,freshairfrom
outdoorswillmakeitswayinside,helpingto
diluteremainingodors.
Usethehomesventilationsystemsasmuchas
neededtoachievecomfortableindoorairconditions.
Postdisasterhousingisoftenovercrowded,which
requireshigherlevelsofventilation.
Donotblockventilation,combustionairopenings,
orreturnairducts.
Neveroperateaportablegeneratororanyother
gasolineengine-poweredtooleitherinornearan
enclosedspacesuchasagarage,house,orother
building.Evenwithopendoorsandwindows,these
spacescantrapCOandallowittoquicklybuildto
lethallevels.
Neveruseportablefuel-burningcamping
equipmentinsideahome,garage,vehicle,ortent
unlessitisspecicallydesignedforuseinan
enclosedspaceandprovidesinstructionsforsafe
useinanenclosedarea.
MakesurethedwellinghasCOdetectorsto
provideearlywarningofelevatedCOlevels.
Combinationsmoke-COdetectorsarecommonly
availableforprotectionagainstreaswellas
CO.IfaCOproblemissuspected,getfreshair
immediatelybyopeningwindowsanddoors.
Turnoffanycombustionappliancesandleavethe
houseimmediately.
Makesuretheventpipingforfurnacesandwater
heatersisconnectedandcarriestheexhaustgases
fromthisequipmenttooutdoors.
Donotstorepropanecylindersinsidethehome.
Learnthelocationofgasshutoffvalvesandbe
familiarwithhowtousethem.Alsolearnto
recognizethesmellofpropaneandnaturalgasso
youcanrecognizealeakbysmell.
Ifyousmellgas,assumethereisaseriousproblem
andrespondimmediately.Insteadofattemptingto
identifythesourceoftheleak,
Makesurethateveryoneleavesthestructure
immediately,andleavethedooropen.
Donottouchanyelectricalappliances
includinglights.
Shutoffthegasatthepropanetank.
Callthelocalredepartmentorthelocal
propanedealerforassistance,butmakethecall
fromoutsidethehouse.

INDOOR AIR QUALITY AND
MOISTURE CONTROL
Keepaneyeoutforthesesignsofwaterproblems:
Dripsorpuddlesanywhereinthehouse.
Waterstainsondrywallorceilingtiles.
Blisteringorbubblingpaintonwallsorceilings.
Dampormustysmells.
Moldgrowthonsurfaces.
Excessivecondensationonwindowsorother
surfaces.Excessivemeanscondensationthatis
therecontinuouslyorenoughcondensationsothatit
accumulatesandpools.
Poolingwaterorpuddlesneartheinteriorunitofan
air-conditioningsystem.
Rottingwoodormaterialsthataredamptothe
touch.
Water-soakedbuildinginsulation.
Saggingdrywallorceilingtiles.
Ifyouseeasignofawaterproblem,thesourceofthe
problemneedstobeidentiedandxed.
Managing Indoor Humidity Levels
Usedehumidifersand/orair-conditioningtoreduce
indoorhumiditytotherangeof30%-50%.Anindoor
digitaltemperatureandrelativehumidity(RH)
monitorcostslessthan$10fromdepartmentor
homeimprovementstores.
Usekitchenexhaustfanswhenboilingthingsand
bathroomexhaustfanswhileshowering.
Makesuredryerventductsgototheoutdoors,not
insideorunderneaththeunit.
Household Cleaning Products
Trytousehouseholdcleaningproductsthatare
listedassolvent-free.Ifusingaproductmade
ofharmfulchemicals,provideampleventilation
(atleastasmuchastheproductinstructions
recommend)usingyourhomesexhaustfansand
openingwindows.
Bemindfulofwhatyoubringintothehome.New
furnishings,pets,cleaningproducts,andstored
chemicalscanallnegativelyimpactthehomesIAQ.
Allergens
Keepthehousecleanbysweeping,vacuuming,and
dusting.Thisreducesdustmites,pollens,animal
dander,andotherallergens.
Keepindoorrelativehumiditylevelsbelow50%
withair-conditioningand/ordehumidiers.This
reducesdustmites.
Ifresidentsareallergictopetskeptinthehome,try
tokeepthepetsoutdoorsasmuchaspossibleor
ndatemporaryhomeforthem.
Limittheuseofcarpetingorrugsinareasthatare
dampormoistlikebathroomsandkitchens.
MOLD
MostoftheguidanceforIAQ,moisturecontrol,and
HVACalsowillhelptopreventmoldproblemsin
homes.Ingeneraltherearetwokeystepstodealing
withmold:1)cleanupthemold,and2)eliminatethe
moisturesourcethatallowedthemoldtogrowinthe
rstplace.
Mold Clean Up
Forsmallareasofmoldlikeafewsquarefeet,many
residentscanoftenhandlethecleanup.Incases
whereporousmaterials(e.g.,carpet,ceilingtiles)
havesignicantmoldgrowth,theyoftenmustbe
replaced.Nonporousmaterialsliketilecantypically
becleanedwithadetergentandwater.Ifthatisnot
effective,ableachsolutioncanbeused.
Contractorswithtraininginmoldremediation
shouldbeconsultedforlargerproblemsorif
residentshavehealthissues(e.g.,asuppressed
immunesystemorasthma)thatmakemold
exposurerisky.
Importantsafetynote:Ammoniaandbleachshould
neverbemixedbecauseitmayproducechlorine
andotherpoisonousgasesoritmayleadtoan
explosion.
Mold Testing
Testingformoldgenerallyisnotrecommendedor
needed.Inmostcasesthemaingoalsaretondand
xthemoistureproblemandcleanupthemold.

PESTS AND RODENTS
Prevention and Pest-proong Tips
Removedebrispilesfromaroundthehomelike
pilesoflumber,leaves,androttingrewood.
Placehouseholdgarbageinreceptacleswithout
holesandwithtight-ttinglids.
Keepplants,shrubs,andtreesbackfromthehomes
foundationatleast18inches.
Useexterioryellowbuglightstoavoidattracting
insects.
Keeproofguttersuncloggedanddirectdownspouts
awayfromthebuilding.
Denypestsaccessbysealingholesandcracksin
thehomesexterioratpipeandwiringpenetrations.
Expandingsprayfoaminacanandwirescreen
makegoodmaterialsforplugginguptheseholes.
Usewindowscreenswhenwindowsareopen,and
patchholesinthescreens.
Storepetfoodinsealedcontainersandremove
uneatenpetfoodbeforepestsndit.
Eliminatepotentialbreedingareasformosquitoes
byremovingormodifyingareasthatcanholdwater
suchasgutters,tarps,emptycans,andusedtires.
Before Using Pesticides In/Around the Home
Justapplyingapesticidenormallydoesnotsolvea
pestproblem.First,trytogureoutwhythepests
aretheretobeginwithandfxit.Lookforthepests
target(likefoodscrapsonthecounter)andhow
theyregettingin(aholeintheexteriorwallbya
waterline).
Purchaseonlyasmallamountofpesticide,andbuy
morelaterifitisneeded.
Followallpesticideproductlabelsandinstructions.
Usepesticidesonlyintherecommendedquantities,
andmixordilutepesticidesoutdoors.
Takechildrenandpetsoutsidewhenapplying
pesticidesindoors.
NeverusepesticideslabeledOutdoorUseOnly
indoors.
Increaseventilationindoorsduringandafter
applicationofpesticides.
Onlyusepesticidesthatlistthetargetpestonthe
label.
Donotstoreunneededpesticidesinside
Limittheuseofchemicalpesticidesoutdoorsas
wellasindoors,toavoidunnecessaryenvironmental
contamination.Pesticidescancausenegativehealth
effectsinpeople.
STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
Potentialsignsofastructuralproblemwitha
manufacturedstructurearelistedbelow.Residentswill
notbeequippedtoaddressthesetypesofproblems,
butcanrecognizeandalertauthoritiesthatthereisa
potentialstructuralissue.
Lookforfoundationproblemsincludingcrumbling
orleaningfoundationpiers,crackedorsettling
foundationwalls,oruneven(notlevel)foundations.
Lookforstormwatermanagementproblemslike
poolingwaterunderneaththeunitornearits
foundation,soilerosionnearthehomesfoundation,
andcloggedguttersordownspouts.
Lookforroofproblemsincludingsaggingrooflines,
holesofanytype(lookaroundroofpenetrations),
ormissingroofshingles.
Lookforexteriorwallproblemsincludingcracks
orgapsinthewalls,slopedwalls,wallswithrotor
buginfestations,orwallsthatdonotsitontopof
thefoundation.
Whenwindowsordoorswillnotopen/close
correctly,lookforcracksinthewallsaroundthem
forsignsofstructuralmovement.
BUILDING ACCESSIBILITY
Theabilitytowalkupstairsoutsideamanufactured
structureortomaneuverinsidethedwellingcanbe
difcultandhazardousforsomeresidents.Inmost
instances,residentswillnotbeabletoxsuchissueson
theirownbutcanatleastnotifytheappropriatepeople
thatahealth/safetyissueexists.
Forelderly,disabled,oranyotheroccupantwho
hasdifcultywithstairsormaneuveringinthe
dwelling(duetoawheelchair,forexample),inquire
aboutmanufacturedhousingunitswithenhanced
accessibilityfeatures.

