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Technology of Denim
Production: Part II
(Warping & Indigo Dyeing
Techniques for Denim)

By:
Supriya Pal

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TechnologyofDenimProduction:PartII
(Warping&IndigoDyeingTechniquesforDenim)

By:SupriyaPal

Indigo dyestuff originally extracted from the varieties of plants, including wood plants. Indigo belongs to
the legume family and over three hundred species have been identified. Most natural indigo is extracted
throughout the ancient world from the genus Indigofera. In Asia, the primary commercial indigo species
was Indigofera tinctoria (true Indigo) which was also known as Indigofera sumatrana. In Central and
South America the commercial indigo species were Indigofera suffructicosa and Indigofera arrecta (Natal
indigo).

Indigo is popular from the ancient time due to its brilliant blue
hue to fabric. Indigo partially penetrates into the fibers and
impart unique surface color. The inner layers remain uncolored
when it is indigo dyed. The indigo having the unique
characteristic of fading during rubbing or daily usage of wear
and repeated washing. This gives a worn look and for this
reason it is commonly used to color denim.

Until about 1900, natural indigo was the only source of the dye.
As the demand for indigo increased during the industrial
revolution, the natural extraction process of indigo could not
fulfill the huge demand of indigo. Hence there is a need of
alternate source of indigo. All over the world, chemists began
researching for synthetic methods of producing the dye.

In 1883 Adolf von Baeyer (of Baeyer aspirin fame) developed
the chemical structure of indigo. He found that oxindole can be
produced by treating omega-bromoacetanilide with an alkali (a
substance that is high in pH). Based on his observation, K.
Heumann identified a synthesis pathway to produce indigo.

Indigo is a crystalline powder that melts at 390392C. It is dark
blue in colour, insoluble in water, alcohol, or ether but soluble in
chloroform, nitrobenzene, or concentrated sulfuric acid. Its chemical
structure of indigo corresponds to the formula C
16
H
10
N
2
O
2
.

The process of denim
manufacturing is very
specialized and
involves several distinct
processes as shown in fig. 1.









Indigo molecule

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SPINNING
BALLWARPING
ROPEDYEING
LONGCHAIN
BEAMER
SIZING
DRAWINGIN
SLASHERDYEING
WEAVING
FINISHING
INSPECTION
PACKING
DIRECTWARPING
Fig. 1: Process Flow Chart of Denim Manufacturing


WARPING

Normally there are two types of warping system followed in denim production. The first one is direct
warping or beam warping, which collect the yarn in a sheet form onto a beam. In this warping, the yarn
lies parallel to each other and in the same plane. This type of direct warping beam is suitable for dyeing in
slasher dyeing in denim production.

Another type of warping is ball warping. In this warping, the yarns are brought together and collected into
a rope before being wound onto a log.

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The above two types of warping methods are briefly described below.

Ball Warping

In ball warping process, individual strands of yarn are removed from yarn packages and collected into
rope form suitable for rope dyeing (Fig. 2). Threads, about 350-500 in number are formed into ropes.
Individual warp yarn are collected into rope form and wound onto a log and produce a ball warp on Ball
warping machine.

Creel

In ball warping, all the packages are loaded into the adapters of the creel of ball warping machine. The
creel is normally designed to accommodate about 330 to 430 packages. The creel may be of different
types, such as Magazine Creels and Traveling Package Creels. The passage of yarn in ball warping are
shown in Fig. 3.




Fig. 2: Ball Warping Machine


Fig. 3: Passage of yarn in ball warping


The Magazine creels are straight-line creels having a reserve yarn package placed beside the running
packages (Fig. 4). The tail end of the running package is knotted with the start end of the reserve
package. When the running package is depleted, the warper continues to run with the from the reserve
package.

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Fig. 4: Magazine Creels

The traveling package creels are V-shaped creels. The running yarn packages are kept on the outside of
the V and the full yarn packages are loaded on the inside of the V. When the running packages are
emptied, the yarn spindles on the creel are rotated so that the full packages move to the outside of the
creel and the empty packages move towards the inside of the V-creel for replenishment. The warping
machine is start with the new yarn ends. The empty packages are unloaded and replaced with new full
packages.


Ball Warping Logs



Tensioners

The individual yarn from each package loaded in the warping creel are passes through a tensioner. There
are different types of tensioners available for ball warping machines. The different types of tensioners are
as below:

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Fig. 5: Typical Yarn delivery to the warp preparation machines


Post and disk tensioners: This type of tensioner unit two or three posts fitted onto a flat base. Two
round disks are placed onto each post. The yarn is passes between the disks and wrapped around the
posts. Out of the two or three post, one is movable. This varies the angle of wrap, which apply different
levels of tensions to the yarn. The tension on the yarn can be increased by adding weights onto the op
weights. This type of tensioners is inexpensive, simple to thread up, require less maintenance. However
the yarn has a tendency to jump up out from between the disk, it is very labour intensive to change the
tension levels to the yarn.

Driven disk tensioners: This type of tensioners has a twin-disk arrangement. The disks are supported
from below and the tension is applied from above the disk through weights or a spring loaded device. A
gear under each pair of disk is matched to another gear. This gear is mounted on a continuous shaft
which is connected to a motor to rotate the disk. In some latest machinery manufacturer incorporates 4
RPM motor per post for disk drive. The rotation of the disk prevents thread cutting and dampens due to
ballooning of the yarn. This type of tensioners requires less effort to change tension levels. However it
requires more maintenance due to maintenance of the electric motor.









