Liquids and gases take the shapes of the containers that hold them.

The nature of the volume of a matter is closely associated with its compressibility.
Liquids are used in hydraulic machines such as the car brake system because of their
incompressibility and ability to conform to any shape. The brake system cannot
work correctly if there is any air (gas) in the system because gas is compressible.
Large volumes of gases can be stored in small cylinders because of their
compressibility and ability to conform to any shape. (10 cm

of carbon dio!ide at a
pressure of one atmosphere can be compressed into 1 cm

by increasing the
pressure by 10 times under the same temperature.)
KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY
"ll substances are made up of matter. #atter refers to anything that occupies space and has mass. $t is
everything that is made of ions% atoms and&or molecules.
"n atom is the smallest particle of an element while a molecule is made up of two or more atoms 'oined
together chemically. "n ion is an atom or molecule carrying an electric charge. This charge can be either
positive or negative.
There are three main states of matter( solid, liquid and gas. They can be characterised in terms of their
shape, volume and compressiili!"#
Charac!eris!ic $olid Liquid %as
Shape )i!ed shape *o fi!ed shape *o fi!ed shape
Volume )i!ed volume )i!ed volume *o fi!ed volume
Compressibility $ncompressible $ncompressible +ompressible
The &i'e!ic par!icle theory states that
, all matter is made up of small par!icles that cannot be seen with the naked eye%
, there are spaces e!(ee' par!icles in all matter but the amount of space in each state of matter
is different%
, particles are in co's!a'! ra'dom mo!io'% but the speed of movement differs in each state of
matter%
, particles possess &i'e!ic e'erg" that changes with temperature%
, the average kinetic energy of all particles is direc!l" propor!io'al to the absolute
temperature
-olids and liquids are incompressible because their particles are packed too closely together and they are
held by strong inler.parlicle forces of attraction% /ases are compressible because gas particles are far
apart and are weakly attracted to one another. 0ence gas particles can be easily forced closer using
e!ternal pressure.
The movement of the particle..1 and their arrangement in the various states differ. 2articles in solid state
vibrate only% whereas particles in gaseous state move about freely. $n both solids and liquids% the
particles are closely packed together% making them incompressible.
Take liquids for e!ample. $t is wrong to draw the liquid particles too far apart. "lthough they are arranged in
an irregular arrangement% they do not show compressibility.
Correc! )ro'g
/as particles have the highest amount of kinetic energy% followed by liquid and solid
Property Solid Liquid Gas
E*ample o+ o,ec!s
-iagram o+ par!icles
Arra'geme'!s o+
par!icles
3ery closely packed in a
regular arrangement
+losely packed in an
irregular arrangement
)ar apart in an irregular
arrangement
.orces o+ a!!rac!io'
e!(ee' par!icles
3ery strong forces of
attraction
-trong forces of attraction 4eak forces of attraction
/oveme'! o+
par!icles
3ibrate about fi!ed
position
3ibrate and move freely
#ove randomly at high
speed
-5L$6
+ondensation
The three states of matter can be converted between one another. This conversion is termed as a change
in state. " change in state is a reversible conversion.
" change in state is a physical change that involves the gain or loss of energy by the particles. This
involves changing the inter.particle forces of attraction and the distance between the particles.
" change in state is normally achieved by changing the pressure or the !empera!ure of the matter.
)or instance% boiling water is achieved by raising the temperature of the water. 0owever% this process can
be accelerated if it is performed in a pressurised kettle.
Solid to Liquid (Melting) and Liquid to Gas (Boiling)
-ome e!amples of melting are from ice to water and gold to molten gold. "n e!ample of boiling is from
water to steam. The processes of melting and boiling usually take place under normal atmospheric
pressure. The graph below shows the change in temperature as the state of matter changes.
I'!er0co'versio' o+ !he Three $!a!es o+ /a!!er
C
- E
1
A
7oiling point
#elting point
Time 2mi'3
Tempera!ure 24C3
Tempera!ure 24C3
6uring melting% the temperature remains the same% thus the straight line in the graph from 7
to +. " pure solid will always melt at a fi!ed temperature at a certain pressure. )or e!ample%
pure ice melts at 0 +. $mpurities in the solid will change the melting point% causing it to melt
over a range of temperatures.
"7( 0eating of solid substance
"s the temperature rises% the particles in the solid start gaining energy and vibrate.
BC: Melting
#elting of the substance begins at poi'! 1# The solid particles vira!e more vigorousl" and
eventually overcome the inter.particle forces of attraction holding them tightly together. "s a result%
they lose their fi!ed and closely packed arrangement and become further apart. " solid. liquid mi!ture
