Table of Contents

About HAL
1. HAL vision
2. HAL mission
3. Accessories division of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
Facilities at HAL Lucknow
HAL Lucknow services
4. HAL divisions
Banglore complex
MiG complex
Accessories complex
Helicopter complex
Introduction to Fuel System
1. Fuel system
2. Induction system
3. Carburetor system
Floot-type carburetor
Mixture control
Carburetor icing
Carburetor heat
Carburetor air temperature gauge
Outside air temperature gauge
4. Fuel injection systems
5. Ignition system
6. Combustion
Normal combustion and Explosive combustion
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7. Types of fuel system
Fuel feed system
Fuel pump system
Fuel system components
8. Fuel pumps
Fuel plunger primer
Auxiliary fuel pumps
Hand pumps
Engine driven fuel pumps
9. Fuel tanks
10. Fuel gauges
11. Fuel selectors
12. Fuel selector valves
13. Fuel strainers, sumps and drains
14. Fuel Strainers
15. Fuel cells
Bladder-Type fuel cells
Integral fuel cells
16. Fuel lines and fittings
17. Valves
18. Fuel system indicators
Fuel quantity gauges
Fuel flow meter
Fuel pressure gauge
Pressure warning signal
Valve in transit indicator light
Fuel temperature indicator
19. Turbine engine fuels
Volatility
Identification
20. Fuel system contamination
Water
Foreign particles
Contamination with other types or grade of fuel
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Microbial Growth
Sediment
Course sediment
Fine sediment
21. Contamination detection
22. Contamination control
23. Multiengine fuel system
24. Cross feed system
25. Main fold system
26. Fuel jet system
27. Trouble shooting the fuel system
28. Location of leaks and defects
29. Replacement of Gasket, Seals and Packings
30. Fuel tank repairs
Welded steel tanks
Fuel cells
Integral Fuel tanks
31. Fuel leak classification
32. Leak repairs
33. Fair safety






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ABOUT HAL

HAL Vision
To become a significant global player in the aerospace industry.
HAL Mission
To achieve self reliance in design, development, manufacture, upgrade and
maintenance of aerospace equipment diversifying into related areas and managing
the business in a climate of growing professional competence to achieve world
class performance standards for global competitiveness and growth in exports.

Accessories Division of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited.
Accessories Division of HAL was established in 1970 with the primary objective
of manufacturing systems and accessories for various aircraft and engines and
attain self sufficiency in this area. Its facilities are spread over 116,000 sqm of built
area set in sylvan surroundings. At present it is turning out over 1300 different
types of accessories. The Division started with manufacturing various Systems and
Accessories viz, Hydraulics, Engine Fuel System, Air-conditioning and
Pressurization, Flight Control, Wheel and Brake, Gyro & Barometric Instruments,
Electrical and Power Generation & Control System, Undercarriages, Oxygen
System and Electronic System all under one roof to meet the requirements of the
aircraft, helicopters and engines being produced by HAL like MiG series of
aircrafts, Dornier, Jaguar, Advanced Light Helicopters(ALH), PTA, Cheetal & Su-
30 and repair / Overhaul of Avro, AN-32, HPT-32, Mirage-2000 & Sea-Harrier
aircrafts, Cheetah and Chetak helicopters.
The Division undertakes manufacturing and servicing of accessories under
Transfer of Technology (ToT) from more than 40 licensor from different countries.
In addition, a lot of emphasis has been given on developing indigenous capability
for Design and Development of various systems and accessories. This capability
has culminated in indigenous design and development of over 350 types of
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accessories for the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) (Air force and Navy version),
Advanced Light Helicopter (all versions i.e. Army, Air force, Navy & Civil),
SARAS and IJT (Intermediate Jet Trainer). The Division has also developed and
has made successful strides into the area of Microprocessor based control systems
for the LCA Engine as well as other systems.
The Division has been in the forefront of accessories development and supply not
only to Indian Force but to Army, Navy, Coast Guard and various Defense
Laboratories as well as for Space applications.
The Division is networked with all sister Divisions and R& D Centers by
LAN/WAN. Lean manufacturing and ERP have been implemented to create an
efficient manufacturing system.
The Division today has a prime name in the Aviation market and various
international companies are interested to join hands with it for future projects.
The Division has also made steady progress in the area of Export.
Facilities at HAL Lucknow
Process
Heat Treatment facilities for all types of steels, Aluminium alloys, Copper,
Nickel & Titanium alloys.
Protective Treatment
Treatment facilities of all types like Plating, Publishing etc, SPECIAL types
of Surface protection & Painting facility, i.e. RILSAN Coating PTFE Coating,
MOLY DAG Coating, Sursulf and Oxynit. Zinc metalizing and Bronze metalizing
by Spark Process
Welding
Electro Beam, Argon arc, Spot & Seam welding equipment to facilitate
intricate welding on thin metal bellows, capsules, stator Packs, Brushes etc.
Diffusion Welding of Dissimilar materials and Micro Plasma welding
Our welders are approved & certified by Civil Aviation Authority
Rubber, Plastic, Foundry
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These facilities are in - house to cater for the needs of various production /
servicing requirements.
Manufacturing
Machining of components ranging from 0.29 to 450 mm dia with accuracy
up to one micron.
Assembly and Test
8000 sq.mtrs of Clean/Air-conditioned room (class 10,000 with laminar flow
cabinets) where assembly & test activities for instruments, Hydraulics and Fuel
factories take place.
Dedicated Test Equipment and rigs, Full Environmental testing facilities,
Balancing Machines and Hot and Cold Chambers attached to Assembly Shops to
meet the aeronautical acceptance standards
Environmental Laboratory
Facilities for all types of Environmental testing as per requirements of BS,
MIL & JSS, available to meet regular requirements of type testing of all types of
units designed/developed in the in-house R &D centre.
In addition the Lab also caters for the need of special type of testing for
Wheels, Hydraulic item etc. in dedicated test rigs/beds.
Design Computer Centre with Unigraphic, Computer Aided Design &
Analytical Software Packages.
Other Special Technologies
Bronze Layer Deposition by Electric Spark Method
Checking of Leakage in Glycerin
Titanium Nitrating
Corrugation Forming Technology
Vibro Strengthening
Carbon Lining on High Rubbing Parts
Rilson Nylon Coating Process
Polyamide Varnish Impregnation
HAL Lucknow Services
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Repairs, Major Servicing And Supply Of Spares
The Division carries out Repair and Overhaul of Accessories, with minimum turn-
around-time. Site Repair facilities are offered by the Division by deputing team of
expert Engineers / Technicians.
Services provided for:
Military Aircraft
MiG Series
Jaguar
Mirage-2000
Sea - Harrier
AN-32
Kiran MK- I / MK- II
HPT - 32
SU-30 MKI
Civil Aircraft
Dornier-22B
AVRO HS-748
Helicopters
Chetak (Alouette)
Cheetah (Lama)
ALH (IAF / NAVY / COAST GUARD / CIVIL)
Sub-contract Capabilities
The Division has comprehensive manufacturing capabilities for
various Hi-tech components, Equipment and Systems to customer's specifications
and ensures high quality, reliability and cost effectiveness.

The Division has over 40 years of experience in producing
aeronautical accessories making it an ideal partner for the International Aero
Engineering Industry.
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The Division also manufactures and supplies complete range of components of
Cheetah (Lama) & Chetak (Alouette) Helicopters, Jaguar and MiG series Aircraft
to Domestic and International Customers to support their fleet.