SPECIAL POPULATIONS
Allofthetipsandguidancelistedabovecanhelpmake
manufacturedstructuressaferandhealthierhomes
forresidentsinthewakeofadisaster.Butforsome
specialpopulations,dealingwithhazardsinthehome
environmentisevenmorecriticalfortheirwellbeing.
Pregnantwomen,infantsandyoungchildren,the
elderly,thedisabled,peoplewithasthma,andthose
withsuppressedimmunesystemsaremajorgroups
representingmillionsofAmericanswhodemand
specialattention.Forthesepopulations,therisk
presentedbydifferenthouseholdhazardscanbemuch
greaterandresultinveryseriousconsequences.
Table8-1belowhighlightsparticularareaswherethese
populationsmaybeatgreaterrisk.Thegoalofthis
chartistohighlightwheretheseincreasedrisksexist
sothatresidentscanbeawareofthemandplaceextra
emphasiswhereitisneeded.Forexample,inlookingat
thetablebelowamotherofayoungchildwithasthma
mightnotethatthereareseveralallergensincluding
dustmitesthatcanworsenasthmasymptomsinher
child.Thiswouldindicatethatkeepingindoorhumidity
levelsbelow50%,regularcleaning,andavoidingthe
useofcarpetingindampareasareveryimportant
practicesforcontrollingdustmitesandmanagingher
childsasthma.Residentsshouldalsoconsulthealth
careprovidersonhowtobestmanagedifferenthealth
conditionswithrespecttotheirtemporaryhomes.
Inadditiontoraisingtheawarenessofmanufactured
structuresresidents,thisoverviewofspecialpopulations
andriskcategoriesshouldalsoservetoinformemer-
gencyresponsedecisionmakers.
Health/Safety
Issue
R I S K S T O S P E C I A L P OP UL A T I ONS
PregnantWomen
&Fetuses
Infants&
YoungChildren
Elderly
People
Physically
DisabledPeople
PeoplewithAsthma
orOtherChronic
RespiratoryIllness
Peoplewith
Suppressed
ImmuneSystemse
Fire Safety - Increased likelihood Reduced ability to Reduced ability to Especially sensitive
Home Fires of accidents escape a re escape a re to smoke exposure
involving re
Reduced ability to
escape a re
Electrical
Accidents
Increased likelihood
of accidents
Combustion Safety -
CO in the House
Especially sensitive
to CO exposures
to CO exposures
to CO exposure
IAQ -- High Increases dust mites, Increases dust
Indoor Humidity which can contribute mites that
to the development trigger breathing
of asthma in diculties and
susceptible children makes symptoms
more severe
Mold Potential allergy
symptoms and
irratiation
Reduced ability to
escape a re
Reduced ability to
escape a re
Can trigger
breathing
diculties and
make symptoms
more severe
Potential for serious
infections
Indoor Chemical Potential allergy Can trigger
Agents such as symptoms and breathing
VOCs from clean- irratiation diculties and
ing products
May increase risk
make symptoms
NO2 from for developing or
more severe
cigarettes or worsen existing
gas stoves respiratory disease
(Continued)

Health/Safety
Issue
R I S K S T O S P E C I A L P OP UL A T I ONS
PregnantWomen
&Fetuses
Infants&
YoungChildren
Elderly
People
Physically
DisabledPeople
PeoplewithAsthma
orOtherChronic
RespiratoryIllness
Peoplewith
Suppressed
ImmuneSystemse
Allergens from pets, Increased risk for Can trigger
dust mites, pollens, developing asthma breathing diculties
and pests including (in the case of dust and make symptoms
cockroaches and mites) or worsening more severe
rodents existing respiratory
disease
Possible increase in
risk for developing
asthma in preschool
aged children
(cockroaches)
Environmental Low birth weight Increased risk Can trigger
tobacco smoke and overall for asthma breathing
smallness in fetus development diculties and
size (Oce of the
Surgeon General,
2006)
Increased risk for
Sudden Infant Death
Syndrome (SIDS)
make symptoms
more severe
Increased risk for
lower respiratory
tract infections
such as pneumonia
and bronchitis
Mice Virus transmitted
by common house
mice can cause
birth defects
Virus transmitted
by common house
mice can cause
severe illness
Pesticides Exposure during
pregnancy has
potential adverse
eects on fetal
growth and
childhood neuro
development
At risk for accidental
ingestion.
At greater risk for
exposure due to
crawling, sticking
ngers in mouth.
Infants are at higher
risk of toxic eects
from pesticide
exposure due to
their immature
metabolisms
Building Exterior building Exterior building
Accessibility access and access and
maneuverability maneuverability
within units may within units may
be dicult. Units be dicult. Units
with accessibility with accessibility
features should be features should be
sought out. sought out.
Table 8-1: Risks to Special Populations. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2006. The health consequences of involuntary exposure to tobacco smoke: a report of the Surgeon
General. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

CHAPTER9:POTENTIALOPPORTUNITIES
Sincetheconstructionofmanufacturedhomeswasrst
federallyregulatedover35yearsago,greatstrideshave
beenmadeinimprovingthesustainability,durability,
andsafetyofmanufacturedhomes.Whiletheprocess
ofupdatingregulationsandbuildingpracticescan
belengthy,thedevelopmentandtransferofnew
technology,progressinsite-builtconstruction,and
feedbackfromresearchandhomeownerscontinueto
presentmoreopportunitiesforimprovingmanufactured
homes.Thischapterdiscussesawiderangeofpotential
designimprovementopportunities,aswellasdiscussing
health/safetyconsiderationsassociatedwithpotential
changestomanufacturedhomes.
SUSTAINABLE BUILDING AND
HEALTH/SAFETY
Constructionofmanufacturedhomesinacontrolled
factoryenvironmenthasresultedininherent
efcienciesinmaterialuseandreductionof
constructionwaste.Whilemanufacturedhomes
havebeenheraldedfortheirmaterialandresource
efciencies,therearenowopportunitiesinotherareas
ofgreenandsustainablebuildingapplicationsaswell.
Currentopportunitiesfortechnologicaladvancements
andpendingupdatestotheHUDCodepointtowards
thebeginningofagreenereraformanufactured
homes.However,theuseofanynewmaterialor
techniquecanresultinbenetsandsometimesin
unforeseenadverseconsequences.Thusitisimportant
thathealthandsafetyconcernsbeconsideredasnew
technologiesaredevelopedanddeployed.

