Values 1. Values represent basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end- state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. 2. There is a judgmental element of hat is right! good! or desirable. ". Values have both content and intensity attributes. a. The content attribute says that a mode of conduct or end-state of existence is important. b. The intensity attribute specifies ho important it is. c. #an$ing an individual%s values in terms of their intensity e&uals that person%s value system. '. Values are not generally fluid and flexible. They tend to be relatively stable and enduring. a. ( significant portion of the values e hold is established in our early years)from parents! teachers! friends! and others. b. The process of &uestioning our values! of course! may result in a change! but more often! our &uestioning acts to reinforce the values e hold. A. Importance of Values 1. Values lay the foundation for the understanding of attitudes and motivation because they influence our perceptions. 2. *ndividuals enter organi+ations ith notions of hat is right and rong ith hich they interpret behaviors or outcomes)at times this can cloud objectivity and rationality. ". Values generally influence attitudes and behavior. B. Types of Values 1. #o$each Value ,urvey !"hibit #$%& a. *t consists of to sets of values! ith each set containing 1- individual value items. b. .ne set)terminal values)refers to desirable end-states of existence! the goals that a person ould li$e to achieve during his/her lifetime. c. The other)instrumental values)refers to preferable modes of behavior! or means of achieving the terminal values. 2. ,everal studies confirm that the #V, values vary among groups. a. 0eople in the same occupations or categories tend to hold similar values. b. There are some significant differences as ell 12xhibit "-23 4ontemporary 5or$ 4ohorts 1. The uni&ue value of different cohorts is that the 6.,. or$force can be segmented by the era they entered the or$force. 12xhibit "-"3 53 Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Three 2. Veterans)5or$ers ho entered the or$force from the early 17'8s through the early 1798s a. *nfluenced by the :reat ;epression and 5orld 5ar ** b. <elieve in hard or$ c. Tend to be loyal to their employer d. Terminal values= 4omfortable life and family security ". <oomers)2mployees ho entered the or$force during the 1798s through the mid-17-8s a. *nfluenced heavily by >ohn ?. @ennedy! the civil rights and feminist movements! the <eatles! the Vietnam 5ar! and baby-boom competition b. ;istrust authority! but have a high emphasis on achievement and material success c. .rgani+ations ho employ them are vehicles for their careers d. Terminal values= sense of accomplishment and social recognition '. Aers)began to enter the or$force from the mid-17-8s a. ,haped by globali+ation! to-career parents! BTV! (*;,! and computers b. Value flexibility! life options! and achievement of job satisfaction c. ?amily and relationships are important and enjoy team-oriented or$ d. Boney is important! but ill trade off for increased leisure time e. Cess illing to ma$e personal sacrifices for employers than previous generations f. .n the #V, D rate high true friendship! happiness! and pleasure E. Fexters)most recent entrants into the or$force. g. :re up in prosperous times! have high expectation! believe in themselves! and confident in their ability to succeed h. Fever-ending search for ideal jobG see nothing rong ith job- hopping i. ,ee$ financial success j. 2njoy team or$! but are highly self-reliant $. Terminal values= freedom and comfortable life E. *ndividuals% values differ! but tend to reflect the societal values of the period in hich they gre up. This can be a valuable aid in explaining and predicting behavior. 2mployees in their 98s! for instance! are more li$ely to accept authority than coor$ers 18 or 1E years younger. H. 5or$ers in their "8%s are more li$ely than their parents to bal$ at having to or$ overtime or ee$ends! and are more prone to leave a job in mid-career to pursue another that provides more leisure time. A. Values' (oyalty' an) !thical Behavior 1. Bany people thin$ there has been a decline in business ethics since the late 17H8s. The four-stage model of or$ cohort values might explain this perception. 12xhibit "-"3 2. Banagers consistently report the action of bosses as the most important factor 54 Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Three influencing ethical and unethical behavior in the organi+ation. ". Through the mid-17H8s! the managerial ran$s ere dominated by Veterans hose loyalty as to their employerG their decisions ere made in terms of hat as best for the employer. '. <oomers entered the or$force at this time and by the early 1778%s held a large portion of the middle and top management positions. Coyalty as to their careers. ,elf-centered values ould be consistent ith a decline in ethical values. 