HAL Divisions
BANGALORE COMPLEX
Aircraft Division Bangalore
Engine Division Bangalore
Overhaul Division Bangalore
Foundry & Forge Division Bangalore
Aerospace Division Bangalore
IMGT Division Bangalore
Airport Services Centre Bangalore
Facilities Management Division Bangalore
MiG COMPLEX
Aircraft Division Nasik
Aircraft Overhaul Division Nasik
Engine Division Koraput
Sukhoi Engine Division Koraput
ACCESSORIES COMPLEX
TAD-Kanpur Division
Accessories Division Lucknow
Avionics Division Hyderabad
Avionics Division Korwa
HELICOPTER COMPLEX
Helicopter Division Bangalore
Helicopter MRO Division Bangalore
Barrackpore Division
CMD Division Bangalore
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Introduction to Fuel System


Fuel Syst em
Most modern aircraft are equipped with 2 or more fuel tanks (or cells). In high
wing aircraft, the cells are housed in the wings. Since they are higher than the
engine, the fuel flows down to the engine by the force of gravity. On low wing
aircraft fuel pumps are required. To initially get fuel to the engine for starting, an
electrical boost pump is turned on to pump fuel to the engine. After the engine is
started, a mechanical fuel pump driven by the engine feeds fuel to the engine. The
electric boost pump can now be turned off.
Each fuel tank is equipped with a drain valve located at the lowest point in the
tank. This drain allows the pilot during preflight walk-around to check for and
drain off any water which may have accumulated in the fuel tank. There is usually
another drain located at the lowest part of the fuel piping system. This valve must
also be drained during pre-flight to eliminate any water which may have
accumulated in the fuel lines. Associated with this drain is a fuel strainer which
filters out foreign matter which may be in the fuel system. A vent line allows air to
enter the tank as fuel is used. During hot weather, fuel may expand and overflow
through the vent when tanks are full.
A fuel selector valve located inside the cockpit allows the pilot to select which
tank(s) are to be in use during flight. Most small aircraft operate with the selector
set on both, such that both the left and right fuel tanks are simultaneous feeding
fuel to the engine. The pilot may set the selector on left or right tank as a means of
equalizing the loading of the aircraft. Usually, the selector should be set to both for
take-off and landing. Pilots of low wing aircraft should exercise caution in their
fuel management if tank selection is other than both. Running a tank dry can cause
the engine to quit and vapor lock to occur in the fuel lines. It may be impossible to
restart the engine under these conditions.

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There is a fuel gauge in the cockpit for each fuel tank. The lower 1/4 of the fuel
gauge indication is marked with a red line as a caution to the pilot of a low fuel
condition. The pilot should never rely on the fuel gauge as the sole measure of fuel
remaining. The gauges on aircraft are subject to a variety of indicator errors. The
pilot should therefore double check the fuel remaining based on the power setting
of the engine in flight and time in flight.
Inside the cockpit a fuel mixture control and a fuel primer pump are located on the
instrument panel. The mixture control is used to adjust the air/fuel mixture for the
altitude being flown. It allows the pilot to adjust the fuel/air ratio entering the
engine. As altitude is gained, the intake air becomes less dense. Less fuel must be
fed through the carburetor to permit the fuel/air mixture to remain correct
proportion. If leaning is not accomplished by the pilot, a rich mixture (too much
fuel) results. This is not only wasteful of fuel, but can result in fouled spark plugs
due to carbon and soot buildup on the spark plugs. A rough running engine results.
An additional gauge called an Exhaust Gas Temperature Gauge can be installed in
the aircraft as an aid in achieving the proper leaning of the engine. The fuel
primer is a plunger that can be used in cold weather to inject fuel directly into the
carburetor as an assist in starting the engine in cold conditions.
Three different grades of fuel are used in reciprocating engine aircraft. These
grades are designated by octane rating and are color coded so the pilot can insure
the proper grade of fuel is being pumped into the tanks.
These grades are:
OCTANE RATING..........FUEL COLOUR
..... 80/87........ ..... ..... .........Red
.......100LL (low lead). ..... .......Blue
...... 100/130.... ..... ...............Green
When refueling, if the appropriate grade of fuel is not available, USE THE NEXT
HIGHER GRADE. Using a lower grade can cause overheating and damage to the
engine. Sparks during refueling can be an extreme fire hazard. The following
precautions should be taken when refueling is in progress.
1. Attach a ground wire between the fuel pump and truck to a metal part of the
aircraft. This will neutralize any static charge which may exist between the pump
and the aircraft.
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2. The fuel nozzle should be grounded to the side of the fuel filler hole during
refueling.
3. The fuel truck should be grounded to both the aircraft and the ground.
Do not use automotive fuel unless the engine has been specially modified for
automotive fuel use.
1. The functions of the fuel system are to provide the engine with fuel in a form
suitable for combustion and to control the flow to the required quantity necessary
for easy starting, acceleration and stable running, at all engine operating
conditions. To do this, one or more fuel pumps are used to deliver the fuel to the
fuel spray nozzles, which inject it into the combustion system in the form of
an atomized spray. Because the flow rate must vary according to the amount of air
passing through the engine to maintain a constant selected engine speed or pressure
ratio, the controlling devices are fully automatic with the exception of engine
power selection, which is achieved by a manual throttle power lever. A fuel shut-
off valve (cock) control lever is also used to stop the engine, although in
some instances these two manual controls are combined for single-lever operation.
2. It is also necessary to have automatic safety controls that prevent the engine
gas temperature, compressor delivery pressure, and the rotating assembly speed,
from exceeding their maximum limitations.
3. With the turbo-propeller engine, changes in propeller speed and pitch have
to be taken into account due to their effect on the power output of the engine. Thus,
it is usual to interconnect the throttle lever and propeller controller unit, for by so
doing the correct relationship between fuel flow and airflow is maintained at all
engine speeds and the pilot is given single-lever control of the engine. Although
the maximum speed of the engine is normally determined by the propeller speed
controller, over-speeding is ultimately prevented by a governor in the
fuel system.
4. The fuel system often provides for ancillary functions, such as oil cooling
and the hydraulic control of various engine control systems; for example,
compressor airflow control.
5. The control of power or thrust of the gas turbine engine is affected by
regulating the quantity of fuel injected into the combustion system. When a
higher thrust is required, the throttle is opened and the pressure to the fuel spray
nozzles increases due to the greater fuel flow. This has the effect of increasing the
gas temperature, which in turn increases the acceleration of the gases through the
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turbine to give a higher engine speed and a correspondingly greater airflow,
consequently producing an increase in engine thrust.
6. This relationship between the airflow induced through the engine and the fuel
supplied is, however, complicated by changes in altitude, air temperature and
aircraft speed. These variables change the density of the air at the engine intake
and consequently the mass of air induced through the engine. A typical change of
airflow with altitude is shown in fig.

To meet this change in airflow a similar change in fuel flow (as shown in fig.)
must occur, otherwise the ratio of airflow to fuel flow will change and
will increase or decrease the engine speed from that originally selected by the
throttle lever position.


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Induction Systems
The induction system brings in air from the outside, mixes it with fuel, and delivers
the fuel/air mixture to the cylinder where combustion occurs. Outside air enters the
induction system through an intake port on the front of the engine cowling. This
port normally contains an air filter that inhibits the entry of dust and other foreign
objects. Since the filter may occasionally become clogged, an alternate source of
air must be available.
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Usually, the alternate air comes from inside the engine cowling, where it bypasses
a clogged air filter. Some alternate air sources function automatically, while others
operate manually.
Two types of induction systems are commonly used in small airplane engines:
1. The carburetor system, which mixes the fuel and air in the carburetor
before this mixture enters the intake manifold, and
2. The fuel injection system, which mixes the fuel and air just before entry
into each cylinder.