Thediscussioninthischaptercoversarangeof
opportunitiesformanufacturedhomesintheareasof
energyperformance,waterconservation,andindoor
airquality.
Energy Eciency and Conservation
Regulations and Voluntary Beyond-Code Programs
HUD Code
Beginningin1974,theU.S.DepartmentofHousing
andUrbanDevelopmentFederalManufacturedHome
ConstructionandSafetyStandardsAct,knownas
theHUDCode,regulatedtheconstructionofall
manufacturedhomesintheUnitedStates.Theenergy
conservationcomponentsoftheHUDCodewerelast
updatedin1992.
Theopportunitytoupgradetheenergyconservation
componentsoftheHUDCodewasrecognizedby
theEnergyIndependenceandSecurityActof2007,
whichplacestheresponsibilityforestablishingupdated
energyconservationstandardsformanufacturedhomes
withtheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy(DOE).DOEs
standardswillbebasedonthe2009International
EnergyConservationCode(IECC)andarescheduled
tobereleasedin2011.Thereafter,DOEisrequired
toupdatethestandardswithin1yearofeachupdate
totheIECC,whichcurrentlyoccursin3-yearcycles.
Theseupdatesareexpectedtoresultinmorestringent
requirementsformanufacturedhomesthanarecurrently
required,reectingthenew,morestringentenergy
efciencyrequirementsforsite-builthomes.Alongwith
theseupdatedbuildingpracticesandtechnologies,
considerationofunintendedimpactsonresidenthealth
andsafetywillalsobeessential.Severalexamplesof
theseissuesarenotedinthediscussionbelow.
Energy Star
EnergyStarwascreatedin1992bytheU.S.
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)asavoluntary
labelingprogramtoidentifyandpromoteenergy-
efcientproducts.TheEnergyStarprogramhas
expandedintotheconstructionofmanufacturedhomes
thatarebuilttobe30%moreenergyefcientthanthe
1993ModelEnergyCode.TheEPAoffersguidelineson
thedesign,production,sales,andinstallationofthese
energy-efcientmanufacturedhomes.Acertiedplant
mustproducehomesthatmeettheEnergyStardesign
criteria,integratetheseintotheirqualitycontroland
inspectionprocedures,ensureducttightness,andensure
properinstallation.
EnergyStarsrequirementscanresultinsignicant
energyefciencyimprovementscomparedtoastandard
HUDCodehomeimprovementsthatareexpectedto
resultinamanufacturedhomethatis15%moreefcient
thanthesamehomebuilttothe2004International
ResidentialCode.Theseimprovementsarerealized
throughchangesinthebuildingenvelope(effective
insulation,airsealingofholesandjoints,andhigh-
performancewindows),airdistribution(air-sealedand
well-insulatedducts),andequipment(appliances,HVAC,
andhot-waterheating).Asof2009,over30,000Energy
Starmanufacturedhomeshadbeenbuilt.
Asignicantcrossoverareabetweenenergyefciency
andoccupanthealth/safetyliesintheairexchange
betweenindoorsandoutdoors.Improvingenergy
performanceofteninvolvesair-sealingofthebuilding
envelopewithsprayfoamorcaulktosealupleakage
points.Thisreducestheowofcoldorhotoutdoor
air,whichinturnreducestheneedtoheatorcoolthis
airandsavesenergy.TheEnergyStarrequirements
formanufacturedhomescontainalimitforenvelope
airleakage(7airchangesperhourat50pascalsof
pressuredifferential)inthepreapprovedEnergyStar
designpackages.
However,reducinginltrationofoutdoorairalso
limitstheabilityofoutdoorairtodiluteindoorair
contaminantslikechemicals,odors,andmoisture.
ThiscancreateIAQproblemsandadverseimpacts
onoccupants.Therefore,aggressiveairsealingofthe
buildingenvelopeshouldalsobeaccompaniedbythe
useofawhole-buildingmechanicalventilationsystem
forthedwelling.Themechanicalventilationsystemuses
oneormorefanstoexchangeindoorairwithoutdoor
airinacontrolledmannerbecausenaturalinltrationis
nolongerservingthisrole.
ThecurrentsetofEnergyStardesignpackagescontains
somerequirementsformechanicalventilationincertain
scenarios.Itisalsoworthnotingthattheunderlying
HUDCodealreadycontainsmechanicalventilation
requirementsforallmanufacturedhomes(regardless
ofparticipationinEnergyStar),soventilationisbeing
providedinthesehomes.FutureupdatestotheHUD
Codewilllikelycontainrenementsofthemechanical
ventilationprovisionsaswell,asthisareaofbuilding
performancebenetsfromincreasedresearch.
Manufactured Zero-energy Homes
AlthoughEnergyStarmanufacturedhomesrepresent
signicantenergyimprovementsfrombaselineHUD
Codehomes,effortshavebeenpursuedthroughthe
DepartmentofEnergysBuildingAmericaIndustrialized

HousingPartnershiptogobeyondEnergyStarin
demonstratingazero-energymanufacturedhomein
CherryLane,Idaho.Zero-energyhomesaredesignedto
produceasmuchenergyastheyconsume,whichresults
innetzeroenergyconsumedforthehomeoverthe
courseofayear.
TheIdahohomewasdesignedtoreduceheating,
cooling,lighting,andwaterheatingenergyuseand
tooffsetaportionoftheenergyusethroughonsite
renewableenergy.Becauseofbudgetrestrictions,the
homewasnotdesignedtobeatruezero-energyhome,
buttodemonstrateinterimmeasuresinultimately
reachingnetzeroenergygoals.Energyconservation
andgenerationmeasuresincludedsprayfoaminsulation
forwalls,oors,androof;R8ductswithmastic;100%
uorescentlightingpackage;EnergyStarappliances;
amarriagelinegasket;solarwaterheating;solar
photovoltaicpanelsforelectricitygeneration;reduced
inltration(2.0ACH50);andaheatrecoveryventilator
(HRV)forwholehousemechanicalventilation.
TheHRVisanexampleofamechanicalventilation
system,whichbecomesavitalcomponentwith
inltrationreducedtothelevelsseeninthishome.
HRVsandothermechanicalventilationsystemsmake
upforreducednaturalairexchangebyusingafan(s)
tomoveairbetweenindoorsandoutdoors.Mechanical
ventilationsystemscanhelpsupportIAQandoccupant
healthbyreducingindoormoisturelevelsand
exhaustingchemicalcontaminantsandodors.Reducing
indoormoisturelevelshelpsmanagedustmitesand
theirroleinasthmadevelopmentandexacerbation.
Similarly,removingVOCsandotherairborne
contaminantsalsohelpsreducerespiratoryirritantsfrom
thehome.
Mostmechanicalventilationsystemscanalsolter
incomingfreshairtoremovedust,allergens,and
otherparticulates.Thisisanadvantageofcontrolled
mechanicalventilationoveraleakybuildingenvelope,
whereoutdoorairrandomlyentersthestructurethrough
differentopenings.
Building Envelope
Designing for the Climate Zone
Heatingandcoolingloadsofmanufacturedhomes
arestronglydrivenbytheclimatezonewherethe
homeisultimatelylocated.Selectingbuildingenvelope
componentsthatareclimateappropriateiscrucialin
specifyingamanufacturedhomethatwillperform
efcientlyandcomfortably,whilenotnegatively
impactingindoorairquality.Considerationshouldbe
giventoclimaticimpactswhenspecifyingbuilding
envelopecomponentssuchasinsulation,windows,and
vaporretarders.
Insulation
HUDCoderequirementsforbuildingenergy
performancearelimitedtoanoverallprescriptionfor
thecoefcientofheattransmissionofthebuilding
envelope.Thiscoefcienttakesintoaccountthearea-
weightedinsulatingvalueofwindows,oors,walls,
ceilings,anddoorstoarriveatanoverallratingfora
structure.Whiletheuseofthiscoefcientmayhave
meaningforengineersandscientists,itsmeaningcanbe
verydifcultforaveragehomebuyerstointerpret.
AstudybythePacifcNorthwestNationalLaboratory
(PNNL)convertedtheHUDcoeffcientsintotypical
R-valuesbybuildingenvelopecomponent.Basedon
PNNLsanalysis,thecurrentrequirementsshowgreat
opportunitiesforenergyconservationbyincreasing
insulation.Asarststepinimprovingtheinsulation
ofamanufacturedhome,manufacturerscanlookto
theprescriptiverequirementsofthemostrecentmodel
energycodeforsinglefamilyhomesforguidance:the
2009InternationalEnergyConservationCode(IECC).
Asanexample,Table9-1showsHUDCodetypical
R-valuesversusIECCprescriptiveR-valuesforthestate
ofNebraska.
TheR-valuesinTable9-1forthe2009IECCcanmostly
bemetwithtraditionalinsulationmaterials(e.g.,
berglassbatts,rigidfoaminsulatingpanels)inmany
assemblies.Advancedinsulationtechnologiessuchas
spraypolyurethanefoam(SPF),structuralintegrated
panels(SIPs),rigidfoamexteriorinsulation,andeven
aerogelinsulationhavealsobeendemonstratedon
manufacturedhomeswithsuccess.SPFoffersahigh
R-valueperinch,helpstocreateatighterbuilding
envelope,andmayevenreducethefrequencyofnail-
popsanddrywallcracksthattypicallyoccurduring
transportationoftheunittothesite.Factory-friendly
SIPshavebeenusedwithsuccessinmanufactured
homes,withfavorableresultsfromroadtestsand
energyperformancemonitoring(U.S.Departmentof
Energy2002).
HUDCode 2009IECC
Walls R-11 R-20
Ceiling R-22 R-38
Floors R-22 R-30
Windows U=0.49 U=0.35
Table 9-1: A comparison between typical HUD Code insulation levels and 2009 IECC
prescriptive insulation levels for a home located in the state of Nebraska