Fig. 6: Typical driven disk tensioner, Tension Range: 10-150 grams, Operating Speed: 0-
1,500 MPM, 4 RMP Gear Motor per post

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OZ Tensioner- The OZ tensioners is very simple and popular in different denim production. The
tensioners consist of a cylindrical housing which is fitted with small ceramic eyelet at the top and bottom.
There are two steel balls inside the housing. The yarn is threaded up through the bottom eyelet, around
the steel balls and out through the top eyelet. The tension is applied to the yarn as it passes around the
steel balls. The tension on the yarn is higher at the rear of the creel due to distance of the yarn travel and
lower at the front of the creel due to the same reason. At the rear of the creel, the balls are prevented for
giving much tension to the yarn, as the yarn already has higher tension. However, at the front of the creel,
the yarn tension is less. The balls exert higher pressure to the yarn as it passes between them. Hence
the tension across the yarn sheet remains equal.

The advantages of this type of tensioners are minimum maintenance required and no adjustments
required in this system. However, there is a limit of how much tension can be applied to the yarn. It is
difficult for threading and it is relatively expensive.

Electronic Tensioner: The electronic tensioners are of two types, such as: Capastan Type and Rotating
Disc Type.

In the Capastan type of tensioner, a round capastan fitted on a precision shaft. The capastan is fitted onto
the bearings located inside of a round DC coil. The yarn is wrapped around the outer surface of the
capastan and when the yarn is pulled out, the capastan rotates. An EM field is created under the
capastan if no voltage is applied to the DC coil. A hysterisis ring attached to the inside of the capastan,
reacts with the EM field and a resistance is created against the free rotation of the capastan. This
resistance incorporates tension to the yarn. In order to achieve equal tension to each yarn, varying levels
of DC voltages are applied to each tensioner. The advantages of this type of the tensioners are less
maintenance required, no use of electric motor.

In the Rotating Disc type on the same principle, but it applies tension in different way. Two disks are fitted
in the vertical position onto a ceramic shaft. Inside disk, there is a DC coil. An electromagnetic field is
generated when voltage is applied to the DC coil. The outside disk is attached to the magnetic field and
pulls tightly against inner disk. It applied tension to the yarn threaded between the two disks. The amount
of tension depends upon the strength of the EM field created by the DC coil. A 4 RPM AC motor fitted on
each tensioiner turn the disks to avoid thread cutting.


Stop motion devices

A stop motion device is fitted in the creel to stop the machine at the event of any end breakages. There
are different types of stop motion devices available. However each of them having their own advantages
and disadvantages. Some of stop motion devices are as below:

Drop wire stop motion

It is fitted on each vertical row at the front of the creel bands. This is the simplest type of stop motions. A
drop wire is placed onto each yarn end. There is an exposed electric contact bar beneath the drop wires.
An open electric circuit is maintaining in the electric contact bar in normal running condition. However at
the time of any end breakages, the drop wire falls onto the contact bar and shorts out the circuit. This
system is very inexpensive and very fast reacting. However, the system is exposed to dust, lint and short
fibers. If the contact bar is accumulated with fluff, the drop wire will not be in contact with the bar and the
system remains open.

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Photoelectric stop motion

This type of stop motion works on almost in same principle as the drop wire type, but there is some
difference. The photoelectric system uses a faller which is attached to a shutter inside of an airtight
housing of the housing. Inside the housing, there is a photocell having a transmitter at one end and a
receiver at the other end of the housing. A light beam is emitted to the receiver which maintains an open
electric circuit. At the time of an end breaks, the faller drops. This causes the attached shutter passes
through the light beam, which ultimately initiating the stop signal to the warper. The system is reliable,
inexpensive as compared to drop wire. It is easy to thread and maintenance free. However, the system
having disadvantages of residual tension on the yarn which preventing the shutter to drop.

Electric Motion Sensor

In this system an electric motion sensor is fitted in the balloon shield at the yarn cone. The system
measures the motion of the yarn when it exits from the cone. The yarn balloons housed in the balloon
shield through a light beam. The system remains open as long as the light beam is broken by the
ballooning motion. At the event of end breakages, the ballooning action immediately stops and the sensor
signals the warper to stop. This system is reliable, fast acting and self cleaning. But the system is
expensive.

Lease Stand

After leaving the creel, the yarn passes through the reed of a lease stand. The lease stand having two
reed / comb, out of which one reed is movable up and down, which allows each adjacent yarn end to
raise or lowered to form a shed of yarn sheet. Each alternate yarn threaded through alternate reed.

A lease string is inserted across the shed formed by the reed, at a specified intervals, may be 1000 m. At
this interval, the machines is automatically stops for lea insertions. However, the intervals of lease may be
varied within the rope, as per requirement of the technologist. The lease helps in maintain proper leasing
in subsequent process, i.e. in long chain beamer. Any cross ends in the rope can be cleared at the lease
portions. The operator in long chain beamer can check whether there is any cross end at lease portions.
Any broken end, missing end can be properly mended at lease portions. Hence lease is an important
consideration in denim productions. Most of the denim technologist use cotton or synthetic filament yarn
for lease. The lease strand should not be of coarse count, or thick at any rope, which may cause unusual
end breakages in rope dyeing by touching in fingers.