Carburetor systems
The carburetor system uses one of two types of carburetor: (1) the float-type
carburetor, which is generally installed in airplanes equipped with small
horsepower engines, and (2) the pressure type, used in higher horsepower engines.
In the operation of the carburetor system, the outside air first flows through an air
filter, usually located at an air intake in the front part of the engine cowling. This
filtered air flows into the carburetor and through a venturi, a narrow throat in the
carburetor. When the air flows through the venturi, a low pressure area is created,
which forces the fuel to flow through a main fuel jet located at the throat and into
the airstream where it is mixed with the flowing air.
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The fuel/air mixture is then drawn through the intake manifold and into the
combustion chambers where it is ignited. The float-type carburetor acquires its
name from a float which rests on fuel within the float chamber. A needle attached
to the float opens and closes an opening in the fuel line. This meters the correct
amount of fuel into the carburetor, depending upon the position of the float, which
is controlled by the level of fuel in the float chamber. When the level of the fuel
forces the float to rise, the needle closes the fuel opening and shuts off the fuel
flow to the carburetor. It opens when the engine requires additional fuel.
Carburetors are classified as either float-type or pressure-type. Pressure carburetors
are usually not found on small airplanes. The basic difference between a pressure
carburetor and a float-type is the pressure carburetor delivers fuel under pressure
by a fuel pump.
In the operation of the float-type carburetor system, the outside air first flows
through an air filter, usually located at an air intake in the front part of the engine
cowling. This filtered air flows into the carburetor and through a venturi, a narrow
throat in the carburetor.
When the air flows through the venturi, a low-pressure area is created, which
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forces the fuel to flow through a main fuel jet located at the throat. The fuel then
flows into the airstream, where it is mixed with the flowing air.



Float-type Carburetor
The fuel/air mixture is then drawn through the intake manifold and into the
combustion chambers, where it is ignited. The float-type carburetor acquires its
name from a float, which rests on fuel within the float chamber. A needle attached
to the float opens and closes an opening at the bottom of the carburetor bowl.
This meters the correct amount of fuel into the carburetor, depending upon the
position of the float, which is controlled by the level of fuel in the float chamber.
When the level of the fuel forces the float to rise, the needle valve closes the fuel
opening and shuts off the fuel flow to the carburetor. The needle valve opens again
when the engine requires additional fuel.
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The flow of the fuel/air mixture to the combustion chambers is regulated by the
throttle valve, which is controlled by the throttle in the cockpit.
Mixture control
Carburetors are normally calibrated at sea-level pressure, where the correct fuel-to-
air mixture ratio is established with the mixture control set in the FULL RICH
position. However, as altitude increases, the density of air entering the carburetor
decreases, while the density of the fuel remains the same. This creates a
progressively richer mixture, which can result in engine roughness and an
appreciable loss of power. The roughness normally is due to spark plug fouling
from excessive carbon buildup on the plugs. Carbon buildup occurs because the
excessively rich mixture lowers the temperature inside the cylinder, inhibiting
complete combustion of the fuel. This condition may occur during the pre takeoff
run up at high-elevation airports and during climbs or cruise flight at high altitudes.
To maintain the correct fuel/air mixture, you must lean the mixture using the
mixture control. Leaning the mixture decreases fuel flow, which compensates for
the decreased air density at high altitude.
During a descent from high altitude, the opposite is true. The mixture must be
enriched, or it may become too lean. An overly lean mixture causes detonation,
which may result in rough engine operation, overheating, and a loss of power. The
best way to maintain the proper mixture is to monitor the engine temperature and
enrich the mixture as needed.
Proper mixture control and better fuel economy for fuel-injected engines can be
achieved by use of an exhaust gas temperature gauge. Since the process of
adjusting the mixture can vary from one airplane to another, it is important to refer
to the Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) or the Pilots Operating Handbook (POH) to
determine the specific procedures for a given airplane.
Carburetor Icing
One disadvantage of the float-type carburetor is its icing tendency. Carburetor ice
occurs due to the effect of fuel vaporization and the decrease in air pressure in the
venturi, which causes a sharp temperature drop in the carburetor. If water vapor in
the air condenses when the carburetor temperature is at or below freezing, ice may
form on internal surfaces of the carburetor, including the throttle valve.
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The formation of carburetor ice may reduce or block fuel/air flow to the engine.
The reduced air pressure, as well as the vaporization of fuel, contributes to the
temperature decrease in the carburetor. Ice generally forms in the vicinity of the
throttle valve and in the venturi throat. This restricts the flow of the fuel/air
mixture and reduces power. If enough ice builds up, the engine may cease to
operate.
Carburetor ice is most likely to occur when temperatures are below 70F (21C)
and the relative humidity is above 80 percent. However, due to the sudden cooling
that takes place in the carburetor, icing can occur even with temperatures as high
as 100F (38C) and humidity as low as 50 percent. This temperature drop can be
as much as 60 to 70F.Therefore, at an outside air temperature of 100F, a
temperature drop of 70F results in an air temperature in the carburetor of 30F.
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Although carburetor ice is most likely to form when the temperature and humidity
are in ranges indicated by this chart, carburetor ice is possible under conditions not
depicted.

The first indication of carburetor icing in an airplane with a fixed-pitch propeller is
a decrease in engine r.p.m., which may be followed by engine roughness. In an
airplane with a constant-speed propeller, carburetor icing usually is indicated by a
decrease in manifold pressure, but no reduction in r.p.m. Propeller pitch is
automatically adjusted to compensate for loss of power. Thus, a constant r.p.m. is
maintained. Although carburetor ice can occur during any phase of flight, it is
particularly dangerous when using reduced power during a descent. Under certain
conditions, carburetor ice could build unnoticed until you try to add power. To
combat the effects of carburetor ice, engines with float-type carburetors employ a
carburetor heat system.

Carburetor Heat
Carburetor heat is an anti-icing system that preheats the air before it reaches the
carburetor. Carburetor heat is intended to keep the fuel/air mixture above the
freezing temperature to prevent the formation of carburetor ice. Carburetor heat
can be used to melt ice that has already formed in the carburetor provided that the
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accumulation is not too great. The emphasis, however, is on using carburetor heat
as a preventative measure.
The carburetor heat should be checked during the engine run up. When using
carburetor heat, follow the manufacturers recommendations.
When conditions are conducive to carburetor icing during flight, periodic checks
should be made to detect its presence. If detected, full carburetor heat should be
applied immediately, and it should be left in the ON position until you are certain
that all the ice has been removed. If ice is present, applying partial heat or leaving
heat on for an insufficient time might aggravate the situation. In extreme cases of
carburetor icing, even after the ice has been removed, full carburetor heat should
be used to prevent further ice formation. A carburetor temperature gauge, if
installed, is very useful in determining when to use carburetor heat.
Whenever the throttle is closed during flight, the engine cools rapidly and
vaporization of the fuel is less complete than if the engine is warm. Also, in this
condition, the engine is more susceptible to carburetor icing. Therefore, if you
suspect carburetor icing conditions and anticipate closed-throttle operation, adjust
the carburetor heat to the full ON position before closing the throttle, and leave it
on during the closed-throttle operation. The heat will aid in vaporizing the fuel,
and help prevent the formation of carburetor ice. Periodically, open the throttle
smoothly for a few seconds to keep the engine warm, otherwise the carburetor
heater may not provide enough heat to prevent icing.
The use of carburetor heat causes a decrease in engine power, sometimes up to 15
percent, because the heated air is less dense than the outside air that had been
entering the engine. This enriches the mixture. When ice is present in an airplane
with a fixed-pitch propeller and carburetor heat is being used, there is a decrease in
r.p.m., followed by a gradual increase in r.p.m. as the ice melts. The engine also
should run more smoothly after the ice has been removed. If ice is not present, the
r.p.m. will decrease, and then remain constant. When carburetor heat is used on an
airplane with a constant-speed propeller, and ice is present, a decrease in the
manifold pressure will be noticed, followed by a gradual increase. If carburetor
icing is not present, the gradual increase in manifold pressure will not be apparent
until the carburetor heat is turned off.
It is imperative that a pilot recognizes carburetor ice when it forms during flight. In
addition, a loss of power, altitude, and/or airspeed will occur. These symptoms
may sometimes be accompanied by vibration or engine roughness. Once a power
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loss is noticed, immediate action should be taken to eliminate ice already formed in
the carburetor, and to prevent further ice formation. This is accomplished by
applying full carburetor heat, which will cause a further reduction in power, and
possibly engine roughness as melted ice goes through the engine. These symptoms
may last from 30 seconds to several minutes, depending on the severity of the
icing. During this period, the pilot must resist the temptation to decrease the
carburetor heat usage. Carburetor heat must remain in the full-hot position until
normal power returns.
Since the use of carburetor heat tends to reduce the output of the engine and also to
increase the operating temperature, carburetor heat should not be used when full
power is required (as during takeoff) or during normal engine operation, except to
check for the presence or to remove carburetor ice.
Carburetor Air Temperature Gauge
Some airplanes are equipped with a carburetor air temperature gauge, which is
useful in detecting potential icing conditions. Usually, the face of the gauge is
calibrated in degrees Celsius (C), with a yellow arc indicating the carburetor air
temperatures where icing may occur. This yellow arc typically ranges between -
15C and +5C (5F and 41F). If the air temperature and moisture content of the
air are such that carburetor icing is improbable, the engine can be operated with the
indicator in the yellow range with no adverse effects. However, if the atmospheric
conditions are conducive to carburetor icing, the indicator must be kept outside the
yellow arc by application of carburetor heat.
Certain carburetor air temperature gauges have a red radial, which indicates the
maximum permissible carburetor inlet air temperature recommended by the engine
manufacturer; also, a green arc may be included to indicate the normal operating
range.
Outside Air Temperature Gauge
Most airplanes also are equipped with an outside air temperature (OAT) gauge
calibrated in both degrees Celsius and Fahrenheit. It provides the outside or
ambient air temperature for calculating true airspeed, and also is useful in detecting
potential icing conditions.