will be observed as the solid and liquid e!ist in equilibrium until all the solid has been converted to
liquid.
C: The solid melts and completely becomes a liquid
"t this point% the change of state from solid to liquid is completed.
CD: Heating of liquid
4ith continuous heating% the temperature continues to rise. The liquid particles will start to gain more
energy.
DE: Boiling
7oiling of the liquid begins at poi'! -# The liquid particles vira!e a'd move more +reel" amongst
themselves and finally break the inter.particle forces of attraction holding them together. This results
in the loss of their closely packed arrangement and the particles become even further apart. 7ubbling
(formation of gases) of the liquid will be observed.
E: The liquid boils and completely turns to gas
The change of state from liquid to gas is completed.
The free8ing point of a pure sub
substance is equal to its melting point.
)or instance% pure water free8es at 09+
and pure ice melts at 09+
Evapora!io' a'd 1oili'g
:vaporation and boiling are physical processes that change a liquid into a gas. The table below states the
differences between evaporation and boiling.
Evapora!io' 1oili'g
Takes place at temperatures lower than boiling
point
Takes place only at boiling point
Takes place only on liquid surface Takes place throughout the liquid
*o bubbles are observed 7ubbles are observed
5ccurs slowly 5ccurs rapidly
Gas to Liquid (Condensation) and Liquid to Solid (Freezing)
The process of condensation is the reverse of boiling which changes the gas back into a liquid. )ree8ing
is the reverse process of melting that changes the liquid back into a solid.
+ondensation of a gas usually takes place under normal atmospheric pressure. 4hen there is a drop in
temperature% the energy of the particles in the gas starts to decrease. These gas particles are now unable to
overcome the inter.particle forces of attraction and begin to move less freely. :ventually% they will be
attracted closer together to form a closely packed arrangement. ;ltimately% the gas condenses and
becomes a liquid. "n e!ample of condensation is the change of water vapour into water droplets.
)ree8ing of a liquid usually takes place under normal atmospheric pressure. 4hen the temperature of a
liquid continues to decrease% it reduces the energy of the liquid particles. These liquid particles are now
unable to overcome the inter.particle forces
of attraction and start to align and vibrate about their
positions. They become closely packed in a fi!ed and
orderly arrangement. ;ltimately% the liquid free8es and
becomes a solid. "n e!ample of free8ing is the change
from water into ice.
Solid to Gas (Sublimation) and Gas to Solid (eposition)
$ulima!io' is the process whereby a solid changes into a gas directly% without going through the liquid
state.
-ublimation takes place under normal atmospheric pressure when the particles gain energy and vibrate
more vigorously. $f the particles have only enough kinetic energy to partially overcome the inter.particle
forces of attraction% the solid will 'ust melt. 0owever% in this process% the particles have gained a lot of
kinetic energy to directly lead to boiling.
" liquid is not formed and the solid turns directly into gas. :!amples of compounds that can undergo
sublimation are naphthalene (a common ingredient in mothballs) and solid carbon dio!ide (dry ice).
6eposition is the reverse process of sublimation whereby a gas changes into a solid directly% without
going through the liquid state. "n e!ample of deposition is the change from carbon dio!ide gas into dry
ice by cooling it to below .<=9+.
Bro!nian Motion
7rownian motion is the continuous% random motions of gas
and liquid molecules.
The random motions of these molecules occur due to the
collisions with the other surrounding molecules.
i""usion
-i++usio' is the net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration% to achieve the same concentration in both regions.
This process occurs due to the random and continuous movement of the particles in all directions.
hen the concentration of the particles is even throughout a given space! diffusion stops.
6iffusion only takes place in liquids and gases because there is more space for their particles to move. $t
is negligible in solids because of the close packing of the particles. $t is faster in gases than liquids
because of the larger inter.particle distance and negligible forces of attraction among the gas particles.
:!amples of diffusion are the spreading of perfumes% cooking aromas (gaseous form) and preparation of
tea and coffee in water (liquid form).
The ra!e o+ di++usio' is determined by the molecular mass of the particles (liquid and gas) and the
!empera!ure#
Evide'ce +or !he /oveme'! o+ Par!icles i'
%ases a'd Liquids
#im$
To find out how the different molecular mass of two gases affect their rate of diffusion
#aterials(
+oncentrated hydrochloric acid1
+oncentrated ammonia solution1
/loves
/as 'ars
/lass dropper
17e careful of the concentrated chemicals. "lways wear protective gloves and laboratory
goggles when handling them.
Pro%edure$ &
;se a glass dropper and quickly add a drop of concentrated 0+& and *0