Next the yarn passes through a counter stand or combination of counter stand and condenser tube
assembly. Here the yarn sheet is condensed into a bundle. From the counter stand the yarn passing it
through a funnel-shaped trumpet. It is located at the rear of the ball warper. Here the total ends of the
yarn sheet is collected in a rope form. This rope is wound on a log.

In the ball warper, there are two motor driven drive rolls which are geared together. The ball warping log
is placed between these two drive rolls and held against the surface of the drive rolls with pneumatic
pressure. The log turns as the two drive roll runs. A pneumatic brake attached to the drive rolls stops the
rotation of the rolls as and when required or at the time of any end breakages.

Ball warping machine normally uses a chain and dual sprockets in order to give side-by-side motion of the
rope during winding onto the log. This side-by-side movement of the chain is provided through
mechanical gear in the traverse to the drive roll motor. The traverse movement of the chain is
synchronized to the drive roll rotation speed. However, there is a problem of ribbon formation in the log at
certain diameter, as it is not possible to vary the speed of rotation of the rope onto the log. The ribboning
causes the machine to vibrate until the rope achieve a somewhat more uniform surface across the log.

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McCoy Ellison provides a separate AC Inverter controlled motors for the traverse and for drive the rolls.
Both are controlled by Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) so that the speed of the traverse is not
depends upon the speed of the drive rolls.

Ball Warper Gear-in speed

The maximum gear-in speed of the ball warper depends upon the desired production of a mill. A typical
speed is 360 to 400 m/min.

Ball wind up

In the ball warping, the yarn passes through the traversing trumpet, which distributes the rope onto the
log. The ball warping machine should be such that, there is a minimum of dwell time at the end of each
traverse stroke. This prevents hanging of the yarn over the ends of the ball and formation of any loops.

Ball dimension

The relationship between the ball dimensions and the corresponding length of yarn is an important
consideration during purchasing of ball warper. The ball length can be calculated with the following
formula by assuming a typical yarn density 59 cubic inches per pound.

Ball length in yards ={11.8 x yarn count x ball width x (D2 d
2
)}/ Ends per rope

Where D=Ball diameter in inches,
D=Log diameter in inches


Braking and start-up

At the time of any end breakage, the ball warping brakes are immediately activated by stop motions. This
sudden stoppage of the machine may leads to risk of scuffing the ball on the driving drums, unless the
brakes are synchronized properly. In the event of rapid start of the machine, there is a chance of yarn
scuffed. Some manufacturer incorporates synthetic covered driven drums to minimize yarn scuffing and
slipping.

Creel Fans

Oscillating creel fans are fitted in the creels to clean the creel.

Morrison MDS-BW 450 Ball Warper

Morrison Denim Systems offers MDS-BW 450 ball warper for rope dyeing range (Fig. 7).





Fig. 7: Morrison MDS-BW 450 Ball Warper

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The essential features are:
Heavy frame construction with polyurethane covered bed rolls ensures high speed winding,
The Smart Stop Technology activates brakes only on critical stops which maximizing brake
life,
Controlled deceleration and Smart Lease Technology with creep speed avoids rope (kinking)
knotting during stops,
Belt driven traverse system with speeds up to 10m/second and accelerations up to 40m/second
Automatic speed profile of traverse servo drive is programmable for infinite speed adjustment
allowing variable ball patterns
Full width Turn Around Stand allows even yarn tension and less lost ends

Optional Features:
Ball Diameter up to 1525 mm
Sheet Vacuum System



McCoy-Ellison Model 680 Ball Warper















Fig. 8: McCoy-Ellison Model 680 Ball Warper

McCoy-Ellison, Inc. offers Model 680 Ball Warper. The Model 680 is incorporated with dual AC vector
drives which separate the traverse drive from the ball drive. With this features the traverse ratio to the ball
speed can be set as per requirement which improves the yarn lay down on the ball. The ratio can be
changed instantly during changing the yarn counts. The machine can be run with speeds in excess of 500
MPM.

Additional Features:

Variable rate pneumatically controlled log hold down
Quick-change final guide trumpets
Controlled acceleration
Infinitely programmable lease settings
Capability to produce a 1.25 meter diameter ball.
Powered lease stand
Optional integrated turning roll.

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The machine is available with one of the following creels:
Model 10 creel with transfer capacity
Model 18 Creel with non-transfer capacity


KARL MAYER BW-T60 ball warper



Fig. 9: BW-T60 ball warper

Main Features:

Regulated, tension-controlled, gentle and accurate formation of ropes for producing beams of 1,500 mm
dia. Max.
Pneumatically controlled disc brake technology.
The SVS integrated suction system removes dust, fly and other loose particles. This is helpful in
reducing contamination in wet treatment.

Beam / Direct Warping

In direct warping process, individual yarn from the package is removed and wind on to a beam in an open
sheet form. Beam / direct warping maintains the yarns parallel to each other onto a slightly wider flanged
beam. These yarns will go through slasher dyed or in an un-dyed fabric, which can be piece dyed,
garment dyed, or left natural.