FiresafetyisacommonconcernaboutusingSIPs.
Foaminsulationisrelativelyhardtoignite,butwhen
itisignited,itburnsreadilyandemitsadensesmoke
containingmanytoxicgases.However,whentheinterior
oftheSIPiscoveredwithare-ratedmaterial,suchas
gypsumboard,itprotectstheSIPfacingandfoamlong
enoughtogivebuildingoccupantsagoodmeasureof
escapetime(U.S.DepartmentofEnergy2005,2009a).
Insectsandrodents,asinanystructure,canbecomea
problemforSIPsaswell.Anyfoaminsulationproduct
canprovideagoodenvironmentforthesepests
todwell.Somemanufacturersissueguidelinesfor
preventingtheseproblems,includingthefollowing:
Applyinginsecticidestothepanels,
Treatingthegroundwithinsecticidesbothbefore
andafterinitialconstructionandbacklling,
Maintainingindoorhumiditylevelsbelow50%,
Locatingoutdoorplantingsatleasttwofeetaway
fromthewalls,and
Trimminganyoverhangingtreelimbs.
Boricacid-treatedinsulationpanelsarealsoavailable.
Thesepanelskeepinsectsawaywhileremaining
relativelyharmlesstohumansandpets(U.S.Department
ofEnergy2009a).EPAhasclassiedboricacidas
showingevidenceofnon-carcinogenicityforhumans.
Further,residentsinhomeswithsuchpanelswillhave
verylimitedexposuretothesematerialssincetheywill
besituatedinexteriorwalls/ceilingsandseparatedfrom
thelivingspacebyanairbarrierofdrywall.
AerogelinsulationcanhaveR-valuesofover10perinch,
andhasbeendemonstratedasanenergyefciency
retrotoptionformanufacturedhomes(Emerging
TechnologiesCoordinatingCouncil2008).Though
currentlycostprohibitiveformanyapplications,
aerogelsareexpectedtodecreaseincostby30%-50%
overthenextfewyears.AnypotentialIAQimpacts
fromthematerialsusedinaerogelinsulationarelikely
minimalduetothefactthattheinsulationislikelyto
beusedinalocationwithlittleaircommunicationwith
indoorspaces.
Windows
Windowthermalperformanceisnotspecically
addressedinHUDCode,somanufacturersarefree
tospecifyanytypeofwindowdesired,aslongas
theystillmeettherequirementsfortheoverallheat
transfercoefcientofthehome.Inhotclimates,the
mostimportantperformancemetricforwindowsisthe
solarheatgaincoeffcient(SHGC),withlowervalues
representingbetterwindowperformance.Selectionofa
SHGCbelow0.3generallyrepresentsagoodvaluefor
hotclimates.
Incoldclimates,ahigherSHGCcanactuallyhelp
withsupplyingfreesolarheatinwinter,andsomodel
energycodeshavenorequirementsrelatedtoSHGCin
theseclimates.Instead,theU-factorofawindowisa
moreimportantindicatorofitseffectonhomeenergy
efciency.WindowswithU-factorsof0.35orlower(e.g.,
avinyl,double-paned,low-ewindow)provideagood
balancebetweenperformanceandcostincoldclimates.
HigherperformanceoptionsincludewindowswithHeat
Mirrortechnology,whichcanexceedR-valuesof12.For
windowsspeciedfordaylightingfunctiononly(e.g.,
bathroomorportableclassroomapplications),products
incorporatingaerogelarenowavailablethattransmitup
to20%ofvisiblelightwhilereachingR-valuesof20.
Vapor Retarders
Vaporretardersareusefulinreducingthetransportof
watervaporacrossthebuildingenvelope.Wherevapor
retardersdonotexist,condensationcanoccurwithin
wall,oor,orceilingassemblieswhenwarm,moist
airencounterssurfacesbelowitsdewpoint.Incold
climates,thelikelihoodofcondensationincreasesinthe
winter,whenwarmaircarryingmoisturecouldseepinto
wallsandcondenseoncoldsurfacesneartheoutside
ofthewallassembly.Inhotclimates,condensationin
wallcavitiesismorelikelytooccurinsummer,when
warm,humidoutdooraircanseepintowallsandthen
condenseoncoldinteriorwallcoverings(neartheair-
conditionedbuildinginterior).
Placingavaporretarderontheinteriorofwallstuds
incoldclimatesreducesthechanceofvaportransport
(andcondensation)inwallcavitiesinwinter.However,
placingavaporretarderontheinteriorofwallstudsin
warm,humidclimatescanencouragecondensationand
reducetheabilityofthewalltodryaftercondensation
events.Forthisreason,avaporretardershouldnotbe
usedontheinteriorofstudsinwarm,humidclimates.
PriorversionsoftheHUDCoderequiredexteriorwalls
tohaveavaporretarderonthelivingspacesideofthe
wall,regardlessofclimatezone.Thisrequirementwas
typicallymetbyinstallingwallboardwithavinylfacing,
aspecicationthathasbeennotedascontributing
tomoistureaccumulation,walldeterioration,andan
environmentconducivetomoldgrowth(Lstiburek
2007;Moyeretal.2001).However,thelatestversionof
theHUDCodeexemptshomesmanufacturedtobe
sitedinhumidclimatesorfringeclimatesfromthis
requirement,inwhichcaseavaporretardermustbe
installedontheexteriorofthewall.Thisimprovement

shouldhelptoalleviatemanyofthemoistureproblems
previouslyexperiencedinwallcavitiesintheseregions.
Incoldclimates,thespecicationofvapor-barrier
interiorpaintcanalsoservetolimitthediffusionof
interiorwatervaporintotheexteriorwallassembly
(U.S.DepartmentofEnergy2009b).Thismethod,as
illustratedinFigure9-1,canproviderst-costsavings
andismosteffectiveintightlysealedmanufactured
homes.Thegurealsoillustratestheclimatically
appropriateinstallationofvaporretardersontheinterior
sideofwallstuds.
Reduced Inltration
Inltrationratesofmanufacturedhomesgenerally
rangefrom6-12airchangesperhourat50Pascals
(6-12ACH50)(LublinerandHadley2007).Forbuildings
withmechanicalventilation,thelowertheinltration,
thelessenergyislostacrossthebuildingenvelope.
Effortsatairsealingforenergy-efcientmanufactured
homeshaveincludedtheuseofsprayfoaminsulationat
walls,ceiling,windowsframes,andoors;andtheuse
ofimprovedmarriagegasketsatseamsbetweenunits
(LublinerandHadley2007).Sucheffortshaveresultedin
infltrationlevelsaslowas2.0ACH50.Lowinfltration
ratesmayalsobeachievedinhomesbuiltwithberglass
insulationwithoutusingsprayfoamthroughextensive
caulkingandsealingefforts.Furtherresearchisneededto
identifythedurabilityofvariousairinltrationmethods
overtime(especiallyasrelatedtoforcesappliedduring
transportationofthemanufacturedhome).
Vapor-resistant
interior paint
Gypsum wall board
Vapor barrier (inside mixed
or cold climate only)
Exterior sheathing (bracing
panel or insulation panel)
Drainage plane (building
paper or housewrap)
Air gap (for severe
wind driven rain and
severe wet climates)
Siding on furring strips
(rain screen)
Siding on furring strips
(rain screen)
Theairtightnessofawellbuiltstructurerequires
controlledfresh-airventilationforsafety,health,and
performance,andtomeetmanybuildingcodes.Awell
designed,installed,andproperlyoperatedmechanical
ventilationsystemcanalsohelppreventindoormoisture
problems,whichisimportantforachievingtheenergy
savingbenets(U.S.DepartmentofEnergy2009a).
MechanicalventilationandIAQisdiscussedinmore
detailbelow.
Heating and Cooling
Ducts in Conditioned Space
Typically,manufacturedhomeshavespaceconditioning
ductseitherinthebellyofthehomeorintheattic.
Studieshaveshownthatthesecongurationsoften
resultinlargeinefcienciesinairdistributionandcan
contributetomoistureproblemsandpoorindoorair
quality.Between10%and30%ofsupplyaircanbelost
tothebellyofthemanufacturedhome(Moyeretal.
2001).Fieldtestsofmanufacturedhomeswithductsin
conditionedspacehavedemonstratedsavingsof7%-10%
inwhole-houseannualenergyuse(Moyeretal.2008).
Regardlessoflocation,ductsshouldbetightlysealed
withductmastictomaintainbothoccupantcomfortand
indoorairquality.SomenegativeIAQconsequences
ofductsthatarenotwellsealedincludecreatinga
reservoirofnutrientsthatfavormoldgrowthandother
allergens,allowingbuild-upsoftoxicchemicalsresulting
fromcooking,smoking,andotherindoorsources,and
providingasafehavenforpests.
Iflocatedwithinanunconditionedattic,ductsshould
beinsulatedtoatleastR-8,ortoR-6ifanywhereelse
outsideofconditionedspace.Theselevelsareinstep
withcurrentIECCrequirements,andrepresentaslight
improvementovercurrentHUDCode.Ifductsare
locatedinatticsinhot-humidclimates,providinga
conditionedandsealedatticcanincreaseefciencyand
improvecomfort.Further,aconditionedandsealedattic
canprovidegreaterupliftresistanceduringhighwind
eventswhileresistingtheintrusionofwind-drivenrain.
Higher Performance Space Cooling
and Heating Equipment
Increasingtheefciencyofmechanicalequipment
representsoneofthemostcosteffectiveimprovements.
Combined,spaceheatingandcoolingcanaccountfor
48%oftheenergyuseofamanufacturedhome,so
specicationofhighefciencyequipmentcanhave
signicantimpactsonenergyandutilitybillsavings(U.S.
DepartmentofEnergy2005).Selectionofanaffordable,
highefciencysystemshouldbebasedonlocation
Figure 9-1: Wall design for enhanced durability and energy eciency. (U.S. Department of
Housing and Urban Development 2002).