4an this help explain the alleged decline in business ethics beginning in the late 17H8%sI E. #ecent entrants to the or$force)Aers)are no moving into middle management. Coyalty is to relationshipsG therefore they may be more li$ely to consider the ethical implications of their actions on others around them. B. Values Across Cultures 1. Values differ across culturesG therefore! understanding these differences helps to explain and to predict behavior of employees from different countries. .ne of the most idely referenced approaches for analy+ing variations among cultures has been done by :eert Jofstede. 2. Jofstede%s ( frameor$ for assessing culturesG five value dimensions of national culture= a. 0oer distance= The degree to hich people in a country accept that poer in institutions and organi+ations is distributed une&ually. b. *ndividualism versus collectivism= *ndividualism is the degree to hich people in a country prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups. 4ollectivism e&uals lo individualism. c. (chievement versus nurturing= (chievement is the degree to hich values such as the ac&uisition of money and material goods prevail. Furturing is the degree to hich people value relationships and sho sensitivity and concern for others. d. 6ncertainty avoidance= The degree to hich people in a country prefer structured over unstructured situations. e. Cong-term versus short-term orientation= Cong-term orientations loo$ to the future and value thrift and persistence. ,hort-term orientation values the past and present and emphasi+es respect for tradition and fulfilling social obligations. '. 4onclusions= (sian countries ere more collectivist than individualistic. 6, ran$ed highest on individualism. :erman and Jong @ong rated high on achievementG #ussia and The Fetherlands ere lo. 4hina and Jong @ong had a long-term orientationG ?rance and 6, had short-term. E. Jofstede%s or$ is the basic frameor$ for assessing cultures. Joever! it is nearly "8 years old. *n 177"! the :lobal Ceadership and .rgani+ational <ehavior 2ffectiveness 1:C.<23 began updating this research ith date from -2E organi+ations and 92 countries. 55 Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Three a. :C.<2 ?rameor$ for (ssessing 4ultures 12xhibit "-'3= Assertiveness= The extent to hich a society encourages people to be tough! confrontational! assertive! and competitive versus modest and tender *uture Orientation= The extent to hich a society encourages and reards future-oriented behaviors such as planning! investing in the future and delaying gratification +en)er )ifferentiation= The extent to hich a society maximi+ed gender role differences ,ncertainly avoi)ance= ,ociety%s reliance on social norms and procedures to alleviate the unpredictability of future events -o.er )istance= The degree to hich members of a society expect poer to be une&ually shared In)ivi)ualism/Collectivism= The degree to hich individuals are encouraged by societal institutions to be integrated into groups ithin organi+ations and society In$group collectivism= The extent to hich society%s members ta$e pride in membership in small groups such as their families and circles of close friends! and the organi+ations here they are employed -erformance orientation= The degree to hich society encourages and reards group members for performance improvement and excellence 0umane orientation= The degree to hich a society encourages and reards individuals for being fair! altruistic! generous! caring! and $ind to others b. 4onclusion= The :C.<2 study had extended Jofstede%s or$ rather than replaced it. *t confirms Jofstede%s five dimensions are still valid and provides updated measures of here countries are on each dimension. ?or example! the 6.,. in the H8s led the orld in individualism)today! it is in the mid-ran$s of countries. C. Implications for OB 1. (mericans have developed organi+ational behavior ithin domestic contexts) more than -8 percent of the articles published in journals ere by (mericans. 2. .< has become a global discipline. 4oncepts need to reflect the different cultural values of people in different countries= a. #ecent global research allos specification of here .< concepts are universally applicable across countries and here they are not. (ttitudes 1. (ttitudes are evaluative statements that are either favorable or unfavorable concerning objects! people! or events. 2. (ttitudes are not the same as values! but the to are interrelated. ". Three components of an attitude= 56 Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Three b. 4ognition c. (ffect d. <ehavior '. The belief that discrimination is rong is a value statement and an example of the cognitive component of an attitude. E. Value statements set the stage for the more critical part of an attitude)its affective component. Affect is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude. 2xample= * don%t li$e >on because he discriminates again minorities. 