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Fig. 10: Direct Warping



Fig. 11: Direct warping


Methods of Indigo Dyeing

In former times indigo dyeing was normally carried out in wood or metal vats and generally in rope form.
Today indigo dyeing is carried out in a continuous process. There are mainly two types of dyeing
principles for continuous dyeing, such as:
- Rope Dyeing
- Slasher or Sheet Dyeing

In rope dyeing 12 to 36 ball warping logs are led side by side, wetted, dyed and dried after the dyeing
process on cylinders and put into cans. In sheet dyeing method, the warp threads are fed to the machine
in parallel to each other and in the beam form. A schematic diagram of rope and sheet dyeing process is
shown in Fig. 12.

The primary difference between rope dyeing and sheet dyeing processes to producing indigo dyeing is
the sequence of steps between yarn manufacturing and weaving. The sheet dyeing involves two steps:
namely beam / direct warping and sheet dyeing. Whereas the rope dyeing involves four distinct steps,
such as ball warping, rope dyeing, re-beaming or long chain beamer and sizing.

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Fig.: Process Flow Chart for Indigo Rope
Dyeing Range


























Fig.: Process Flow Chart for Indigo Slasher /
sheet Dyeing Range


























Fig. 12: Process Flow diagram of rope and sheet dyeing
(*)The processes are integrated in continuous sheet dyeing range
Slasher Dyeing Vs Rope Dyeing- A comparison
Comparison On Slasher Dyeing Rope Dyeing
Required Space Less More
Mercerizing Easy Difficult
Manpower Less More
Dye bath Less capacity More
Broken end repairing Not Possible In rope dyeing there is a
possibility to repair broken end in
LCB (Long Chain Beamer)
Flexibility Flexibility to produce denim in
different colors and small
quantities
Less flexible. Difficult to change
colors.
Folding
Finishing
Inspection/Mending
Weaving
RotorSpunYarn RingSpunYarn
Direct Warping
Slasher Dyeing&washing*
Sizing, Drying & Warp beam*
Predrying*
RotorSpunYarn RingSpunYarn
LongChainBeamer
Warp sizing
Weaving
Inspection/Mending
Finishing
Folding
RopeDyeing
BallWarping

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Set change Machines should start and stop
at the time of set change. Hence
shade matching is not easier
until hundreds of meters of yarn
run.
No need to start and stop the
machine at the time of set
change. Hence shade matching is
easier.
Extra ends Extra ends. No extra ends.
Different colour
mixing
Not possible Possible to mix ends of different
colours. One can get stripe
design at re-beaming.
Count range Advantages for lighter yarn. Can
use Ne 1-30 without major
change.
Large number of yarns are
difficult to open at re-beaming.
Hence it is not suitable for fine
yarn. Can use Ne1-16 without
major change. In latest machines
even higher yarn count can be
dyed.
Rear view
characteristics of
fabric
Less thin / thick & knot points High thin / thick & knot points
Dye dipping time for
effective dye result
< = 14s ( standard 10 14s
regulated by speed)
< = 21s ( standard 15 21s
regulated by speed)
Production capacity Approx. 9 to 11 mill. Mt. in case
of normal capacity.
Approx. 10 to 22 mills. Mt. in
case of double capacity.
12 ropes =9 to 11.5 mill. Mt.,
24 ropes =18 to 23 mill. Mt.,
36 ropes =27 to 34.5 mill. Mt.
Cost Cost of production is lesser
compared to Rope Dyeing
Cost of production is more
compared to sheet Dyeing

Relative merits and demerits
- Generally rope dyeing denim range produces better quality of denim than slasher dyeing.
- Rope dyeing means for higher production and long runs. Rope dyeing can more lots without any
stoppages at set change. In case of sheet dyeing, the machine remain stop at set change.
- In rope dyeing better dry and wet fastness properties in denim fabric can be achieved, than sheet
dyeing.
- In sheet dyeing good quality yarn is required, as mending of broken ends is very difficult in sheet
dyeing. This problem is less in rope dyeing.
- Sheet dyeing produces more waste than rope dyeing.
- Lot to lot, set to set shade consistency is better in rope dyeing,
- In sheet dyeing, there is a problem of center to selvedge shade variation. This can be caused due
to uneven nip pressure, non-uniform chemical and colour content in dye boxes. This problem can
also occur in rope dyeing as well. But proper rotation of the dried yarn cans at spreading and
winding and even distribution of warp yarns over the full width of the fabric minimize the problem.
- The wetting and immersion time, oxidation time of dyed yarn are less in sheet dyeing due to
parallel warp threads.

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Rope Dyeing

The indigo Rope dyeing technology for denim production is considered a superior dyeing technology,
where better uniformity of dyeing is achieved than other Indigo dyeing technologies like slasher dyeing.
Indigo rope dyeing was started in USA. Today rope dyeing accounts for a large percentage of warp yarn
dyed for denim production. The system offers highest production, due to continuous process, as there is
no stoppages for set changes. In this dyeing method, maximum continuity of shades and minimum
danger of center to selvedge shade variation can be achieved. Flow diagram of rope dyeing is shown in
Fig. 13. During dyeing process, it forms a coating in the outer layers of the cotton yarn and fiber. This
produces a ring of color around the cotton yarn, with the core remains white core. This dyeing effect is
known as ring dyeing.