ofthehome.Forexample,specifyinga95%gasred
furnaceinMassachusettswillresultinashorterpayback
forthehighercostequipmentcomparedtospecifying
thesamefurnaceinFlorida(whereitwillrunlessand
takelongertodeliverenergy/costsavings).Similarly,
specifyinga15SEERair-conditioning(A/C)systemin
Texaswillresultinamuchhigherreturnoninvestment
thanspecifyingthesameA/CinVermont.
Becausemanufacturedhomemechanicalequipment
isusuallylocatedintightspaces,federalefciency
standardsdonotrequireittoperformonparwith
equipmentinsite-builthomes,whichcanoften
achievehigherefcienciesusingequipmentwithlarger
components(e.g.,splitsystemcentralairconditioners
withoversizedevaporatorandcondensercoils).Rules
developedbyDOErequirespace-constrainedair
conditionerstohaveaSEERof12,whichisabout8%
lessefcientthantheSEER13minimumrequiredfor
site-builthomes.
SomemanufacturersofsplitsystemcentralA/Cs
nowmanufacture13SEERunitsthatcanbeusedin
manufacturedhomes.Evenhigherefcienciescanbe
achievedwithduct-freesplitsystems.Thesesystems
achieveSEERratingsupto58%higherthanfederal
minimum(i.e.,SEER19versusSEER12),andalso
providetheadvantageofcompletelyavoidingtheneed
forductsinsomeclimates,whichcangreatlyimprove
indoorairqualitywhilereducingdistributionlosses.The
mainbarriertointegrationofduct-freesplitsystems,
whichareusedextensivelyinEuropeandAsia,istheir
typicallyhigherfrstcosts.Groundsourceheatpumps
(GSHPs)canalsoprovideahigheffciencyalternative
totraditionalformsofheatingandcoolingsystems,
buttheiruseinmanufacturedhomesisalsolimitedby
theirhighfrstcosts.GSHPsalsorelyuponaground
loopinstalledon-site,whichwouldnotmovewiththe
dwellingifitwasrelocated.
Excellentopportunitiesaredevelopingforhigh
efciencygas-orpropane-redheatingequipmentas
well.Althoughmanufacturedhomesforced-airgas
furnacesareonlyrequiredtorateat75AFUE,forced-air
furnacesofupto95AFUEareavailable.Additionally,
gas-red,condensingandmodulating,tankless,
combinationwaterandspaceheatingequipmentis
nowavailablewithAFUEsover90.Suchtechnologies
improveenergyefciencyandcanalsosavespacein
thecaseoftanklesssystemsandcombinationsystems.
Intermsofoccupanthealth/safety,highefciencygas-
orpropane-redsystemsaredirect-ventedorpower-
vented.Thismeansthatthecombustiongasesare
exhausteddirectlytooutdoorsthroughafan-powered
ductorpipe.Thisisareliablewaytoensurethat
combustiongases,whichcanpotentiallycontaincarbon
monoxide,areexhaustedfromthehome.
Additional Technologies
Thissectioncontainsbriefdescriptionsofseveral
additionaltechnologies/systemsthatcanprovide
additionalenergysavingsinmanufacturedhomes.
Fromasafetyandhealthperspective,thesesystemsare
notablefortheirabilitytolowertheenvironmentaland
energyimpactofmanufacturedstructuresoverall.By
allowingthesehomestouselessenergy,theassociated
healthimpactsofenergygeneration(e.g.,mercury
emissions)arealsoreducedwhichimproveshealth/
safetyforsocietyatlarge.Also,sincethesetechnologies
canreduceenergyuseandenergycostsforresidents,
theyhelptoprovideresidentsofmanufacturedhomes
withadditionalmoneythatcanbespentonhealthcare
andwellness.
Programmable Thermostats
Bysettingbackathermostatsheatingsetpoint10-
15foran8-hourperiodeachday,ahomeownercan
save5%-15%ontheirannualheatingenergybill(U.S.
DepartmentofEnergy2009c).Specicationanduse
ofaprogrammablethermostatcanbeoneofthemost
affordableenergyconservationmeasuresthataresident
canpursue.
Advanced Water Heaters: Tankless Water Heaters
and Solar Water Heaters
Idealfortheirfastresponse,smallfootprint,andhigh
efciencies,on-demandortanklesswaterheaters
canprovidesignicantenergysavingsovertheirlife.
Tanklesswaterheatersareavailableasgas-orpropane-
redorelectricunits,havealifeexpectancyofaround
20years,andprovidesignicantsavingsovertank-
basedmodelsthathaveinefcienciesassociatedwith
standbylosseswhichoccurinbetweendemandsfor
hotwater.Specicationofatanklesswaterheatercan
save24%-34%ofthewaterheatingenergyconsumedby
homesusingupto41gallonsofhotwaterperday(U.S.
DepartmentofEnergy2009d).
Solarwaterheatershavebeendemonstratedto
providenearly100%ofthewaterheatingdemandsof
manufacturedhomesinsummermonths(Lublineretal.
2004),andarecapableofreducingwaterheatingbills
50%-80%overthecourseofayear(U.S.Departmentof

Energy2009e).Thereareseveraltypesofsolarwater
heatersavailable,withvariationsinthetypeofcollector
(atplate,batch,orevacuatedtube)andsystem
conguration(passiveoractive).Thetypeofsolarwater
heaterspeciedshouldbebasedonconsiderationsof
climate,maintenance,andprojectbudget.
Lighting, Appliances, and Plug Loads
Lighting,appliances,andallproductsthatahomeowner
mightplugintoanelectricsocketaccountfor35%of
annualenergyuseofatypicalmanufacturedhome
(U.S.DepartmentofEnergy2005).Themostaffordable
highefciencymeasuretopursueinthisareaishigh
efcacylighting.Usingcompactuorescentlightingin
lieuoftraditionalincandescentlightingtypicallyhasa
paybackoflessthanayear,andcansaveupto50%-75%
oflightingenergyuseinahome(U.S.Departmentof
Energy2009f).
EnergyStarappliancesareatleast10%moreefcient
thanstandardappliances,withsavingsupto70%
possibleinsomeproductcategories.Table9-2,sourced
fromtheEPA(U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency
2008a),providesanticipatedsavingsbasedonstandard
products.Forinstance,EnergyStarclotheswashersare
advertisedtoreduceelectricityuseby30%aswellas
reducewaterconsumptionby50%.EnergyStarexhaust
fanscanbeusedtoprovidemechanicalventilation
requirementsformanufacturedhomes(maynotbe
appropriateforhot-humidclimates),whileoperatingat
verylownoiseratingsandupto70%higherefciencies
thanstandardexhaustfans.
EnergyStarProduct
AverageEnergy
SavingsAbove
StandardProduct
Lighting
Compact uorescent light bulbs and
residential light xtures
75%
ResidentialAppliances
Room air conditioners 10%
Dehumidiers 15%
Exhaust fans 70%
Ceiling fans 45%
Dishwashers 20%
Refrigerators 15%
Clothes washers 30%
Televisions 30%
Advanced Controls
Advancedcontrolsforlightingandplugloads
includewhole-houseswitches,occupancysensors,
andwirelessswitches.Whole-houseswitchesare
convenientinthattheycanenablethehomeowner
toshutoffallnonessentialcircuitswithoneickofa
switchbeforeleavingthehome.HVAC,waterheating,
securitysystems,andkitchenandlaundryappliances
operateindependentlyfromwhole-houseswitchesto
ensurethattheycancontinuetooperateasneeded.
Byusingawhole-houseswitchorpluggingelectronics
intopowerstripsthatareswitchedoffwhennotin
use(sometimescalledsmartstrips),homeowners
canreducewhole-houseelectricityusebyupto10%
(LawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory2009).Power
stripsthatarealsoequippedwithoccupancysensors
arenowavailableaswell.
Manual-on,automatic-offoccupancysensors(also
knownasvacancysensors)areusedtoturnlightsor
otheritemsoffwhenaroomisunoccupied.Turning
thedevicesonrequirestheoccupanttomanuallyturn
theswitchon.Thepotentialsavingsusingoccupancy
orvacancysensorsishighlydependentontheusage
patternsofthehomeowner.
Similarsensorswithanautomatic-onfeaturecanalso
provideadditionalhealth/safetybenetstoresidentsin
manufacturedstructures.Forexample,lightingcontrols
thatautomaticallyturnonlightsnearastaircasecanhelp
youngchildrenorolderresidentsnavigatestairsmore
safelyandpreventinjuries.
Wirelessswitchesareanotheradvancedsystemthat
allowsforveryexibleon/offcontroloflighting
andotherplugloads.Oneormoreswitchescanbe
programmedwithverylittlewiringwork(andnoshing
ofwiresthroughwallsorceilings).Wirelesscontrols
caneasilyallowwheelchair-boundorshorterresidents
tohaveswitchesinconvenientlocations.Theycanalso
easilycreatethree-wayorfour-wayswitchesonlights
thatneedtobecontrolledfrommultiplelocations,like
stairwaylighting.Wirelessswitchescanevenbekeptin
acar,allowingresidentstoturnonanexteriororhall
lightastheyenterthehomesatnight.Byprovidingfor
suchexiblecontroloflightsandotherplugloads,this
technologyletsthehomeadapttoresidentneedsand
helpstoimprovesafetyandsecurity.
Feedback Systems
Theadagethatyoucantmanagewhatyoudont
measureappliesequallytoresidentialenergyloads.
Afterscanningtheirmonthlyelectricityorgasbill,home
ownersaretypicallyleftwithlittleinformationonexactly
Table 9-2: Energy Star products energy savings over standard products.