9. The behavioral component of an attitude refers to an intention to behave in a certain ay toard someone or something. 2xample= * chose to avoid >on because he discriminates. H. Vieing attitudes as made up of three components helps ith understanding of the potential relationship beteen attitudes and behavior! hoever! hen e refer to attitu)e essentially e mean the affect part of the three components. -. *n contrast to values! your attitudes are less stable. (dvertisements are directed at changing your attitudes and are often successful. 7. *n organi+ations! attitudes are important because they affect job behavior. A. Types of Attitu)es 1. .< focuses our attention on a very limited number of job-related attitudes. Bost of the research in .< has been concerned ith three attitudes= job satisfaction! job involvement! and organi+ational commitment. 2. >ob satisfaction a. Definition= refers to a collection of feelings that an individual holds toard his or her job. b. ( high level of job satisfaction e&uals positive attitudes toard the job and vice versa. c. 2mployee attitudes and job satisfaction are fre&uently used interchangeably. d. .ften hen people spea$ of employee attitudes they mean employee job satisfaction. ". >ob involvement a. ( or$able definition= the measure of the degree to hich a person identifies psychologically ith his/her job and considers his/her perceived performance level important to self-orth. b. Jigh levels of job involvement are thought to result in feer absences and loer resignation rates. c. >ob involvement more consistently predicts turnover than absenteeism. '. .rgani+ational commitment a. Definition= ( state in hich an employee identifies ith a particular organi+ation and its goals!
A. Types of Attitu)es cont.& a. #esearch evidence demonstrates negative relationships beteen organi+ational commitment and both absenteeism and turnover. b. (n individual%s level of organi+ational commitment is a better indicator of turnover than the far more fre&uently used job satisfaction predictor because it is a more global and enduring response to the organi+ation as a hole than is job satisfaction. 57 Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Three c. This evidence! most of hich is more than three decades old! needs to be &ualified to reflect the changing employee-employer relationship. d. .rgani+ational commitment is probably less important as a job- related attitude than it once as because the unritten loyalty contract in place hen this research as conducted is no longer in place. e. *n its place! e might expect occupational commitment to become a more relevant variable because it better reflects today%s fluid or$force. B. Attitu)es an) Consistency 1. 0eople sometimes change hat they say so it does not contradict hat they do. 2. #esearch has generally concluded that people see$ consistency among their attitudes and beteen their attitudes and their behavior. ". *ndividuals see$ to reconcile divergent attitudes and align their attitudes and behavior so they appear rational and consistent. '. 5hen there is an inconsistency! forces are initiated to return the individual to an e&uilibrium state here attitudes and behavior are again consistent! by altering either the attitudes or the behavior! or by developing a rationali+ation for the discrepancy. C. Cognitive 1issonance Theory 1. Ceon ?estinger! in the late 17E8s! proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance! see$ing to explain the lin$age beteen attitudes and behavior. Je argued that any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals ill attempt to reduce the dissonance.
2. 1issonance means an inconsistency. ". Cognitive )issonance refers to any incompatibility that an individual might perceive beteen to or more of his/her attitudes! or beteen his/her behavior and attitudes. '. Fo individual can completely avoid dissonance. a. The desire to reduce dissonance ould be determined by= The importance of the elements creating the dissonance. The degree of influence the individual believes he/she has over the elements. The reards that may be involved in dissonance. E. *mportance= *f the elements creating the dissonance are relatively unimportant! the pressure to correct this imbalance ill be lo. 9. *nfluence= *f the dissonance is perceived as an uncontrollable result! they are less li$ely to be receptive to attitude change. 5hile dissonance exists! it can be rationali+ed and justified. H. #eards= The inherent tension in high dissonance tends to be reduced ith high reards. -. Boderating factors suggest that individuals ill not necessarily move to reduce dissonance 58 Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Three C. Cognitive 1issonance Theory 7. .rgani+ational implications a. :reater predictability of the propensity to engage in attitude and behavioral change b. The greater the dissonance)after it has been moderated by importance! choice! and reards factors)the greater the pressures to reduce it. 1. 