Fig. 13: Rope dyeing and subsequent sizing, Step 1: Ball Warper, Step 2: Rope Dyeing, Step 3:
Long Chain Beamer, Step 4: Sizing





Fig. 14: Indigo Rope Dyeing Range

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Indigo dye is a vat dyestuff. It is insoluble in water and has a very poor affinity to cellulose fibers like
cotton fiber. In normal stage, indigo will not dye cotton fiber. For dyeing of cotton yarn, indigo should be
converted into water-soluble leuco form in chemical reduction process. Reducing agents such as
sodium hydrosulfite with sodium hydroxide are used to convert the indigo dye to its soluble form. The
reducing agent also initially changes the color of the dye from its blue color to a very pale greenish yellow
color. The leuco form of indigo forms a coating on the outer layer of the cotton yarn. The yarn is then
exposed to the air, where the indigo become insoluble by oxidation. The oxygen in air converts the
soluble indigo dye to its original insoluble form and back to its original blue color. The chemical reaction is
shown in Fig. 15.




Fig. 15: Simplified description of the reduction/oxidation of Indigo


When the indigo dye oxidized, it becomes trapped into the outer layers of the cotton yarn. In a single
passage of indigo dye, a small amount of dye being deposited on the yarn surface which causes light
blue shade. In order to obtain deep indigo blue shades, the cotton yarn should be subjected to repeatedly
dye with indigo dye. The indigo dye is layered by dyeing in a multiple passes of the rope into the soluble
indigo dye and then subsequently exposing it to the oxygen in the air for oxidation. This multiple passing
of yarn into dye bath is known as dipping. Normally, the cotton yarns are dyed with indigo dye in at least 4
to 8 passages of the dye bath. After every passage of dye bath the yarns are exposed to air and followed
by further dipping in soluble indigo dye bath. After every passage of the dye bath all the oxidized indigo
dyestuff fixed on the surface of the cotton fiber/ yarn, only a small portion of indigo is replaced by fresh
indigo. This results in the increase in the depth of shades.


In some cases a sulfur black or blue dye can be applied to the yarn before indigo dyeing in order to
achieve darker shades. This is known as a sulfur bottom. If the sulfur dye is applied after the yarn has
been indigo dyed, it is known as sulfur top.

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Process sequence in Indigo rope dyeing in denim

The passage of yarns in rope dyeing is shown in Fig. 16.









Pre-
scouring
hot
wash
Cold
wash
8 Dye
baths
hot
wash
cold
wash
Softener
Applicat
ion

Fig. 16: The passage of yarn in rope dyeing


In rope dyeing, 12-36 ball warping ropes of yarn are fed side-by-side simultaneously into the rope dyeing
range for application of the indigo dyeing. The process sequence is as below:

Pre-scouring

In the rope dyeing range the ropes are first passed through one or more scouring baths. It consist of
wetting agents, detergents and caustic. The objectives of pre-scouring is to remove the wax content from
cotton, naturally occurring impurities in cotton fiber yarn such as dirt, minerals, ash, pectin, and naturally
occurring waxes, removal of trapped air from cotton yarns through wetting the yarn at temperature of 90
to 95C. Removal of these materials is very important in order to achieve uniform wetting and uniform
dyeing. The trapped air is essential to be removed as it may cause uneven dyeing. There is approx. 2
liters of air in 1 kg of yarn. One liter of air decomposes 2 liters of Sodium hydroxide which also increase
consumption of sodium hydroxide.

The following agents normally used in pre-scouring.

Caustic Soda: In pre-scouring, 35% sodium hydroxide (depends upon the quantity of cotton
fibers) is used, which removes the wax by the action of soapanification.

Wetting agent: Anionic wetting agent are normally used.

Sequestering agent: It is used to make the water soft, as it is very difficult to find the desired
softness in water (about 1-3 ppm) even with the use of soft water.

The ropes are subsequently fed into one or more water rinsing baths.

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Fig. 18: Typical Indigo Dyeing Range


Hot wash
The ropes is hot washed 80 90C to remove the sodium hydroxide left in the yarn after pre-scouring,
otherwise it will change the pH values of dye bath.

Cold wash
After hot wash, the yarn ropes is fed through a cold wash bath to brought back to its room temperature.

Dyeing
The ropes of yarn are then fed into the indigo dye baths and skyed after each dip. As the constant of
substantivty for indigo it is only 2.7, where as for other color, it is 3.0. Hence there is a need of repeated
dipping of 5 to 6 dye baths with multi dip and multi nip facility to increase the penetration.
As indigo belongs to IK class of vat dyes, the dyeing is done on room temperature, and oxidation is done
by air. Sodium hydrosulphide is used to reduce the indigo, as Indigo is not soluble in water. Then caustic
soda is also used to make sodium salt of vat color to make it soluble.

The pH of the indigo dye bath should be maintained between 10.5 to 11.5, as at this level, the dye affinity
is very high. This is because at this pH, sodium salt of indigo is mono phenolic form. pH is maintained by
the addition of caustic soda.