solutions at the
bottom of each 'ar.
+onnect the opening of the 'ars together and place the set.up hori8ontally on the flat table
top (do not allow it to roll).
5bserve for gaseous fumes (gaseous 0+& and *0) at both ends.
EXPERIMENT:
Diffusion of Two Different
Gases with Different Molecular
Mass
The lighter the particles% the faster they move. 0ence% light particles are able to diffuse quickly. "t high
temperatures% the particles gain more energy to move about and are able to diffuse quickly.
E5PERI/ENTAL -E$I%N
The units used in scientific measurement are those from the metric system. The
metric units used are known as $I u'i!s# $I units allow us to measure various
physical quantities in a standard form.
'ime
The -$ unit of time is second (s). 5ther units of time include the mi'u!e (min) and
the hour (h). Time is measured using a digi!al s!op(a!ch or analog s!op(a!ch#
6igital
stopwatch "nalog stopwatch
'emperature
There are two temperature scales commonly used in physical sciences% namely the
+elsius and >elvin scales. Kelvi' (>) is the -$ unit for measuring temperature.
0owever% we commonly measure temperature using degree Celsius (9+).
> (>elvin) .? 9+ (degree +elsius) @ A<.1B
" thermometer is used to measure temperature. There are various types of
thermometers such as the mercury.in.glass thermometer% alcohol.in.glass
thermometer and digital thermometer. " temperature sensor connected to a da!a
logger can also be used.
/lass Thermometer
Mass
The $+ unit of mass is &ilogram (kg). $t can be measured using the eam ala'ce or
elec!ro'ic ala'ce#
1 kg ? 1000 g
1 tonne (t) ? 1000 kg
:lectronic balance 6ouble.beam
balance
/easureme'!
6ifferent measuring apparatus have different degrees of accuracy. )or
apparatus measuring volume of liquids% in order of increasing accuracy% it
is the beaker% measuring cylinder% pipette and burette.
4atch out for paralla! error and always take the reading at the bottom of the
meniscus. 0owever% for liquid mercury% one should take the reading at the
top of the meniscus.
Volume
The -$ unit of volume is cuic me!re (m

). 0owever% volume is commonly measured in cuic

ce'!ime!re (cm

). $n +hemistry% larger volumes are measured in cuic decime!re (dm

).
3olume can be measured using a variety of apparatus such as the ea&er, ure!!e, pipe!!e,
co'ical +las&, measuri'g c"li'der, volume!ric +las& and s"ri'ge# #ost of these apparatus are
for measuring the volume of liquids. The volume of a gas can be measured using a gas s"ri'ge#
Appara!us
#%%ura%y
7eaker
#easures appro!imate volumes% usually larger volumes such as B0 cm

and 100 cm

#easuring cylinder
#ore accurate than a beaker but volume is still appro!imate
#easures to the nearest 0.B cm
7urette
#easures accurately to the nearest 0.0B cm

=
#arked at intervals of 0.1
cm

2ipette
#easures accurate and fi!ed volumes% eg. a AB.0 cm

pipette is designed to
measure e!actly AB cm

of liquid
1 m
3
= 1000 dm
3
1 dm
3
= 1000 cm
3
*ame the apparatus that is most suitable for
measuring e!actly A.C cm