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Fuel Injection Systems
In a fuel injection system, the fuel is injected either directly into the cylinders, or
just ahead of the intake valve. A fuel injection system is considered to be less
susceptible to icing than the carburetor system. Impact icing on the air intake,
however, is a possibility in either system. Impact icing occurs when ice forms on
the exterior of the airplane, and blocks openings such as the air intake for the
injection system.
The air intake for the fuel injection system is similar to that used in the carburetor
system, with an alternate air source located within the engine cowling. This source
is used if the external air source is obstructed. The alternate air source is usually
operated automatically, with a backup manual system that can be used if the
automatic feature malfunctions.
A fuel injection system usually incorporates these basic componentsan engine-
driven fuel pump, a fuel/air control unit, fuel manifold (fuel distributor), discharge
nozzles, an auxiliary fuel pump, and fuel pressure/flow indicators.



Page | 23

The auxiliary fuel pump provides fuel under pressure to the fuel/air control unit for
engine starting and/or emergency use. After starting, the engine-driven fuel pump
provides fuel under pressure from the fuel tank to the fuel/air control unit. This
control unit, which essentially replaces the carburetor, meters fuel based on the
mixture control setting, and sends it to the fuel manifold valve at a rate controlled
by the throttle. After reaching the fuel manifold valve, the fuel is distributed to the
individual fuel discharge nozzles. The discharge nozzles, which are located in each
cylinder head, inject the fuel/air mixture directly into each cylinder intake port.
Some of the advantages of fuel injection are:
Reduction in evaporative icing.
Better fuel flow.
Faster throttle response.
Precise control of mixture.
Better fuel distribution.
Easier cold weather starts.
Disadvantages usually include:
Difficulty in starting a hot engine.
Vapor locks during ground operations on hot days.
Problems associated with restarting an engine that quits because of fuel
starvation.

Ignition System
The ignition system provides the spark that ignites the fuel/air mixture in the
cylinders and is made up of magnetos, spark plugs, high-tension leads, and the
ignition switch.
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A magneto uses a permanent magnet to generate an electrical current completely
independent of the aircrafts electrical system. The magneto generates sufficiently
high voltage to jump a spark across the spark plug gap in each cylinder. The
system begins to fire when you engage the starter and the crankshaft begins to turn.
It continues to operate whenever the crankshaft is rotating.
Most standard certificated airplanes incorporate a dual ignition system with two
individual magnetos, separate sets of wires, and spark plugs to increase reliability
of the ignition system. Each magneto operates independently to fire one of the two
spark plugs in each cylinder. The firing of two spark plugs improves combustion of
the fuel/air mixture and results in a slightly higher power output. If one of the
magnetos fails, the other is unaffected. The engine will continue to operate
normally, although you can expect a slight decrease in engine power. The same is
true if one of the two spark plugs in a cylinder fails.
The operation of the magneto is controlled in the cockpit by the ignition switch.
The switch has five positions:
1. OFF
2. RRight
3. LLeft
4. BOTH
5. START
With RIGHT or LEFT selected, only the associated magneto is activated. The
system operates on both magnetos with BOTH selected.
Page | 25

You can identify a malfunctioning ignition system during the pre takeoff check by
observing the decrease in r.p.m. that occurs when you first move the ignition
switch from BOTH to RIGHT, and then from BOTH to LEFT. A small decrease in
engine r.p.m. is normal during this check. The permissible decrease is listed in the
AFM or POH. If the engine stops running when you switch to one magneto or if
the r.p.m. drop exceeds the allowable limit, do not fly the airplane until the
problem is corrected. The cause could be fouled plugs, broken or shorted wires
between the magneto and the plugs, or improperly timed firing of the plugs. It
should be noted that no drop in r.p.m. is not normal, and in that instance, the
airplane should not be flown.


Following engine shutdown, turn the ignition switch to the OFF position. Even
with the battery and master switches OFF, the engine can fire and turn over if you
leave the ignition switch ON and the propeller is moved because the magneto
requires no outside source of electrical power. The potential for serious injury in
this situation is obvious.
Loose or broken wires in the ignition system also can cause problems. For
example, if the ignition switch is OFF, the magneto may continue to fire if the
ignition switch ground wire is disconnected. If this occurs, the only way to stop the
engine is to move the mixture lever to the idle cutoff position, then have the system
checked by a qualified aviation maintenance technician.
Combustion
During normal combustion, the fuel/air mixture burns in a very controlled and
predictable manner. Although the process occurs in a fraction of a second, the
mixture actually begins to burn at the point where it is ignited by the spark plugs,
then burns away from the plugs until it is all consumed. This type of combustion
causes a smooth buildup of temperature and pressure and ensures that the
expanding gases deliver the maximum force to the piston at exactly the right time
in the power stroke.

Page | 26


Normal combustion and Explosive combustion
Detonation is an uncontrolled, explosive ignition of the fuel/air mixture within the
cylinders combustion chamber. It causes excessive temperatures and pressures
which, if not corrected, can quickly lead to failure of the piston, cylinder, or
valves. In less severe cases, detonation causes engine overheating, roughness, or
loss of power.Detonation is characterized by high cylinder head temperatures, and
is most likely to occur when operating at high power settings. Some common
operational causes of detonation include:
Using a lower fuel grade than that specified by the aircraft manufacturer.
Operating with extremely high manifold pressures in conjunction with low
r.p.m.
Operating the engine at high power settings with an excessively lean
mixture.
Detonation also can be caused by extended ground operations, or steep
climbs where cylinder cooling is reduced.
Detonation may be avoided by following these basic guidelines during the various
phases of ground and flight operations:
Make sure the proper grade of fuel is being used.
While on the ground, keep the cowl flaps (if available) in the full-open
position to provide the maximum airflow through the cowling.
Page | 27

During takeoff and initial climb, the onset of detonation can be reduced by
using an enriched fuel mixture, as well as using a shallower climb angle to increase
cylinder cooling.
Avoid extended, high power, steep climbs.
Develop a habit of monitoring the engine instruments to verify proper
operation according to procedures established by the manufacturer.
Pre ignition occurs when the fuel/air mixture ignites prior to the engines normal
ignition event. Premature burning is usually caused by a residual hot spot in the
combustion chamber, often created by a small carbon deposit on a spark plug, a
cracked spark plug insulator, or other damage in the cylinder that causes a part to
heat sufficiently to ignite the fuel/air charge. Pre ignition causes the engine to lose
power, and produces high operating temperature. As with detonation, pre ignition
may also cause severe engine damage, because the expanding gases exert
excessive pressure on the piston while still on its compression stroke.
Detonation and pre ignition often occur simultaneously and one may cause the
other. Since either condition causes high engine temperature accompanied by a
decrease in engine performance, it is often difficult to distinguish between the two.
Using the recommended grade of fuel and operating the engine within its proper
temperature, pressure, and r.p.m. ranges reduce the chance of detonation or pre
ignition.