Washing
After the dyeing process, the ropes of yarn are rinsed in several water baths to remove any unfixed dye.
Rubbing fastness of indigo, which is a very important parameter, can be improved through washing. In a
typical indigo dyeing range, there are four wash bath after the dye bath. The typical washing process are
in Fig. 19.







Wash
With
softener
Wash at
room temp.
Wash
at
60
0
C
Wash
at
60
0
C
Fig. 19: Typical washing Process

The softener treatment at the last was box is very important in rope dyeing. The dyed rope is to be
opened at the next operation, Long Chain Beamer. The softener helps easy opening of the rope, hence
less end breakages.

Cationic softener is generally used with 1.2% of the weight of the yarn and pH in the range of 4 to 5.5.
Softening treatment is done at room temperature, as high temperature may cause tendering of yarn.

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Drying and Coiling

After the washing, the ropes are dried by hot cylinder and coiled in can.




Fig. 20: Rope cans
Process Control of indigo rope dyeing

Concentration of Hydrosulphite


Hydrosulphite is measured by vatometer. It should be from 1.5 gpl to 2.5gpl. It can also be measured by
Redox potential of dye bath which should be from -730 mV to -860 mV.

Relatively high conc. of hydrosulphite gives a clear shades with minimum reddish streaks. The indigo dye
stuff in the dye bath should be kept in soluble stage. Indigo dye has a tendency to react with the oxygen
in the air and get oxidized and transferred into their original insoluble stage. Hence an extra quantity of
hydrosulphite is maintained in the dye bath to keep the indigo dyestuff in soluble stage.

With lack of hydrosulphite, the leuco indigo is less dissolved and goes to insoluble stage and thereby
adheres to a greater extent to the fibers. Further lack of hydrosulphite may cause higher unreduced
dyestuff in the liquor. This results unfixed dyestuff onto the yarn. Under these circumstances a reddish
bronze like shade is developed in the yarn.

Caustic Soda or pH value

The pH of the dye bath should be around 10.5 - 11.5, as at this pH range, there will be formation of more
monophenolate ions, which lead to higher color yield and good wash down effect. At higher pH, dye
penetration is less and leads to poor wash down effect.

The pH influence the shades in the following way:

High pH or Caustic Concentration -->Redder and lighter

Low pH or caustic concentration -->greener and darker

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Dye concentration in Dye bath

Dye concentration is an important parameter in indigo dyeing. Generally the concentration of dye
influence the shades as below:


High Indigo Concentration -->Shade is greener and lighter

Low Indigo Concentration -->Shade is dull and Red.


Dipping Time

The dipping time of the ropes in the dye bath plays an important role in indigo dyeing. Dipping time varies
from 15-22 seconds. Longer the dipping time, better will be the penetration. However, too long dipping
time may dissolve the previously oxidized indigo. At very short dipping time, the liquor exchange, i.e. the
amount of chemicals consumed and replaced by fresh addition of reduced indigo, will not be adequate.
This may leads to poor dyeing and depth of dye penetration. However the time available for diffusion of
dyestuff until oxidation commences is too short.

Squeeze Pressure
The squeezing pressure should be optimum. High squeezing pressure may leads to low pick up of color
and better penetration. At rope dyeing, squeeze pressure may be between 5-10 tonnes. Squeeze roller
hardness should be about 70-75 deg. shores.

Airing Time

Airing time is an important consideration in rope dyeing for proper oxidation. The airing time should be 60-
75 seconds. Longer airing time leads to high tension on the yarn, whereas lpw airing time leads to poor
oxidation.

Drying

The dyed and washed rope should be properly dried with proper moister content. Insufficient or uneven,
over or less dried yarns will result in poor opening and high end breakages in re-beaming.

Addition of chemical

In indigo dyeing, the addition of chemicals is as below in order to achieve required depth of shades:

1. Red Tinge: reduce addition of NaOH, increase slightly Na
2
S
2
O
3
2. Darkish Red: increase Hydro
3. Light Greenish: decrease Hydro
4. Dark Green: Increase Caustic


After indigo dyeing and subsequent drying of the ropes, the shade of the dyed yarn is checked either
visually or any colour matching electronic instrument. Some denim indigo dyeing machine is equipped
with online colour matching instrument. It continuously monitor the colour of the yarn. The instrument is
electronically linked to the controls of the indigo dye baths. This system automatically adjusts the shade
of the yarn through addition of required chemicals or dyes if there is any variation observed. Thus the
process ensures consistent color.

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Slasher / sheet dyeing

In continuous slasher / sheet dyeing and sizing machine, direct warping beams are used, instead of ball
warping logs in case of Indigo rope dyeing system. The Slasher Dyeing machine is capable of handling
Ne count form 9/s to 30/s (OE and Slub both). Typical schematic sheet dyeing range is shown in Fig. 21
& 22. At the back end of the slasher / sheet dyeing range, the direct warping beams are creeled. The
yarns sheet from each beam is pulled over and combined with the yarns from the other beams so that
multiple sheets of yarns can be made (Fig. 23).



Fig. 21: Schematic diagram of a typical sheet dyeing range


In sheet dyeing range, the total No of required ends for a weavers beam are dyed, dried, sized and dried
simultaneously. The back direct warping beam contains 380- 420 ends, similar to rope, but the ends are
distributed evenly over the width of the flanges and the end lay parallel to each other.