howtheyconsumedtheirenergy.Studieshaveshown
thatenergysavingsof5%-15%arepossiblewithdirect
feedbacksystemsthatprovidethehomeownerwith
real-timefeedbackonenergyuseinthehome(Darby
2006).Thesefeedbacksystems,sometimesreferredto
asdashboards,areabletoprovideinformationonsuch
itemsasinstantaneouswhole-houseelectricityuse,
demand,andpricing;individualapplianceelectricity
consumption;andevenrecommendationsonwaysto
reduceenergyconsumption.
Water Conservation
Low-ow Toilets and Fixtures
Conservingwateralsoconservesenergythatwould
otherwisebeusedtotreatandpumpwatertohomes.
Toiletsaccountforapproximately30%ofwaterused
inahomeandrepresentanexcellentopportunityfor
watersavings(U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency
2008b).Federalregulationscurrentlylimitthevolume
ofwaterusedperushto1.6gallons,andproductsare
nowavailablewithawaterushingdevicecapableof
adequatelyushingandcleaningthebowl(perHUD
Code)thatusefarlesswaterthanthis.Toiletswith
EPAsWaterSenselabeluse1.28gallonsperush(gpf)
orless,savingatleast25%ofthewaterusedperush.
WaterSenselabeleddualushtoilets,whichhaveafull
volumeushforsolidsandareducedvolumeushfor
liquids,use1.6gpforlessatfullvolumeand1.1gpfor
lessatreducedvolume.Flushlessurinalsandushless
compostingtoiletsarealsoavailable,butareprohibited
byHUDCode,whichrequireswaterushingdevicesbe
installed.
Low-fowdevicescanalsobespecifedatsinksand
showerheads.Waterusedinsinksaccountsforabout
15%ofwaterusedinahome,andfaucetswiththe
WaterSenselabelcanreduceowby30%ormorewhile
deliveringcomparableperformance(U.S.Environmental
ProtectionAgency2008c).Showersaccountfor
approximately17%ofindoorwateruse,andshowerhead
owiscappedbyfederalmandateat2.5gpmat80psi.
TheEPAiscurrentlydevelopingaspecicationfora
WaterSenseshowerheadthatwillconsidersuchinput
asconsumerperception,safety,andperformancewhile
achievinglowerowrates.Inthemeantime,low-ow
showerheadsareavailable,aswellasshowerheadsthat
slowtoatricklewhenhotwaterreachesthem,assuring
thatnoextrawateriswastedashomeownerswaitfora
showertowarm.
Plumbing Improvements: Centralized, Home Runs
with Polyethylene (PEX)
Shortenedplumbingrunssavewaterandenergyby
reducingtheamountofwaterwastedwhilewaitingfor
hotwatertoarriveattheintendeddestination.Because
oftherelativelysmallfootprintofmanufacturedhomes,
thereareinherentwateruseefcienciesbuiltintothe
homes.Today,cross-linkedPEXtubingisspecifed
inmostmanufacturedhomes,andthesmallcross-
diameterofthistubingreducestheamountofwater
wastedinwaitingforhotwatertoarrive.Wherenot
commonpractice,centrallocationofthewaterheater
andspecicationofacentralmanifoldwithindividual
orhomerunstoeachwaterxturecanfurtherreduce
waterheatingdemandsandwaterconsumption.
Water Catchment
Recently,manufacturedhomedesignshavebegunto
incorporatewater-catchmentsystems.Forinstance,a
modelgreenmanufacturedhomecollectsrainwater
withametalroofthatisslopedfrombothendstothe
center.Currently,waterharvestedfromthecatchment
systemcanbeusedformeetinglandscapingneeds,but
futuremodicationstothesystemcouldalsoenablethe
watertobeusedforushingtoilets.
Optimizing Indoor Air Quality and Mechanical Ventilation
Signicantstrideshavebeenmadetoimproveindoor
airqualityinmanufacturedhomes.Changeshavebeen
madeintheHUDCodetocontrolpollutantsatthe
sourceaswellastoensurethatwhole-houseventilation
isprovidedtofacilitateahealthyindoorenvironment.
Providinggoodindoorairqualityhasbeenandwill
continuetobeaniterativeprocessasmanufacturersand
regulatorsrespondtotheevolvingbodyofscienceon
thistopicaswellastheintroductionofnewmaterials
andconsumerproductsthatmaycompromiseairquality.
Controlling Pollutants and Potential Problems at the Source
WhileHUDCodehasahistoryofbeingproactive
inaddressingindoorairquality(e.g.,incorporating
regulationsrelatedtoformaldehyde,requiring
mechanicalventilation),furtheropportunitiesexist
togobeyondcodeinprovidingahealthierindoor
environment.Byattentiontodetailduringconstruction
andcarefulselectionofsuchitemsasbuildingmaterials
andadhesives,manufacturerscangreatlyinuence
indoorairqualityofhomes.Opportunitiesforimproving
indoorairqualitythatcanbeachievedduringthe
manufacturingprocessincludethefollowing:
Providingforpassiveradonmitigationsystems
(piping,presenceofelectricaloutletforafan

installationifnecessary)inthebuiltunits.Radon
mitigation,whichisnotcoveredintheHUDCode,
isespeciallyimportantforunitsonbasementsand/
orunitsthatwillbesituatedinhighradonareas.
AppendixFoftheInternationalResidentialCode
hasguidanceonradoncontrolmethods.
Ensuringthatseparationbetweenexhaust
terminationsandventilationintakesisatleast10
feet(minimumpermittedbyASHRAE62.2,whichis
morerestrictivethanHUDCodes3-footallowance)
Locationoftightlysealedductswithinconditioned
space.
Ensuringthatcompositewoodproducts(including
productsusedinoors,walls,andcabinets)
conformtoCARBstandards,whicharemore
stringentthanHUDCode(CompositePanel
Association2008).
Installinglow- orno-VOCcarpets.
Usingno-VOCpaintsforinteriorfnish.
Useofsoyadhesivesandresinsasanalternative
tourea-formaldehydeandphenol-formaldehyde
adhesives.
Avoidinginteriorvaporretardersinhot-humid
climates.
Followingmodelbuildingcodeprescriptionsfor
ashingofbuildingopenings,intersections,and
penetrations(e.g.,2009IRCSectionR703.8).
Optimizing Mechanical Ventilation
AllHUDCodehomesarerequiredtospecify
mechanicalventilationsystems,includingwhole-house,
kitchenexhaust,andbathroomexhaustsystems.While
theventilationspecicationsoftheHUDCodeare
moreprogressivethanthoseofmostsite-builtbuilding
codes,thereisstillroomforimprovement.Forexample,
HUDCodedoesnotaddresstheuseofintermittent
whole-houseventilationorpermissiblesoundlevelsfor
ventilationequipment.Maintaininglowsoundlevelsfor
supplyandexhaustfansincreasesthelikelihoodthat
occupantswillnotoverridetheoperationofspecied
mechanicalventilationsystems.
Manufacturersthatdesiretoprovideindoorair
qualityinaccordancewiththelatestconsensus-based
specicationsmaylooktoASHRAE62.2forguidance
ontheseandotherindoorairqualityconcernsnot
addressedwithinHUDCode.ASHRAE62.2hasnow
beenadoptedbyreferenceinthestateresidential
buildingcodesofCaliforniaandMaineandisalsoa
prerequisiteoftheLEEDforHomesgreenbuilding
ratingsystem.AdoptionofASHRAE62.2iscurrently
beingconsideredbytheManufacturedHousing
ConsensusCommittee,whichisresponsiblefor
maintainingandupdatingtheHUDCode.Itshould
bementionedthatwhileASHRAE62.2providesa
morethoroughventilationspecicationreference,its
minimumventilationratescanbelowerthanHUD
Coderates,dependingonthenumberofbedrooms
andconditionedoorarea.Assumingthatoutdoorair
containslowerpollutionconcentrationsthanindoorair,
higherventilationratesshouldresultinbetterairquality.
Anotableexceptiontothispremiseiswhenintroduction
ofoutdoorairincreasesthehumidityleveloftheindoor
airtolevelsthatareconduciveforcondensationand
moldgrowth.
Whileprovidinghigherventilationratesgenerally
resultsinbetterindoorairquality,itcanalsocarrya
severeenergypenaltyassociatedwithventilationfan
energyuseaswellasenergyrequiredtoconditionthe
outdoorairtoindoorsetpoints.NeitherASHRAE62.2
northeHUDCodeaddresstheenergyuseofventilation
equipment,whichisanimportantconsiderationgiven
thatventilationdistributionsystemsalonecanconsume
asmuchas3100kWhannuallyinmanufacturedhomes
(assuming350-wattcentralbloweroperates
continuouslyforventilationdistribution)(Lubliner
etal.2005).Manufacturershavemultipleoptionsfor
specifyingenergyefcientmechanicalventilation
systems.Ifspecifyingawhole-houseexhaust-based
ventilationsystem,specicationofEnergyStarexhaust
fanscanbeaveryeconomicalchoice(e.g.,payback
of1.2yearsandsavingsof580kWhperyearwhen
operatedcontinuouslyversusabuilder-gradeexhaust
fan,assuming$0.11/kWh).Smartversionsofthis
systemventilateonlyasmuchasneededtomeeta
certaintargetairexchangerate,andtakecreditfortime
periodswhenexhaustfansarerunforbathexhausttoo.
Specicationofheatandenergyrecoveryventilators
(HRVsandERVs),whichpreconditionoutdoorair
withexhaustedindoorairbeforeintroducingitinto
thespace,canprovideanotherenergyefcientoption
formechanicalventilation.ArecentDOEstudy
usedbuildingenergysimulationstoshowthattotal
heatingandcoolingenergysavingsofHRVsover
othermechanicalventilationsystemsinacoldclimate
manufacturedhomecanrangebetween500and
2000kWh(Lublineretal.2005).Theenergyeffciency
ofcentralfanintegratedsystems,whichintroducefresh
outdoorairintothereturnplenumofthecentralduct
system,canbeimprovedbyensuringthatthecentral
fanispoweredbyanelectronicallycommutatingmotor
(ECM).AnECMoperatesatahigherefciencythana
traditionalpermanentsplitcapacitormotor,offeringup
to70%savingswhenoperatedcontinuously(Canada
MortgageandHousingCorporation2005).