2easuring the A$B Relationship 1. 2arly research on attitudes and common sense assumed a causal relationship to behavior. *n the late 1798s! this assumed relationship beteen attitudes and behavior 1(-<3 as challenged. #ecent research has demonstrated that attitudes significantly predict future behavior. 2. The most poerful moderators= a. *mportance b. ,pecificity c. (ccessibility d. ,ocial pressures e. ;irect experience ". *mportance= #eflects fundamental values! self-interest! or identification ith individuals or groups that a person values. '. ,pecificity= The more specific the attitude and the more specific the behavior! the stronger the lin$ beteen the to. E. (ccessibility= (ttitudes that are easily remembered are more li$ely to predict behavior than attitudes that are not accessible in memory. 9. ,ocial pressures= ;iscrepancies beteen attitudes and behavior are more li$ely to occur here social pressures to behave in certain ays hold exceptional poer. H. ;irect experience= The attitude-behavior relationship is li$ely to be much stronger if an attitude refers to an individual%s direct personal experience. !. 3elf$perception theory 1. #esearchers have achieved still higher correlations by pursuing hether or not behavior influences attitudes. 2. ,elf-perception theory argues that attitudes are used to ma$e sense out of an action that has already occurred rather than devices that precede and guide action. 2xample= *%ve had this job for 18 yearsG no one has forced me to stay! so * must li$e itK ". 4ontrary to cognitive dissonance theory! attitudes are just casual verbal statementsG they tend to create plausible ansers for hat has already occurred. '. 5hile the traditional attitude-behavior relationship is generally positive! the behavior-attitude relationship is stronger particularly hen attitudes are vague and ambiguous or little thought has been given to it previously. *. An Application: Attitu)e 3urveys 1. The most popular method for getting information about employee attitudes is through attitude surveys. 2. 6sing attitude surveys on a regular basis provides managers ith valuable feedbac$ on ho employees perceive their or$ing conditions. Banagers 59 Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Three present the employee ith set statements or &uestions to obtain specific information. ". 0olicies and practices that management vies as objective and fair may be seen as ine&uitable by employees in general or by certain groups of employees and can lead to negative attitudes about the job and the organi+ation. '. 2mployee behaviors are often based on perceptions! not reality. .ften employees do not have objective data from hich to base their perceptions. E. The use of regular attitude surveys can alert management to potential problems and employees% intentions early so that action can be ta$en to prevent repercussions. +. Attitu)es an) 4or5force 1iversity 1. Banagers are concerned ith changing employee attitudes to reflect shifting perspectives on racial! gender! and other diversity issues. 2. Bajority of large 6.,. employers and a substantial proportion of medium-si+ed and smaller! sponsor some sort of diversity training. ". These diversity programs include a self-evaluation phase here people are pressed to examine themselves and to confront ethnic and cultural stereotypes they might hold. This is folloed by discussion ith people from diverse groups. '. (dditional activities designed to change attitudes include arranging for people to do volunteer or$ in community or social service centers in order to meet face to face ith individuals and groups from diverse bac$grounds! and using exercises that let participants feel hat it is li$e to be different. E. ?olloing 7/11! many organi+ations have added diversity exercises that focus on relationships ith coor$ers from Biddle 2astern bac$grounds and folloers of the *slamic faith. >ob ,atisfaction A. 2easuring 6ob 3atisfaction 1. >ob satisfaction is an individual%s general attitude toard his/her job. 2. >obs re&uire interaction ith co-or$ers and bosses! folloing organi+ational rules and policies! meeting performance standards! living ith or$ing conditions that are often less than ideal! and the li$e. This means that an employee%s assessment of ho satisfied or dissatisfied he or she is ith his/her job is a complex summation of a number of discrete job elements. ". The to most idely used approaches are a single global rating and a summation score made up of a number of job facets. a. The single global rating method is nothing more than as$ing individuals to respond to one &uestion! such as (ll things considered! ho satisfied are you ith your jobI b. ( summation of job facets is more sophisticated= *t identifies $ey elements in a job and as$s for the employee%s feelings about each one ran$ed on a standardi+ed scale. Typical factors that ould be included are the nature of the or$! 