Fig. 22: Slasher dyeing process (Step 1: Direct warping, Step 2: Slasher dyeing range)


This continuous slasher dyeing range eliminates a few intermediate processes of the rope dyeing, such
as re-beaming, sizing. The yarn sheet from the back beam passes through wash boxes, where it is

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treated with caustic and subsequently washed with normal water. After squeezing the excess water; the
yarn sheet passes through Dye baths and skied for oxidation as in the case of rope dyeing. This develop
the indigo coating on the yarn. After dyeing, the dyed yarn is washed by passing through 3-4 wash boxes
and finally squeezed before allowing it to pass through drying cylinders. The dyed yarn then enters into
the sow box, where it is sized. Subsequently the yarn sheet is dried.

The yarn sheets then passes through a set of stainless steel split rods, which separate them into
individual sheets, equivalent to the number of section beams in the creel. After passing through the split
rods, the yarn sheets are collected into single sheet and passed through a expansion comb at the head
stock, which separate individual yarns. The expansion comb can be adjusted to the desired loom beam
width. The yarn sheet is wound onto a weavers beam (Fig. 24).




Fig. 23: Creeling of direct warping beam in Sheet Dyeing Machine


Slasher dyeing range typically consists of 1-2 wetting vats, 4-8 dye baths and 3-4 rinsing troughs. The
immersion and oxidation times lie between 10-20s or 45-60s.



Fig. 24: Indigo Sheet Dyeing with Sizing Machine

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Advantage and disadvantage of sheet dyeing

Slasher dyeing ranges have a number of advantages over rope dyeing range. Slasher dyeing range
produce sized beam directly which is ready to use in weaving. This reduces two addition process as
required in rope dyeing. Thus reduce the handling of materials.
Sheet Dyeing method has the following advantages over Rope Dyeing Method:

- Slasher dyeing is more comfortable for producing lightweight denims.
- These machines require less floor space,
- Enable smaller production runs,
- Have a quicker turn over time,
- The technology is less capital intensive and the machinery cost is less;
- The cost of production is less
- Other type of dye can be use to dye the cotton in this range. Hence the slasher dyeing technique
can produce a wide variety of colors other than indigo blue.
- Rope opening is avoided, as in the case of rope dyeing.
- The immersion and oxidation times are much shorter than rope dyeing.

Disadvantages are:

- In Sheet dyeing, their is a problem of center to selvedge shade variation.
- The hydrosulphite consumption is much higher owing to the greater surface



Process sequence in Indigo Slasher / Sheet dyeing range

The passage of flow of yarns in slasher dyeing is shown in Fig.25.








Pre-
treat-
ment (1-
2 Tank)
Washi
ng, 1-
Tank
8 Dye
baths

Washi
ng, 2-4
Tank

Drying

Sizing

Drying

Fig. 25: The passage of flow of yarn in slasher dyeing



Pre-treatment (1-2 tank):

Pre-treatment process in sheet dyeing consists of treatment of the cotton yarn sheet with caustic and
wetting agent. Pre-wetting is carried out in order to get proper dyeing of the sheet. Pre-wetting is carried
out with a Wetting agent, at room temperature.

In some cases, if well penetration of the dye is required, the yarns are treated with strong caustic soda
solution followed by hot wash and cold wash treatment prior to dyeing. The pH of the bath is 11.8-12.

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Washing (1tank):

Cold washing is carried out at room temperature

Dyeing (Indigo Blue Dye):

The dyeing is carried out in 4 to 8 dye boxes. The dyeing is carried out with;

Indigo powder
Sodium hydrosulphite
Caustic soda
Dispersing agent

Typical dipping time of sheet in each tank is 15secs and oxidation time is about 90secs.

Washing:
The dyed yarn sheet is subsequently in order to remove the unfix dye from the yarn surface. However the
number of washing tank may varied. Typical wash type is: cold wash at room temperature and hot wash
at temperature of 70C.


Drying
The dyed yarn sheet is dried by passing it through drying hot cylinders.

Accumulator
The function of accumulator is to store the extra yarn sheet when the machine is stopped or at the time of
size beam doffing, so the dyeing cannot be stop.

Sizing
The yarns are sized in order to achieve the required strength.

Drying
The dyed sheet is dried by passing through drying cylinders.


Process sequence for Indigo dye topping and bottoming with Sulphur Dye


The yarn can be dyed with Indigo topping and Sulphur bottoming in order to achieve vast shade range.
The process layout is given in Fig. 26.


Pre- treatment (1-2 tank):
Pre-treatment process includes pre-wetting the rope in a wetting agent at room temperature. Pre-
treatment may also be carried out with caustic soda followed by hot wash and cold wash treatment prior
to dyeing.