Asmentionedabove,mechanicalventilationforhomes
thatundergoairsealingandlacksufcientnatural
ventilationiscritical.Providingforoutdoorairexchange
withindoorscanhelpcontrolindoorhumidityand
exhaustairbornechemicalsandpollutants.Fresh
ventilationairisalsolteredinmanysystemstoremove
dustandotherparticulates.Theseessentialhealth/safety
benetsofmechanicalventilationwillonlyberealized,
however,ifthesystemsareallowedtorunbythe
residents.Therefore,systemsthatarereasonablyquiet
andenergyefcienttooperate,aswellasautomated,
areimportantforoccupanthealthandsafety.
DESIGNING FOR DURABILITY
AND DISASTER
Manufacturedhomes,parktrailers,andtraveltrailers
areoftenusedtoprovideemergencyandshort-
termhousinginthewakeofnaturaldisastersthat
havedestroyedordamagedhousingunits.Because
manufacturedhomesandtrailersaresitedinareas
wherenaturaldisastersoccur,itisprudenttoensure
thattheirconstructionissufcienttowithstandthe
recurrenceofthenaturaldisasters,withinreason.HUD
Codeandstateregulationshaverespondedtonatural
disastersbyincreasingtheirstringency,withfavorable
results(GrosskopfandCutlip2006).Nevertheless,
opportunitiesstillexistforimprovingthedurabilityand
disasterresistanceofmanufacturedhomes,andthereby
improvingoccupanthealthandsafety.
Floods
ProtectingManufacturedHomesfromFloodsand
OtherHazards(FederalEmergencyManagement
Agency2009),providesguidanceforinstallationof
manufacturedhomesinoodhazardareas.This
resourcemaybesupplementedbystate-specic
requirements,andprovidesfoundationspecications
thatwillhelpinavoidingacompletestructuralloss
fromooding.Inadditiontothoughtfulsitingand
providinganadequatefoundationtoresistoodforces,
manufacturedhomescanbebuiltwithood-resistant
materialsthatwillpermitthemtoweatheroodevents
moresuccessfully.Whenbuildingforoodresistance,
assembliesandmaterialsshouldbeselectedthatcan
withstandwaterimmersion,donotprovideafood
sourceformold,anddryeasily.Forexample,awall
assemblyconsistingofthefollowingmaterials(inorder
fromexteriortointerior)wouldservethispurpose
(LouisianaStateUniversityAgriculturalCenter2008a):
Cladding:vinylorfbercementsiding,furredout
fromsublayers.
Insulation:rigidfoaminsulation.
Buildingwrap.
Sheathing:non-paper-facedgypsum.
Framing:steelstudswithemptycavitythatcanbe
openedattopandbottomtoallowdrying.
Interiorfnish:non-paper-facedgypsumand
latexpaint.
Similarly,theinsulation,structure,andnishesofthe
oorsystemmaybeselectedtopermitfasterdrying
anddecreasethechanceofpermanentdamagefrom
oodingevents.Placingductsinconditionedspace
insteadoftheunderbellyofthemanufacturedhome
shouldalsopermitafasterandlesscostlyrecovery
fromfooddamage.Locatingductsintheconditioned
envelopealsohelpskeepthemfreeofpests,whichaids
inmaintainingahealthyindoorenvironment.
Termites
InspectionsofmanufacturedhomesaftertheFlorida
hurricanesof2004revealedthatmanyofthedamaged
homeshadsustainedtermitedamageandwoodrotthat
compromisedtheirstructuralintegrity(Jordan2004).
Whenlocatingamanufacturedhomeinalocation
withhightermitepressure(generallycoincidentwith
hot-humidclimates),specicationoftermite-resistant
materialsforstructuralframingandsheathingisagood
choice.Infact,Hawaiinowrequiresthattermite-resistant
materials(e.g.,light-gaugesteelframing,pressure-treated
lumber,ormasonry)areusedforallstructuralmembers
insite-builthomes.
Insulationmaterialstreatedwithborates(whichare
nontoxictohumans)arenowavailablethatprovide
furthertermiteresistanceinthewalls.Ifaborate-treated
rigidfoaminsulationisspeciedfortheoodresistant
walldescribedpreviously,thiswallwouldalsofunction
asatermite-resistantassembly.
Termitesthriveinwarm,moistconditionswherea
cellulosicfoodsourceisavailable.Removalofcellulosic
debrisfromaroundthefoundationwillminimize
foodsources.Ensuringthatfoundationsstaydryby
addressinganyplumbingleaksandinstallingguttersand
drainspoutextensionsofatleastthreefeetinlengthcan
helptoremovesourcesofmoisture.Regularinspection
isalsoanimportantcomponentofcombatingtermites.
Intermsofhealth/safetybenetsofthesetermite
preventionmeasures,keepingthehomesstructure
intactisthemainbenet.Preventingtermitesfrom
compromisingthehomesstructuralintegrityiscrucial
forthehometowithstandstrongexternalforces(e.g.,
hurricanes)andkeeptheresidentssafe.

High Winds
ChangesmadetotheHUDCodein1994greatly
increasedthewindresistanceofmanufacturedhomes.
Asurveyofover4,000manufacturedhomesbuiltafter
1994thatwerealsointhepathofthe2004Florida
hurricanes(Charley,Frances,Ivan,andJeanne)revealed
thatnoneofthesehomeswereseriouslydamaged.
Additionally,theperformanceofsomeoftheseunits
waslikelyenhancedbythemanufacturedhome
installationrequirementsofFloridasAdministrative
CodeChapter15C-1(FloridaDepartmentofHighway
SafetyandMotorVehicles,undated).Manufactured
homesbuiltpriorto1994willlikelyrequireretrotting
ofuplift-resistanthardwareandotherwind-resistant
measurestoprovideacceptableperformanceinhigh
windevents.Manufacturedhomesbuiltpriortothe
HUDCodehaveapoorperformancerecordinhigh
windevents.
Severalopportunitiesexistingoingbeyondcode
requirementstoenhancetheperformanceof
manufacturedhomesduringhighwindevents.These
performanceenhancementsaddressnotonlystrength
ofthestructure,butalsoresistancetointrusionof
wind-drivenrain,whichcanresultinatotallossofthe
homeevenifthestructureremainsintact.Opportunities
includethefollowing:
Followingtheprescriptiverequirementsofthe
InstituteforBuildingandHomeSafetysFortifed
forsaferlivingspecicationsforhurricane,
high-wind,tornado,andhailhazards(Institutefor
BusinessandHomeSafety2009).Modularhomes
havebeencertiedunderthisprogram,butno
manufacturedhomeshavebeencertiedtodate.
Specifcationofroofng,windows,doors,vents,
andcladdingthatisapprovedforhighwindevents
(e.g.,Miami-DadeCountyapproved)(MiamiDade
BuildingCodeComplianceOffce2009).
Installasealed,conditionedroofinahot-humid
climate.Thelackofsoftandeaveventswillkeep
outwind-drivenrainandcanimprovetheenergy
performanceofthehome.
Ensurethatanycarport,shed,awning,orother
additionisratedforhighwindevents.Asurvey
ofmanufacturedhomesafterthe2004hurricane
seasonshowedthatupto75%ofthesestructures
weredestroyedinstormsandwereoftenturned
intoprojectilesbythewinds.
Attachroofsheathingwithringshanknailsfor
greaterresistancetouplift,at3inchesto6inches
oncenter
Sealroofsheathingjointswithroofngtapeorapply
apeelandstickmembraneunderlaymentoverthe
entireroof(LouisianaStateUniversityAgricultural
Center2008b).
Furtherguidanceforincreasingthewindresistanceof
homescanbefoundfromsourcessuchastheInstitute
forBuildingandHomeSafety(http://www.ibhs.org)and
theLouisianaStateUniversityAgriculturalCenter(http://
www.lsuagcenter.com/en/family_home/home/la_house/
index.htm).
Hardeningamanufacturedhomeagainsthighwind
eventscarriesmultiplehealth/safetybenetsfor
residents.Foremost,theresidentsaremorelikelytobe
keptsafeinsidethestructureduringhighwindevents.
Thisprovidesanimmediatesafetybenetthrough
reducedlikelihoodofstructuralfailure,windborne
debris,etc.Secondly,bymakinghomesmoreresistant
towaterintrusionduringstorms,residentsarelesslikely
toliveinapostoodinglivingenvironment,whichis
typicallycharacterizedbyrespiratoryhazardssuchas
mold,rodents,anddustmites.Allofthesehazardscan
triggerasthmaepisodesandcreaterespiratoryirritation.
Finally,ahomethatcanwithstandhighwindeventswill
helpresidentsnancially(allowingmoreresourcesfor
healthcareandwellness)andalsoreducethelikelihood
ofbeingdisplacedbyadisaster(andtheassociated
mentalandphysicalstresses).
Fire
Morethan17,000resinmanufacturedhomesresultin
thedeathofapproximately300Americansonanannual
basis(U.S.FireAdministration2006a).Prevention,
detection,andsuppressionofreareallimportant
componentsofaholisticresafetyapproachfor
manufacturedhomes.
Prevention
Electricaldistributionresaccountedfor23%ofthe
redamageinHUDCodehomesfrom1989-1998,the
largestsharereported(Hall2005).HUDCoderequires
groundfaultcircuitinterruptersformanyoutletswithin
manufacturedhomes.Althoughtheseunitscanlimit
thenumberofres,theirprimaryfunctionistoprotect
againstshockandelectrocution.Byinterruptingcurrent
supplywhenthereisanunintentionaljumpofcurrent,
arcfaultcircuitinterrupters(AFCIs)canbemuchmore
effectiveatpreventingres.Since1999,theNational
ElectricCodehasrequiredAFCIsforcircuitsserving
bedrooms,andby2008,thelistofrequiredrooms
expandedtovirtuallyeveryotherroominthehome.