Types Of Fuel System
Fuel System can be classified into two broad categories:-
1. Fuel Feed System: - The gravity-feed system utilizes the force of gravity to
transfer the fuel from the tanks to the engine for example, on high-wing
airplanes where the fuel tanks are installed in the wings. This places the fuel
tanks above the carburetor, and the fuel is gravity fed through the system and
into the carburetor. If the design of the airplane is such that gravity cannot be
used to transfer fuel, fuel pumps are installed for example, on low-wing
airplanes where the fuel tanks in the wings are located below the carburetor.
2. Fuel Pump System:-Airplanes with fuel pump systems have two fuel pumps.
The main pump system is engine driven, and an electrically driven auxiliary
pump is provided for use in engine starting and in the event the engine pump
fails. The auxiliary pump, also known as a boost pump, provides added
Page | 28

reliability to the fuel system. The electrically driven auxiliary pump is controlled
by a switch in the cockpit.


3. Fuel System Components:- The basic components of a fuel system include
tanks, lines, valves, pumps, filtering units, gauges, warning signal, and primer.
Some systems will include central refueling provisions, fuel dump valves, and
a means for transferring fuel.




Page | 29

Fuel Pumps

The main pump system is engine-driven and sometimes an electrically-driven
auxiliary pump is provided for use in engine starting and in the event the engine
pump fails. The auxiliary pump, also known as a boost pump, provides added
reliability to the fuel system. The electrically-driven auxiliary pump is controlled
by a switch in the cockpit.
A diaphragm pump is the primary pump in the fuel system for two-stroke engines.
Air pulses in the crankcase actuate a diaphragm and provide fuel under pressure to
the carburetor. Four-stroke engines have a mechanical pump driven directly off the
engine.

Page | 30

Fuel Plunger Primer
The fuel plunger primer is used to draw fuel from the tanks to supply it directly
into the cylinders prior to starting the engine. This is particularly helpful during
cold weather when engines are hard to start because there is not enough heat
available to vaporize the fuel in the carburetor. For some powered parachutes, it is
the only way to deliver fuel to the engine when first starting. After the engine starts
and is running the fuel pump pushes fuel to the carburetors and begins normal fuel
delivery. To avoid over priming, read the priming instructions in your POH for
your powered parachute.
Auxiliary Fuel Pumps
The electrically driven centrifugal booster pump, shown in figure, supplies fuel
under pressure to the inlet of the engine driven fuel pump. This type of pump is an
essential part of the fuel system, particularly at high altitudes, to keep the pressure
on the suction side of the engine driven pump from becoming low enough to
permit the fuel to boil. This booster pump is also used to transfer fuel from one
tank to another, to supply fuel under pressure for priming when starting the engine,
and, as an emergency unit, to supply fuel to the carburetor in case the engine
driven pump fails. To increase the capacity of the pump under emergency
conditions, many pumps are equipped with a two speeds or variable speed control
so that the recommended fuel inlet pressure to the carburetor can be maintained.
As a precautionary measure, the booster pump is always turned on during takeoffs
and landings to ensure a positive supply of fuel.
Page | 31


The booster pump is mounted at the tank outlet within a detachable sump or is
submerged in fuel at the bottom of the fuel tank. The seals between the impeller
and the power section of the pump prevent leakage of fuel or fumes into the motor.
If any liquid or vapor should leak past the seal, it is vented overboard through a
drain. As an added precaution in non submerged-type pumps, air is allowed to
circulate around the motor to remove dangerous fuel vapor.
As fuel enters the pump from the tank, a high speed impeller throws the fuel
outward in all directions at high velocity. The high rotational speed swirls the fuel
and produces a centrifuge action that separates air and vapor from the fuel before it
enters the fuel line to the carburetor. This results in practically vapor free fuel
delivery to the carburetor and permits the separated vapors to rise through the fuel
tank and escape through the tank vents. Since a centrifugal-type pump is not a
positive displacement pump, no relief valve is necessary.
Although the centrifugal type is the most common type of booster pump, there are
still a few sliding vane-type booster pumps in service. This type, too, is driven by
an electric motor. Unlike the centrifugal type, it does not have the advantage of the
Page | 32

centrifuge action to separate the vapor from the fuel. Since it is a positive
displacement type pump, it must have a relief valve to prevent excessive pressure.
Its construction and operation are identical to the engine driven pump.
Hand Pump
The hand, or wobble, pump is frequently used on light aircraft. It is generally
located near other fuel system components and operated from the cockpit by
suitable controls. A diagram of a wobble pump is shown in figure. When the
handle attached to the central blade is operated, the low pressure created on the
chamber below the upward moving blade, permits the incoming fuel pressure to
lift the lower flapper and allows fuel to flow into this chamber. At the same time
fuel flows through a drilled passageway to fill the chamber above the downward
moving blade. As the blade moves downward, the lower flapper closes, preventing
fuel from escaping back into the inlet line. The fuel below the downward moving
blade flows through a passageway into another chamber and is discharged through
an outlet flapper valve to the carburetor. The cycle is repeated each time the handle
is moved in either direction.

Page | 33


Engine Driven Fuel Pump
The purpose of the engine driven fuel pump is to deliver a continuous supply of
fuel at the proper pressure at all times during engine operation. The pump widely
used at the present time is the positive displacement, rotary vane-type pump.
A schematic diagram of a typical engine driven pump (vane-type) is shown in
figure. Regardless of variations in design, the operating principle of all vane-type
fuel pumps is the same.

The engine driven pump is usually mounted on the accessory section of the engine.
The rotor, with its sliding vanes, is driven by the crankshaft through the accessory
gearing. Note how the vanes carry fuel from the inlet to the outlet as the rotor turns
in the direction indicated. A seal prevents leakage at the point where the drive shaft
Page | 34

enters the pump body, and a drain carries away any fuel that leaks past the seal.
Since the fuel provides enough lubrication for the pump, no special lubrication is
necessary.
Since the engine driven fuel pump normally discharges more fuel than the engine
requires, there must be some way of relieving excess fuel to prevent excessive fuel
pressures at the fuel inlet of the carburetor. This is accomplished through the use of
a spring loaded relief valve that can be adjusted to deliver fuel at the recommended
pressure for a particular carburetor. Above figure, shows the pressure relief valve
in operation, bypassing excess fuel back to the inlet side of the pump. Adjustment
is made by increasing or decreasing the tension of the spring.
The relief valve of the engine driven pump is designed to open at the set pressure
regardless of the pressure of the fuel entering the pump. To maintain the proper
relation between fuel pressure and carburetor inlet air pressure, the chamber above
the fuel pump relief valve is vented either to the atmosphere or through a balance
line to carburetor air inlet pressure.
The combined pressures of spring tension and either atmospheric or carburetor
inlet air pressure determine the absolute pressure at which the relief valve opens.
This balanced-type relief valve has certain objectionable features that must be
investigated when encountering fuel system troubles. A siphon or diaphragm
failure will allow air to enter the fuel on the inlet side of the pump if the pump inlet
pressure is less than atmospheric. Conversely, if the pump inlet pressure is above
atmospheric pressure, fuel will be discharged from the vent. For proper altitude
compensation the vent must be open. If it should become clogged by ice or foreign
matter while at altitude, the fuel pressure will decrease during descent. If the vent
becomes clogged during ascent, the fuel pressure will increase as the altitude is
increased.
In addition to the relief valve, the fuel pump has a bypass valve that permits fuel to
flow around the pump rotor whenever the pump is inoperative. This valve, shown
in figure, consists of a disk that is lightly spring loaded against a series of ports in
the relief valve head. When fuel is needed for starting the engine, or in the event of
engine driven pump failure, fuel at booster pump pressure is delivered to the fuel
pump inlet. When the pressure is great enough to move the bypass disk from its
seat, fuel is allowed to enter the carburetor for priming or metering. When the
engine driven pump is in operation, the pressure built up on the outlet side of the
pump, together with the pressure of the bypass spring, holds the disk on its seat
and prevents fuel flow through the ports.
Page | 35