of liquid%
mi!ing 100 cm

of two liquids%
measuring about A0 cm

of liquid%
measuring e!actly 10 cm

of liquid.
Solution$
7urette
7eaker
#easuring cylinder
2ipette
$t is common for students to neglect writing the units when recording or presenting data.
The method of how a gas is collected depends on the density of the gas relative to air and soluili!" of
the gas in water.
#ethod 1
6isplacement of water (for insoluble or slightly soluble gases% e.g. hydrogen% o!ygen and carbon
dio!ide)
Method (
6ownward delivery (for gases that are de'ser !ha' air, e.g. chlorine and sulfur dio!ide)
Method )
;pward delivery (for gases that are less de'se !ha' air, e.g. hydrogen and ammonia)
The following chart guides you in deciding which method of gas collection to use o!ygen and carbon
/ETHO-$ O. P6RI.ICATION AN- ANALY$I$
2ure substances are essential in daily life to make many useful products. " pure substance is something that
is not mi!ed with any other substances.
4hen two or more substances are added together% a mi!ture is formed% e.g. milk. #i!tures can be separated
into their pure substances by undergoing a process called purification. There are various ways to separate
pure substances and they are known as separation techniques.
Separation 'e%hniques Purpose *+ample
)iltration
-eparating insoluble solid from a
liquid and solid mi!ture
-eparating sand from a water and
sand mi!ture
:vaporation to dryness
-eparating soluble solid from
solution
-eparating salt from seawater
+rystallisation
-eparating pure solid from an impure
solution
-eparating sugar from cane syrup
-imple distillation
-eparating pure liquid from a solution
containing dissolved solids
-eparating pure water from
impure water (e.g. seawater)
)ractional distillation
-eparating miscible liquids with
different boiling points
-eparating different oil fractions from
crude oil
2aper chromatography
-eparating substances in a mi!ture
based on their solubility in the
solvent used
-eparating and identifying various
chemicals in a drug
$epara!io' Tech'iques
"t the start
of filtration
Filtration
)iltration is used to separate insoluble solids from a liquid and solid mi!ture. Large particles of the solid
will be trapped by the pores in the filter. These particles are known as the residue. The smaller liquid
molecules pass through and they are collected as the filtrate.
*,aporation to ryness
:vaporation to dryness is used to obtain
a soluble solid from a solution by heating the solution until all the water has been evaporated.
The solid obtained may be impure because when all the water has been removed% the impurities are not
evaporated and will remain with the solid.
Crystallisation
+rystallisation is used to separate a dissolved pure solid from an impure solution. This process occurs
when a highly saturated solution is cooled after heating. 4hen a solution cannot dissolve any more
solute% it is a saturated solution. "s the solution cools to room temperature% pure crystals will start to
form.
"teps to obtain crystals
1. 6issolve the impure solid in a solvent.
A. )ilter the solution to remove any undissolved impurities.
. 0eat the solution to remove some of the solvent to obtain a saturated solution.
#im$
To grow sodium chloride crystals from table salt #aterials(
Table salt (sodium chloride)
0ot boiling water
+lean clear container
2iece of dark coloured paper
"dd and dissolve the table salt completely in hot boiling water. +ontinue until no more salt
dissolves (saturated solution).
-oak a piece of dark coloured paper in the salt solution. Demove the soaked paper and allow it
to dry under the -un. 5bserve the formation of small salt crystals
*+planation$
+rystallisation process is made up of two ma'or events( nucleation of the solute molecules
and subsequent growth of the crystal nuclci. /enerally% this process is used to make crystals
for industrial uses as well as for salt purification.
EXPERIMENT:
Growing Sodium Chloride Crystals
Crystallization)
B. Leave the hot solution to cool. +rystals will start to form in the solution
E. )ilter the solution to collect the crystals. 4ash them with a small amount of cold distilled water.
6ry the crystals by pressing them gently between sheets of filter paper.
$ he solution is partially filial with solvent to allow (lie impurities to remain in solution% thus enabling a pure solid to
appear as crystals.
$n evaporation to dryness (all solvents are removed)% the impurities will be crystallised together with the solid% making
it impure.
Simple istillation
$imple dis!illa!io' is used for the separation of a pure liquid from a solution.
-eawater is boiled until water evaporates and water vapour enters the condenser. The thermometer allows
us to know that water will boil at 1009+ and become water vapour. $n the condenser% water pour
condenses and forms pure water droplets. They are collected as a distillate in a conical flask.
Fra%tional istillation
.rac!io'al dis!illa!io' is the separation of a pure liquid from a solution of two or more miscible liquids.
/iscile liquids are two liquids that are completely soluble in each other. They mi! to form a miscible
solution.
To carry out fractional distillation% a +rac!io'a!i'g colum' is needed. $t separates the liquids according to
their boiling points. The liquid with the lowest boiling point will vapourise and enter the condenser first.
)ractional distillation is also used in the separation of o!ygen% nitrogen and noble gases from liquid air%
separation of crude oil and separation of alcohol from a fermented solution.
