This article is about deformation in

engineering. For a more rigorous treatment,

see Deformation (mechanics) .
Compressi
ve stress
results in
deformati
on which
shortens
the object
but also
expands it
outwards.
n materials science , deformation is a
change in the shape or si!e of an object due
to
an applied force (the deformation energ"
in this case is transferred through wor#) or
a change in temperature (the deformation
energ" in this case is transferred through
heat).
The first case can be a result of tensile
(pulling) forces, compressive (pushing)
forces, shear, bending or torsion (twisting).
n the second case, the most significant
factor, which is determined b" the
temperature, is the mobilit" of the
structural defects such as grain boundaries,
point vacancies, line and screw dislocations,
stac#ing faults and twins in both cr"stalline
and non$cr"stalline solids. The movement or
displacement of such mobile defects is
thermall" activated, and thus limited b" the
rate of atomic diffusion. %&'%('
Deformation is often described as strain.
)s deformation occurs, internal inter$
molecular forces arise that oppose the
applied force. f the applied force is not too
large these forces ma" be sufficient to
completel" resist the applied force, allowing
the object to assume a new e*uilibrium
state and to return to its original state when
the load is removed. ) larger applied force
ma" lead to a permanent deformation of the
object or even to its structural failure .
n the figure it can be seen that the
compressive loading (indicated b" the
arrow) has caused deformation in the
c"linder so that the original shape (dashed
lines) has changed (deformed) into one with
bulging sides. The sides bulge because the
material, although strong enough to not
crac# or otherwise fail, is not strong
enough to support the load without change,
thus the material is forced out laterall".
nternal forces (in this case at right angles
to the deformation) resist the applied load.
The concept of a rigid bod" can be applied
if the deformation is negligible.
T"pes of deformation
Depending on the t"pe of material, si!e and
geometr" of the object, and the forces
applied, various t"pes of deformation ma"
result. The image to the right shows the
engineering stress vs. strain diagram for a
t"pical ductile material such as steel.
Different deformation modes ma" occur
under different conditions, as can be
depicted using a deformation mechanism
map .
T"pical stress vs. strain diagram with the
various stages of deformation.
+lastic deformation
For more details on this topic, see +lasticit"
(ph"sics) .
This t"pe of deformation is reversible. ,nce
the forces are no longer applied, the object
returns to its original shape. +lastomers and
shape memor" metals such as -itinol
exhibit large elastic deformation ranges, as
does rubber . .owever elasticit" is nonlinear
in these materials. -ormal metals, ceramics
and most cr"stals show linear elasticit" and
a smaller elastic range.
/inear elastic deformation is governed b"
.oo#e0s law , which states1
2here is the applied stress, is a
material constant called 3oung0s modulus ,
and 4 is the resulting strain. This
relationship onl" applies in the elastic range
and indicates that the slope of the stress vs.
strain curve can be used to find 3oung0s
modulus. +ngineers often use this
calculation in tensile tests. The elastic range
ends when the material reaches its "ield
strength . )t this point plastic deformation
begins.
-ote that not all elastic materials undergo
linear elastic deformation5 some, such as
concrete, gra" cast iron, and man"
pol"mers, respond in a nonlinear fashion.
For these materials .oo#e0s law is
inapplicable. %6'
7lastic deformation
8ee also1 7lasticit" (ph"sics)
This t"pe of deformation is irreversible.
.owever, an object in the plastic
deformation range will first have undergone
elastic deformation, which is reversible, so
the object will return part wa" to its
original shape. 8oft thermoplastics have a
rather large plastic deformation range as do
ductile metals such as copper, silver, and
gold . 8teel does, too, but not cast iron .
.ard thermosetting plastics, rubber,
cr"stals, and ceramics have minimal plastic
deformation ranges. ,ne material with a
large plastic deformation range is wet
chewing gum , which can be stretched
do!ens of times its original length.
9nder tensile stress, plastic deformation is
characteri!ed b" a strain hardening region
and a nec#ing region and finall", fracture
(also called rupture). During strain
hardening the material becomes stronger
through the movement of atomic
dislocations . The nec#ing phase is indicated
b" a reduction in cross$sectional area of the
specimen. -ec#ing begins after the ultimate
strength is reached. During nec#ing, the
material can no longer withstand the
maximum stress and the strain in the
specimen rapidl" increases. 7lastic
deformation ends with the fracture of the
material.
:etal fatigue
)nother deformation mechanism is metal
fatigue , which occurs primaril" in ductile
metals. t was originall" thought that a
material deformed onl" within the elastic
range returned completel" to its original
state once the forces were removed.
.owever, faults are introduced at the
molecular level with each deformation.
)fter man" deformations, crac#s will begin
to appear, followed soon after b" a
fracture, with no apparent plastic
deformation in between. Depending on the
material, shape, and how close to the
elastic limit it is deformed, failure ma"
re*uire thousands, millions, billions, or
trillions of deformations.
:etal fatigue has been a major cause of
aircraft failure, such as the De .avilland
Comet accidents , especiall" before the
process was well understood. There are two
wa"s to determine when a part is in danger
of metal fatigue5 either predict when failure
will occur due to the material;force;shape;
iteration combination, and replace the
vulnerable materials before this occurs, or
perform inspections to detect the
microscopic crac#s and perform
replacement once the" occur. 8election of
materials not li#el" to suffer from metal
fatigue during the life of the product is the
best solution, but not alwa"s possible.
)voiding shapes with sharp corners limits
metal fatigue b" reducing stress
concentrations, but does not eliminate it.
Compressive failure
9suall", compressive stress applied to bars,
columns , etc. leads to shortening.
/oading a structural element or specimen
will increase the compressive stress until it
reaches its compressive strength . )ccording
to the properties of the material, failure
modes are "ielding for materials with
ductile behavior (most metals, some soils
and plastics) or rupturing for brittle
behavior (geomaterials, cast iron, glass ,
etc.).
n long, slender structural elements such
as columns or truss bars an increase of
compressive force F leads to structural
failure due to buc#ling at lower stress than
the compressive strength.