Fuel primer
Both gravity fed and pump systems may incorporate a fuel primer into the system.
The primer is used to draw fuel from the tanks to vaporize it directly into the
cylinders prior to starting the engine. This is particularly helpful during cold
weather, when engines are hard to start because there is not enough heat available
to vaporize the fuel in the carburetor. It is important to lock the primer in place
when it is not in use. If the knob is free to move, it may vibrate out during flight
and can cause an excessively rich mixture. To avoid over priming, read the
priming instructions for your airplane.
Page | 36



Fuel tanks
The fuel tanks, normally located inside the wings of an airplane, have a filler
opening on top of the wing through which they can be filled. A filler cap covers
this opening. The tanks are vented to the outside to maintain atmospheric pressure
inside the tank. They may be vented through the filler cap or through a tube
extending through the surface of the wing. Fuel tanks also include an overflow
drain that may stand alone or be collocated with the fuel tank vent. This allows fuel
to expand with increases in temperature without damage to the tank itself. If the
tanks have been filled on a hot day, it is not unusual to see fuel coming from the
overflow drain.
The location, size, shape, and construction of fuel tanks vary with the type and
intended use of the aircraft. In some aircraft, the fuel tanks are integral with the
wing or other structural portions of the aircraft.
Fuel tanks are made of materials that will not react chemically with any aviation
fuel. Aluminum alloy is widely used, and synthetic rubber bladder-type fuel cells
are used in some installations.
Usually a sump and a drain are provided at the lowest point in the tank as shown in
figure. When a sump or low point is provided in the tank, the main fuel supply is
not drawn from the bottom of the sump, but from a higher point in the tank.
Page | 37


The top of each tank is vented to the outside air in order to maintain atmospheric
pressure within the tank. Air vents are designed to minimize the possibility of their
stoppage by dirt and ice formation. In order to permit rapid changes in internal air
pressure, the size of the vent is proportional to the size of the tank, thus preventing
the collapse of the tank in a steep dive or glide. All except the very smallest of
tanks are fitted with internal baffles to resist fuel surging caused by changes in the
attitude of the aircraft. Usually an expansion space is provided in fuel tanks to
allow for an increase in fuel volume due to expansion.
The filler neck and cap are usually located in a recessed well, equipped with a
scupper and drain. The scupper is designed to prevent overflowing fuel from
entering the wing or fuselage structure. Fuel caps have provisions for locking
devices to prevent accidental loss during flight. Filler openings are clearly marked
with the word "FUEL", the tank capacity, and the type of fuel to be used.
Information concerning the capacity of each tank is usually posted near the fuel
selector valves, as well as on the tank filler caps.
Some fuel tanks are equipped with dump valves that make it possible to jettison
fuel during flight in order to reduce the weight of the aircraft to its specified
maximum landing weight. In aircraft equipped with dump valves, the operating
Page | 38

control is located within reach of the pilot, copilot, or flight engineer. Dump valves
are designed and installed to afford safe, rapid discharge of fuel.
Aircraft typically use three types of fuel tanks: integral, rigid removable, and
bladder.
Integral tanks are areas inside the aircraft structure that have been sealed to
allow fuel storage. An example of this type is the "wet wing" commonly used
in larger aircraft. Since these tanks are part of the aircraft structure, they cannot
be removed for service or inspection. Inspection panels must be provided to
allow internal inspection, repair, and overall servicing of the tank. Most large
transport aircraft use this system, storing fuel in the wings, belly, and
sometimes tail of the airplane.
Rigid removable tanks are installed in a compartment designed to
accommodate the tank. They are typically of metal construction, and may be
removed for inspection, replacement, or repair. The aircraft does not rely on
the tank for structural integrity. These tanks are commonly found in smaller
general aviation aircraft, such as the Cessna 172.
Bladder tanks are reinforced rubberized bags installed in a section of aircraft
structure designed to accommodate the weight of the fuel. The bladder is rolled
up and installed into the compartment through the fuel filler neck or access
panel, and is secured by means of metal buttons or snaps inside the
compartment. Many high-performance light aircraft, helicopters and some
smaller turboprops use bladder tanks. One major down-side to this type of tank
is the tendency for materials to work harden through extensive use making
them brittle causing cracks. One major plus side is the ability to utilize as much
of the aircraft as possible to store fuel.
Combat aircraft and helicopters generally use self-sealing fuel tanks.
Fuel tanks have been implicated in aviation disasters, being the cause of the
accident or worsening it (fuel tank explosion).For example:
The official explanation for the explosion and subsequent crash of TWA Flight
800 is that an explosive fuel/air mixture was created in one of the aircraft's fuel
tanks. Faulty wiring then provided an ignition source within the tank,
destroying the airliner. While the accuracy of the official findings is still
questioned in this case, similar explosions have occurred in other aircraft. It is
possible to reduce the chance of fuel tank explosions by a fuel tank inerting
system or fire-fighting foam in the tanks.
Page | 39

Burning fuel can explode or set fire to the same airplane or adjacent objects
and people. In the 1960 Munich Convair 340 crash, a transport crashed into a
major street. Burning fuel set fire to a tramcar. All 20 people aboard the plane
and 32 passengers of the tram died.

Fuel gauges
The fuel quantity gauges indicate the amount of fuel measured by a sensing unit in
each fuel tank and is displayed in gallons or pounds. Aircraft certification rules
only require accuracy in fuel gauges when they read empty. Any reading other
than empty should be verified. Do not depend solely on the accuracy of the fuel
quantity gauges. Always visually check the fuel level in each tank during the
preflight inspection, and then compare it with the corresponding fuel quantity
indication.
If a fuel pump is installed in the fuel system, a fuel pressure gauge is also included.
This gauge indicates the pressure in the fuel lines. The normal operating pressure
can be found in the AFM/POH or on the gauge by color coding.
Fuel selectors
The fuel selector valve allows selection of fuel from various tanks. A common type
of selector valve contains four positions: LEFT, RIGHT, BOTH, and OFF.
Selecting the LEFT or RIGHT position allows fuel to feed only from that tank,
while selecting the BOTH position feeds fuel from both tanks. The LEFT or
RIGHT position may be used to balance the amount of fuel remaining in each wing
tank.
Page | 40



Fuel selector valve
Fuel placards will show any limitations on fuel tank usage, such as level flight
only and/or both for landings and takeoffs.
Regardless of the type of fuel selector in use, fuel consumption should be
monitored closely to ensure that a tank does not run completely out of fuel.
Running a fuel tank dry will not only cause the engine to stop, but running for
prolonged periods on one tank causes an unbalanced fuel load between tanks.
Running a tank completely dry may allow air to enter the fuel system, which may
cause vapor lock. When this situation develops, it may be difficult to restart the
engine. On fuel-injected engines, the fuel may become so hot it vaporizes in the
fuel line, not allowing fuel to reach the cylinders.
Fuel strainers, sumps and drains
After the fuel selector valve, the fuel passes through a strainer before it enters the
carburetor. This strainer removes moisture and other sediments that might be in the
system. Since these contaminants are heavier than aviation fuel, they settle in a
Page | 41