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,
Paper Chromatography
This method of separa!io' and ide'!i+ica!io' is used for both coloured and colourless mi!tures such as
drugs and dyes. $t involves two phases( stationary phase (paper) and mobile phase (solvent).
Separating the ,arious %ompounds
" suitable solve'! such as water or ethanol is selected. 4hen in contact with the paper% the solvent moves
up the paper by capillar" ac!io' as a result of the attraction of the solvent molecules to the paper. This
provides the main driving force for the separation of compounds in the mi!ture.
"s the solvent rises through the paper% it dissolves the sample mi!ture on the paper. The dissolved sample
will travel up the paper together with the solvent. 6ifferent compounds in the sample f mi!ture will be
separated because they travel at different rates.
)or both simple and fractional distillation.
the granules&boiling stones are used to ensure smooth boiling.
the thermometer is placed near the mouth of the condenser to measure the temperature of the
vapour entering it.
the water condenser provides a cool environment in which the vapour condenses into
water enters from the bottom of the condenser to ensure that it is the coldest region and all of
the vapour can be turned into liquid before being collected.
the liquid collected is called the distillate.
This is due to differences in solubility of the compounds in the solvent and differences in their attraction
to the fibres in the paper. The more soluble compounds travel faster and further up the paper while
compounds that are attracted to the fibres travel more slowly and not as far on the paper.
2aper chromatography takes about several minutes to several hours and the result obtained is called a
chromatogram.
#dentifying various compounds
3arious compounds are identified by comparing their distance travelled with known compounds in
the solvent.
" pencil is used to draw the start line on the .stationary phase. The sample will be dotted onto thin
#art line using a capillary tube. " pencil is used because (lie pencil line will not dissolve in
the solvent or be separated together with the sample. The ink from a pen dissolves and
interferes with the samples.
The beaker is covered with a lid during the e!periment to preve'! evapora!io' of the solvent
from the beaker and the paper. 3olatile solvents such as ethanol and acetone evaporate
quickly.
$ he start line must be higher !ha' !he solve'! level# $f it is lower% the sample will dissolve in
the solvent before chromatography begins.
The chosen solvent must be able to dissolve the sample.
$n cases where the sample still remains on the start line during the run. it means that the sample is
insoluble in the solvent. " change in the solvent will be required.
2aper chromatography is performed where the solvent moves from the bottom to the top of the
paper. $t can also be performed in a reverse manner (i.e. the solvent moves from the !op !o !he
o!!om of the paper with the aid of gravity and capillary force).
4hen analysing comple! mi!tures of similar compounds such as amino acids% two.way paper
chromatography or two.dimensional chromatography can be used. $t involves using two
solvents and rotating the paper H09 in between.
2aper chromatography is also used to determine the purity of substances.
.Gn impure substance will often develop as two or more spots. 0owever% if a substance develops
as only one spool% it may or may not be pure. The substance may contain another compound
which did not separate under the conditions of the e!periment.
2urity of samples is often determined together with other techniques% such as measuring a
samples melting or boiling point.
The presence of impurities will raise the boiling point of a substance and lower its melting point.
$n the diagram on the previous page% the fruit 'uice contains maltose and glucose. 0owever% one of
the spots is not yet identified.
,
#nalysis o" Purity o" Substan%es
Melting and boiling points
Pure substances have +i*ed and u'ique melting points (m.p.) and boiling points (b.p.) under specified
pressure. )or e!ample% water boils at 1009+ and free8es at 09+ under standard atmospheric pressure.
The melting point (m.p.) and boiling point (b.p) are used for the following(
6etermination of purity of a substance I a pure substance has a unique m.p and b.p. whereas an
impure substance boils and melts over a range of temperatures.
1.
A.
.
Ho$ to determine the boiling point of a liquid
-et up the apparatus as shown.
Decord the temperature when the liquid starts to boil.
+ontinue to record and observe for any changes in the boiling temperature. " pure liquid has a fi!ed
boiling point.
0ow to determine the melting point of a solid
1. -et up the apparatus as shown.
A. Decord the temperature when the solid starts to melt.
. +ontinue to record and observe for any changes in the melting temperature. " pure solid has a fi!ed
melting point.
The chosen solvent must not have a boiling point lower than the melting point of the solid. $f not% the
solvent will begin to boil even before the solid melts.
/ranules are used to cushion the impact created by
the bubbles dining boiling.
0eating can be performed using a #unson burner
or a water bath.
(6irect healing is to be avoided for
inflammable liquids such as ethanol.)
The test lube is open to prevent the buildup of
pressure which can affect the boiling
temperature.
/entle heating is necessary to prevent the sample
from melting too quickly.
The thermometer is placed as near to the
sample as possible.
gentle heating