Washing (1 tank): Cold wash at room temperature

Dyeing with Sulphur Black Dye) (1 tank):

Dyeing is carried out with:

Sulphur Black powder

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Sodium Sulphite (Na2S2O4)
Soda Ash
Wetting Agent
Temperature : 80C
Dipping time : 10-20secs
Pick up : 70-80%



Fig. 26: Flow Chart for Indigo dyeing and bottoming
with Sulphur Dye

























Washing (24 Tank)
Dyeing(4 5 Tank)
Oxidation (1Tank)
Dyeing with Sulphur Black Dye
(1Tank)
Washing (1 Tank)
PreTreatment(12 WashingTank)
Drying
Sizing
Drying



Oxidation (1 tank)
The oxidation is carried out with:

Formic Acid
H
2
O
2

Water

Dyeing (Indigo Blue Dye):
The dyeing is carried out in 4 to 6 dye box with;

Indigo powder
Sodium hydro sulphite
Caustic soda
Dispersing agent
Water

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Washing (2 4 tanks)
Cold wash at room temperature, hot wash at temperature of 70C


Drying:
The dyed sheet is then dried with hot cylinder.

Accumulator
Typical capacity of the accumulator is 90m, speed of 22m/min, accumulation time 3mins

Sizing
The warp yarns are sized by passing through a sow box.


Drying
The yarn sheet is then dried.


Process sequence for Sulphur Dye topping and bottoming with Indigo dye

The yarn can be dyed with sulphur dye topping and Indigo dye bottoming as per requirement of shades.
In topping with sulphur dye, the yarn is dyed with indigo dye first and then with sulphur dye. The process
layout is given in Fig. 27.


Fig. 27: Flow Chart for Sulphur Dye topping and
bottoming with Indigo dye


























Drying
Sizing
Drying
PreTreatment(12WashingTank)
Washing (1 Tank)
Dyeing with Sulphur Black Dye (1
Tank)
Oxidation(1Tank)
Washing (24 Tank)
Dyeing(4 5 Tank)

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Typical Process of dyeing of sulphur color


1st Wash tank: Caustisizing by taking 22 - 25% NaOH .
2nd Wash Tank: Hot Wash at 70-80C.
3rd Wash Tank: Cold Wash at 30C.

In first and second dye bath contains sulphur colour 7 to 9 % on the weight of yarn sheet, temperature at
90 - 95C. The solution contains the following:
Solubalised sulphur dye
Sodium sulphide (reducing agent)
Sodium hydroxide
Wetting agent .
Antioxidant sulphide to prevent the oxidation of sulphide solution.


In third, fourth and fifth dye bath is cold wash.

The sixth dye bath contains H
2
O
2
(50%) +Acetic acid (2:1 by weight),
H2O2 acts as an oxidizing agent. But it acts on neutral pH (=7). After cold wash, the solution is slightly
alkaline, thus in order to make it neutral add Acetic acid is added.

7th and 8th Dye Bath: Cold Wash

In Wash Box Number 4 washing is carried out with detergent and soda ash at 70 to 80C.

5th and 6th Wash Box: Hot wash at 60 70C.


Back wash Box No.7
th


In this wash box cationic softener 25- 30 g/l is added with pH 4.5 to 6.5. During oxidation of sulphur, the
yarn strength is reduced by 10%.

The sulphur remain on yarn as free sulphur and reacted sulphur.

The free sulphur will react with moisture in the atmosphere to form H
2
SO
4
which tenders the yarn. The
reaction is as below:

H2O +S = H2SO4

Hence a small amount of softener is added as against that in indigo.


References
1. http://www.denimsandjeans.com/denim/manufacturing-process/dyes-used-for-denim-dyeing-a-
description/Reference:
2. www.denimsandjeans.com/.../indigo-rope-dyeing-some-important-technical-considerations/ -
3. http://mytextilenotes.blogspot.com/2008/05/practical-notes-on-rope-dyeing-for.html
4. www.denimclubindia.org/rsrc/artcl/artcl_disp.asp?item_id=2488
5. http://www.scribd.com/doc/30267236/Slasher-Dyeing

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6.http://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http://bp3.blogger.com/_LYBCSrzlw7E/SDKvqbqqbsI/AAAAAAA
ADVo/gEjN3QxWJ 0A/s400/untitled.J PG&imgrefurl=http://mytextilenotes.blogspot.com/2008_05_01_archi
ve.html&usg=__pHFcm2uwXpF8tI3qMTfEJ aVN3kE=&h=244&w=400&sz=25&hl=en&start=18&zoom=1&t
bnid=p48Q-
eLZDzVbmM:&tbnh=76&tbnw=124&prev=/images%3Fq%3Drope%2Bdyeing%26hl%3Den%26gbv%3D2
%26tbs%3Disch:1&itbs=1
7. http://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http://www.denimsandjeans.com/wp-
content/uploads/2010/06/morrisonspectrumindigorange2.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.denimsandjeans.com/
denim/manufacturing-process/indigo-rope-dyeing-operation-duties-inspections-
responsibilities/&usg=__uQRc_MqUOsuTr1eHTJ yq4ldcXpw=&h=379&w=504&sz=91&hl=en&start=15&z
oom=1&tbnid=uSmM0U003yem6M:&tbnh=98&tbnw=130&prev=/images%3Fq%3Drope%2Bdyeing%26hl
%3Den%26gbv%3D2%26tbs%3Disch:1&itbs=1
8. http://www.mccoy-ellison.com/denimprep.htm
9. http://mytextilenotes.blogspot.com/2008/05/process-control-of-rope-dyeing-for.html


Click here to read Part-I

The author is Manager (TQM) at Shri Lakshmi Cotsyn Limited, UPSIDC Industrial Area, Malwan, Dist.
Fatehpur,UP