sump at the bottom of the strainer assembly. A sump is defined as a low point in a
fuel system and/or fuel tank. The fuel system may contain sump, fuel strainer, and
fuel tank drains, some of which may be collocated. The fuel strainer should be
drained before each flight.
Fuel samples should be drained and checked visually for water and contaminants.
Water in the sump is hazardous because in cold weather the water can freeze and
block fuel lines. In warm weather, it can flow into the carburetor and stop the
engine. If water is present in the sump, it is likely there is more water in the fuel
tanks, and you should continue to drain them until there is no evidence of water. In
any event, never take off until you are certain that all water and contaminants have
been removed from the engine fuel system. Because of the variation in fuel
systems, you should become thoroughly familiar with the systems that apply to
your airplane. Consult the AFM or POH for specific operating procedures.
Fuel Strainers
Strainers are installed in the tank outlets and frequently in the tank filler necks.
These are of fairly coarse mesh and prevent only the larger particles from entering
the fuel system. Other, fine mesh, strainers are provided in the carburetor fuel
inlets and in the fuel lines.
The function of the main strainer is important: it not only prevents foreign matter
from entering the carburetor, but also, because of its location at the low point of
the fuel system, traps any small amount of water that may be present in the system.
In multiengine aircraft, one main strainer is usually installed in each engine
nacelle.A main fuel strainer for a light airplane is shown in figure 4-9. It consists
of a cast metal top, a screen, and a glass bowl. The bowl is attached to the cover by
a clamp and thumb nut. Fuel enters the unit through the inlet port, filters through
the screen, and exits through the outlet port. At regular intervals the glass bowl is
drained, and the screen is removed for inspection and cleaning.
Page | 42


main fuel strainer shown in above figure is so installed that the fuel flows through
it before reaching the engine driven pump. It is located at the lowest point in the
fuel system.
The shape and construction of the fine mesh screen provides a large screening
surface encased in a compact housing. Reinforcing the screen is a coarse, heavy
wire mesh.


Page | 43

Fuel Cells
Present day aircraft may be equipped with one or more of the following types of
fuel cells: the bladder-type fuel cell and the integral fuel cell.
Bladder-Type Fuel Cells
The bladder-type fuel cell is a non self sealing cell that is used to reduce weight. It
depends entirely upon the structure of the cavity in which it sits to support the
weight of the fuel within it. For this reason, the cell is made slightly larger than the
cavity. The bladder cells in use are made either of rubber or of nylon.
Integral Fuel Cells
Since integral fuel cells are usually built into the wings of the aircraft structure,
they are not removable. An integral cell is a part of the aircraft structure, which has
been so built that after the seams, structural fasteners, and access doors have been
properly sealed, the cell will hold fuel without leaking. This type of construction is
usually referred to as a "wet wing."
Fuel Lines and Fittings
In an aircraft fuel system, the various tanks and other components are usually
joined together by fuel lines made of metal tubing connected, where flexibility is
necessary, by lengths of flexible hose. The metal tubing usually is made of
aluminum alloy, and the flexible hose is made of synthetic rubber or Teflon. The
diameter of the tubing is governed by the fuel flow requirements of the engine.
Each fuel line is identified by a color coded band near each end. Except for short
lines between flexible connections, tubing should be properly supported by
clamping to structural members of the aircraft.
A special heat resistant hose is used where the flexible lines will be subjected to
intense heat. For all flexible fuel lines located forward of the firewall, fire resistant
hose is used.
In many installations, the fuel lines are designed to be located within the tanks.
Therefore, minor leaks occurring within the tank are classified as internal leaks and
will not cause fire hazards.
Page | 44


Valves
Selector valves are installed in the fuel system to provide a means for shutting off
the fuel flow, for tank and engine selection, for cross feed, and for fuel transfer.
The size and number of ports (openings) vary with the type of installation. For
example, a single engine aircraft with two fuel tanks and a reserve fuel supply
requires a valve with four ports - three inlets from the tanks and a common outlet.
The valve must accommodate the full flow capacity of the fuel line, must not leak,
and must operate freely with a definite "feel" or "click" when it is in the correct
position. Selector valves may be operated either manually or electrically. A tube,
rod, or cable is attached to a manually operated valve so that it can be operated
from the cockpit. Electrically operated valves have an actuator, or motor. The three
main types of selector valves are the poppet, cone, and disk.
The poppet-type selector valve has an individual poppet valve at each inlet port. A
cam and yoke on the same shaft act to open the selected poppet valve as the yoke
is turned. Figure shows how the cam lifts the upper poppet valve from its seat
when the control handle is set to the "number 2" tank. This opens the passage from
the "number 2" tank to the engine. At the same time, a raised portion of the index
plate drops into a notch in the side of the cam. This produces the "feel" that
indicates the valve is in the wide open position. The control handle should always
be set by "feel" rather than by the marking on the indicator dial. The index
mechanism also keeps the valve in the desired position and prevents creeping
caused by vibration. Some valves have more than one raised portion on the cam to
allow two or more ports to be opened at the same time.
Page | 45



The cone-type selector valve has either an all metal or a cork faced aluminum
housing. The cone, which fits into the housing, is rotated by means of a cockpit
control. To supply fuel from the desired tank, the cockpit control is turned until the
passages in the cone align with the correct ports in the housing. An indexing
mechanism aids in obtaining the desired setting and also holds the cone in the
selected position. Some cone-type valves have a friction release mechanism that
reduces the amount of turning torque required to make a tank selection and that can
be adjusted to prevent leakage.
The rotor of the disk-type selector valve fits into a cylindrical hole in the valve
body. A disk-type valve is shown in figure. Note that the rotor has one open port
and several sealing disks - one for each port in the housing. To select a tank, the
rotor is turned until the open port aligns with the port from which fuel flow is
desired. At this time, all other ports are closed by the sealing disks. In this position,
fuel will flow from the desired tank to the selector valve and out through the
engine feed port at the bottom of the valve. To ensure positive port alignment for
full fuel flow, the indexing mechanism (shown in the center of figure forces a
spring loaded ball into a ratchet ring). When the selector valve is placed in the
closed position, the open port in the rotor is opposite a blank in the valve body,
while each scaling disk covers a tank port.
Page | 46


Fuel tank shutoff valves have two positions, open and closed. They are installed in
the system to prevent fuel loss when a fuel system component is being removed or
when a part of the system is damaged. In some installations they are used to
control the fuel flow during fuel transfer. They are operated either manually or
electrically. An electrically operated fuel shutoff valve includes a reversible
electric motor linked to a sliding valve assembly. The motor moves the valve gate
in and out of the passage through which the fuel flows, thus, shutting off or turning
on the fuel flow.

Fuel System Indicators

Fuel Quantity Gauges
Fuel quantity gauges are necessary so that the operator may know the quantity of
fuel remaining in the tanks during operation of the aircraft. The four general types
of fuel gauges are: (1) Sight glass, (2) mechanical, (3) electrical, and (4) electronic.
The type of fuel gauge installation depends on the size of the aircraft and the
number and location of the fuel tanks. Since the sight glass and mechanical fuel
gauges are not suitable for aircraft where tanks are located an appreciable distance
from the cockpit, larger aircraft use either electrical or electronic fuel quantity
gauges. On some aircraft, one fuel gauge, called a totalizer, indicates the total
amount of fuel remaining in all the fuel tanks. The sight glass is the simplest form
of fuel quantity gauge. The indicator is a glass or plastic tube placed on the same
level as the tank. It operates on the principle that a liquid seeks its own level. The
Page | 47

tube is calibrated in gallons or has a metal scale near it. The sight glass may have a
shutoff valve so that the fuel can be shut off for cleaning and for preventing loss of
fuel if the tube is broken.
The mechanical-type fuel quantity gauge is usually located in the tank and is
known as a direct reading gauge. It has an indicator connected to a float
resting on the surface of the fuel. As the fuel level changes, the float
mechanically operates the indicator, thus showing the level of fuel in the
tank. One type of mechanical fuel gauge is illustrated in figure.