BesidesinstallingAFCIs,thefresafetyofmanufactured
homescanbeimprovedbyspecifyingmaterialswith
alowin-classamespreadindex.Inwildre-prone
areas,sealedandconditionedatticsandnoncombustible
roongandsidingcanalsoimprovethereresistance
ofmanufacturedhomes.
Detection
Installinghard-wiredsmokealarmswithbatterybackup
canprovideagreatermarginofsafetyformanufactured
homeoccupants.Carbonmonoxidesensorsarerequired
inthe2009IRCandarenowrequiredbysomestates
andmunicipalitiestobeinstalledinnewandexisting
site-builtandmanufacturedhomesatthepointof
saleorresale(ColoradoHouse2009).TheConsumer
ProductSafetyCommissionrecommendsthatatleast
onecarbonmonoxidesensorbeinstalledinthehallway
immediatelyadjacenttoeachseparatesleepingarea
inthehome.Occupantsoftrailersandmanufactured
homeswithgenerators,attachedgarages,gas-red
furnaces,andotherformsofcombustionequipment,
wouldbeprovidedwithagreatermarginofcombustion
safetybytheinstallationofcarbonmonoxidesensors.
Suppression
Sprinklersystemsarenowarequirementforallsite-built
homesunderthe2009IRC.Thisrequirementisexpected
toprovidebothhomeoccupantsandrstresponders
withincreasedsafetyintheeventofare.Infact,the
U.S.FireAdministrationclaimsthatinstallationofre
sprinklersaloneinaresidencereducethechancesof
deathbyreinthatresidenceby69%.Wheninstalled
inconjunctionwithsmokealarms,theriskofdeath
byreintheresidenceisdecreasedby82%(U.S.Fire
InstallationofsprinklersystemsisaddressedinNFPA
13D,StandardfortheInstallationofSprinklerSystems
inOne-andTwo-FamilyDwellingsandManufactured
Homes(NationalFireProtectionAssociation2010).
Independentlyoperatingsprinklerscanbeused
ifamunicipalwatersupplyoranon-sitetank(at
least100gallons)andpumpareavailable(U.S.Fire
Administration2006b).Affordabilityofsprinklersystems
isexpectedtocontinuetoimproveastheybecome
morecommonplace.Arecentstudyfoundthatthe
averagecostforresidentialsprinklersystemswas$1.61
persprinkleredsquarefoot,withcostsaslowas$0.38
persprinkleredsquarefoot(NationalFireProtection
Association2008).Regardlessofcosts,thelifesafety
benetofthesesystemsprovidesastrongargumentfor
theirspecication.
Alloftheseopportunitiesinreprevention,detection,
andsuppressionservetodirectlykeepmanufactured
homeresidentssaferfromrerisksintheirhome.
Inaddition,reducingthelikelihoodofareina
manufacturedstructurealsocarriesotherhealth/safety-
relatedbenetsbeyondlowerriskofre-relatedinjury
ordeath.Forinstance,lowerriskofreinahome
alsomeansalowerriskofthenancialburdenthatis
experiencedbyresidentsofahomewhereareoccurs.
Avoidingthisnancialburdenallowsmoreresources
forhealthcareandwellness.Lowerfreriskalsomeans
lowerriskofresidentsbeingdisplacedfromtheir
homes,alongwiththehealthstressescreatedbysuch
displacement.
EVALUATING NEW TECHNOLOGIES
FOR HEALTH/SAFETY
Manyconsequencesofchangestohomebuildinghave
occurredinanunexpectedmannerinthepast,where
theimplicationsofanewmethodortechnologywould
graduallybecomeapparentaftermanyhomeshad
undergonethechange.Underthismodeoftechnology
development,unfortunately,manyresidentscouldbe
subjecttohealth/safetyrisksuntiltheimplicationsofa
changearefullyunderstood.Havinglearnedfromthese
lessons,themanufacturedhousingindustrytodaycan
takemoreproactiveapproachestofullyunderstanding
alltheimplicationsofmakingachangetoconstruction
methodsormaterials.
U.S. DOE Building America Program
Research,development,anddemonstrationprograms
suchasU.S.DOEsBuildingAmericaprogram
(http://www.buildingamerica.gov)offeranexcellent
opportunitytoevaluatenewmethods/materials.
ProgramslikeBuildingAmericainvolvebuilders,
productmanufacturers,buildingcodeofcials,
contractors,andotherswhocollectivelywillevaluate
anewsystemfrommanydifferentperspectivessuch
asconstructability,IAQimplications,andimpactson
thehomesabilitytomanagemoisture.Akeybenet
ofresearchofthistypeisthatitevaluatessystemsin
wayswhicharenotpossibleinlabsettings.Itemslike
impactsonotherbuildingsystemsandconstructability
areevaluated,forexample.
Further,theresearchersunderthisprogramwill
activelytestandevaluatenewsystemstocharacterize
theirperformance.Newmaterials/techniques,oreven
commercializedproductsthatmaynotbereadyfor
large-scalemarketintroductionyet,benetgreatlyfrom

participationincredibleresearchanddevelopment
programsofthisnature.Itisalsoworthnotingthat
DOEsBuildingAmericaprogramhasadistinctsetof
projectsthatfocusonmanufacturedhousing.
Green and Sustainability Ratings and Programs
Ratingtheenergyandenvironmentalperformanceof
particularbuildingproductsorsystemsistypicallya
complexexercise.However,giventhesteadyincreasein
emphasisonsuchevaluations,moreratingcriteriaare
beingdevelopedandthecredibilityandusefulnessof
ratingsissteadilygrowing.Forexample,theGreenSpec
ProductGuideprovidesdescriptionsforover
2,000environmentallypreferableproducts(Building
Green2010).Theseproductsareevaluatedfornumerous
criteriadependingontheproducttype,withestablished
controlstolimitmanufacturerinuenceintheprocess.
Atthewhole-houselevel,green/sustainablebuilding
programsrepresentatypeofprovinggroundfor
manyemergingpracticesandtechnologies.Programs
suchasLEEDforHomes(http://www.usgbc.org)and
theNationalGreenBuildingStandard(http://www.
nahbgreen.org)incorporatetheviewpointsfromawide
groupofstakeholdersconnectedwithconstruction,
technology,andcodes/standards/safety.Thecurrent
versionsofresidentialratingprogramsunderthese
andsimilarprogramsreferencenumerousproduct
anddesignspecicationsinareassuchanindoor
environmentalquality.Thus,suchprogramscanbe
lookedataspotentialmodelsorsourcesfornew/
emergingproducts.Theycanalsoserveassourcesto
identifyproductsthatarenotviewedasgreen(e.g.,
LEEDprohibitsunventedcombustionappliancesunder
itsIndoorEnvironmentalQualitysection).
Giventheregularupdatingofthesestandards/rating
systems,theyalsoreectchangesintheindustryasnew
researchisperformedandnewtechnologiesandissues
develop.

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