60 Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Three supervision! present pay! promotion opportunities! and relations ith co-or$ers. '. 4omparing these approaches! simplicity seems to or$ as ell as complexity. 4omparisons of one-&uestion global ratings ith the summation-of-job-factors method indicate both are valid. B. 0o. 3atisfie) Are -eople in Their 6obs7 1. Bost people are satisfied ith their jobs in the developed countries surveyed. 2. Joever! there has been a decline in job satisfaction since the early 1778s. *n the 6, nearly an eight percent drop in the 78s. ,harpest declines occurred among or$ers in the "E to '' age group. *n 177E! 91L ere satisfied! by 2882! only 'HL indicated that they ere satisfied. ". 5hat factors might explain the decline despite groth= a. *ncreased productivity through heavier employee or$loads and tighter deadlines b. 2mployees feeling they have less control over their or$ C. The !ffect of 6ob 3atisfaction on !mployee -erformance 1. Banagers% interest in job satisfaction tends to center on its effect on employee performance. Buch research has been done on the impact of job satisfaction on employee productivity! absenteeism! and turnover. 2. ,atisfaction and productivity= a. Jappy or$ers are not necessarily productive or$ers)the evidence suggests that productivity is li$ely to lead to satisfaction. b. (t the organi+ation level! there is reneed support for the original satisfaction-performance relationship. *t seems organi+ations ith more satisfied or$ers as a hole are more productive organi+ations. ". ,atisfaction and absenteeism a. 5e find a consistent negative relationship beteen satisfaction and absenteeism. The more satisfied you are! the less li$ely you are to miss or$. b. *t ma$es sense that dissatisfied employees are more li$ely to miss or$! but other factors have an impact on the relationship and reduce the correlation coefficient. ?or example! you might be a satisfied or$er! yet still ta$e a mental health day to head for the beach no and again. '. ,atisfaction and turnover a. ,atisfaction is also negatively related to turnover! but the correlation is stronger than hat e found for absenteeism. b. .ther factors such as labor mar$et conditions! expectations about alternative job opportunities! and length of tenure ith the organi+ation are important constraints on the actual decision to leave one%s current job. 61 Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Three c. 2vidence indicates that an important moderator of the satisfaction- turnover relationship is the employee%s level of performance. 1. 6ob 3atisfaction an) OCB 1. *t seems logical to assume that job satisfaction should be a major determinant of an employee%s organi+ational citi+enship behavior. Bore recent evidence! hoever! suggests that satisfaction influences .4<! but through perceptions of fairness. 2. There is a modest overall relationship beteen job satisfaction and .4<. ". <asically! job satisfaction comes don to conceptions of fair outcomes! treatment! and procedures. 5hen you trust your employer! you are more li$ely to engage in behaviors that go beyond your formal job re&uirements. !. >ob ,atisfaction and 4ustomer ,atisfaction 1. 2vidence indicates that satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty. 2. 4ustomer retention and defection are highly dependent on ho front-line employees deal ith customers. ,atisfied employees are more li$ely to be friendly! upbeat! and responsive. 4ustomers appreciate that. ". 4ompanies hire upbeat! friendly employees! train them in the importance of customer service! provide positive employee or$ climates! and regularly trac$ employee satisfaction through attitude surveys. *. 4hat About !mployee 1issatisfaction 1. There are a number of ays employees can express dissatisfaction 1!"hibit #$8&: a. 2xit b. Voice c. Coyalty d. Feglect 2. !"it: <ehavior directed toard leaving the organi+ation! including loo$ing for a ne position as ell as resigning. ". Voice: (ctively and constructively attempting to improve conditions! including suggesting improvements! discussing problems ith superiors! and some forms of union activity. '. Coyalty= 0assively but optimistically aiting for conditions to improve! including spea$ing up for the organi+ation in the face of external criticism! and trusting the organi+ation and its management to do the right thing. E. 9eglect= 0assively alloing conditions to orsen! including chronic absenteeism or lateness! reduced effort! and increased error rate. 9. 2xit and neglect behaviors encompass our performance variables) productivity! absenteeism! and turnover. H. Voice and loyalty are constructive behaviors allo individuals to tolerate unpleasant situations or to revive satisfactory or$ing conditions. *t helps us to understand situations! such as those sometimes found among unioni+ed or$ers! here lo job satisfaction is coupled ith lo turnover. 62 Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Three 63