The electrical-type quantity gauge consists of an indicator in the cockpit
and a float operated transmitter installed in the tank. As the fuel level
changes, the transmitter sends an electric signal to the indicator, which
shows the changing fuel level. Two important advantages of this fuel
quantity gauge are that the indicator can be located any distance from the
tank and the fuel levels of several tanks can be read on one indicator.
The electronic-type (capacitance) fuel quantity gauge differs from the other types
in that it has no movable devices in the fuel tank. Instead of floats and their
attendant mechanical units, the dielectric qualities of fuel and air furnish a
measurement of fuel quantity. Essentially, the tank transmitter is a simple electric
condenser. The dielectric (or non conducting material) of the condenser is fuel
and air (vapor) above the fuel. The capacitance of the tank unit at any one time
will depend on the existing proportion of fuel and vapors in the tank. The
capacitance of the transmitter is compared to a reference capacitor in a rebalance-
type bridge circuit. The unbalanced signal is amplified by the voltage amplifiers
that drive a phase discriminating power stage. The output stage supplies power to
Page | 48

one phase of a two phase ac motor that mechanically drives a rebalancing
potentiometer and indicator pointer. The electronic type system of measuring fuel
quantity is more accurate in measuring fuel level, as it measures the fuel by
weight instead of in gallons. Fuel volume will vary with temperature (a gallon of
gasoline weighs more when it is cold than when it is hot); thus, if it is measured
in pounds instead of gallons, the measurement will be more accurate.
In addition to the cockpit fuel quantity indicating system, some aircraft are
provided with a means to determine the fuel quantity in each tank when the aircraft
is on the ground. This is accomplished in several different ways. Some
manufacturers use float operated, direct reading fuel gauges mounted in the lower
surface of the wing. Another means is to use under wing bayonet gauges. There are
two types in use, the drip gauge and the sight gauge.
When using the drip gauge it is necessary to proceed slowly, using the trial and
error method to find the exact fuel level. In large area tanks a proportionately large
amount of fuel is represented by a fraction of an inch variation in fuel level. The
long, hollow drip tubes require some time to drain once they are filled with fuel,
and a substantial error in reading will be made if the diminishing drainage drip is
mistaken for the steady drip that signifies that the tube is properly positioned.
When the cap and hollow drip tube are drawn out from the lower wing surface, the
fuel enters the open top of the tube when it reaches the level of the fuel. As stated
previously steady drip from a drip hole signifies that the tube is properly
positioned with a tiny head of fuel above the opening. The drip gauge tube may be
calibrated in pounds or inches. When calibrated in inches, the reading is compared
with a special chart to give a reading of fuel quantity in gallons.
The sight gauge is somewhat simpler in construction than the drip gauge, and
offers unmistakable visual evidence when it is properly positioned for reading. As
shown in figure, the sight gauge is basically a long Lucite rod, protected by a
calibrated tube, which terminates at the top in an exposed quartz tip. When the tip
is above the fuel it acts as a reflector.
Page | 49


Light rays traveling up the Lucite rod are deflected at right angles by the 45
surface at one side of the tip and deflected 90 again by the 45 surface at the
opposite side and returned down the Lucite rod.
Any portion of the tip submerged in fuel will not act as a reflector. Consequently,
when the fuel level is part way up the taper, a light pattern is created that is visible
at the lower end of the Lucite rod and that has the dimension and shape described
by the intersection of the tip and the fuel. When the reflected light is reduced to the
smallest perceptible point in the case of cone tipped gauges, or hairline in the case
of chisel tipped gauges, the rod is properly positioned. The fuel tank quantity can
be read on the tube where it emerges from the recessed guide housing. Drip gauge
readings are taken at this location also.
Fuel Flow Meter
Page | 50

The fuel flow meter is normally used only in multiengine aircraft. The system
consists of a transmitter and an indicator. The transmitter is installed in the fuel
inlet line to the engine, where it measures the rate of fuel flow. The transmitter is
electrically connected to the indicator located in the cockpit. This gauge shows the
rate of fuel consumption in pounds per hour.
The transmitter signal may be developed by a movable vane mounted in the fuel
flow path. The impact of fuel causes the vane to swing and move against the
restraining force of a calibrated spring. The final position assumed by the vane
represents a measure of the rate at which fuel is passing through the flow meter
and the corresponding signal to be sent to the indicator. A vane-type fuel flow
meter system is illustrated in figure.

The transmitter used with turbine engines is the mass flow type having a range of
500 to 2,500 pounds per hour. It consists of two cylinders placed in the fuel stream
so that the direction of fuel flow is parallel to the axes of the cylinders.
Page | 51



The cylinders have small vanes in the outer periphery. The upstream cylinder,
called the impeller, is driven at a constant angular velocity by the power supply.
This velocity imparts an angular momentum to the fuel. The fuel then transmits
this angular velocity to the turbine (the downstream cylinder), causing the turbine
to rotate until a restraining spring force balances the force due to the angular
momentum of the fuel. The deflection of the turbine positions a magnet in the
second harmonic transmitter to a position corresponding to the fuel flow. The
turbine position is transmitted to the flight station indicator by means of a selsyn
system.
Fuel Pressure Gauge
The fuel pressure gauge indicates the pressure of the fuel entering the carburetor.
This gauge may be included with the oil pressure gauge and the oil temperature
gauge in one casing, called the engine gauge unit. Most aircraft today have separate
gauges for these functions. An engine gauge unit is shown in figure below.
Page | 52

generally the same as the pressure of the atmosphere. When this venting
arrangement is used, the relief valve of the engine driven fuel pump is also
vented to the atmosphere, and the gauge indicates the fuel pressure resulting
from the adjusted spring pressure only. In order to dampen pressure
pulsations that cause pointer fluctuation, a restrictor fitting (A) is installed at
the carburetor end of the fuel gauge line. (See the Y connection shown in

The fuel pressure gauge is a differential pressure indicator with two connections on
the back of the indicator housing. The air connection (as in figure) is vented to the
carburetor air inlet, and the fuel connection is attached to the fuel inlet chamber of
the carburetor.

In this way the gauge indicates the difference between the fuel pressure entering
the carburetor and the air pressure at the carburetor air inlet. In some installations,
the air fitting on the gauge is left open to the air pressure of the cockpit, which is
Page | 53

above figure.) The second restrictor (B) meters fuel to the oil system during
oil dilution. The arrangement of these restrictors provides an indicated drop
in fuel pressure when the oil dilution system is used. The oil dilution system
will be discussed thoroughly in the Power plant Handbook, and is mentioned
at this time only because the fuel pressure indicator provides a means for a
check on the operation of other fuel system units.
In small aircraft the fuel pressure gauge may be actuated by a Bourdon tube (an
instrument that converts changes in pressure to mechanical motion), or an aneroid
and bellows type, installed with a pressure line leading directly from the carburetor
to the indicator. On larger aircraft, where the fuel pressure gauge is located some
distance from the carburetor, a transmitter is usually installed. The pressure
transmitter may be a simple cast metal cell that is divided into two chambers by a
flexible diaphragm. Pressure applied by the fuel source to the transmitter inlet
pushes against the diaphragm and builds up an equal pressure to a thin fluid
(highly refined kerosene), which transfers the pressure to the indicator mechanism.
Some installations, however, use electrical transmitters to register fuel pressure on
the gauge. In this electrical arrangement, the pressure indicating unit is contained
in the transmitter. Fuel pressure, acting upon the aneroid and bellows portion of the
unit, causes motion of one part of an electrical unit (the synchro transmitter). As
the unit turns, it causes a similar movement of a corresponding unit (the synchro
motor). This receiving unit actuates the indicator on the instrument panel. These
pressure and electrical arrangements make it unnecessary for combustible fuel to
enter the cockpit or flight deck, thereby reducing fire risk. A fuel pressure gauge
often used with fuel injection systems on light aircraft engines is illustrated in
figure. A gauge of this type registers metered fuel pressure at the fuel injection unit
distributor valve and is a direct indication of engine power output when installed in
a fuel injection system for light aircraft engines. The dial of the gauge is marked to
indicate percent of power. The gauge does not indicate either the engine driven
pump or the boost pump pressure.

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Pressure Warning Signal
In an aircraft with several tanks, there is always the possible danger of allowing the
fuel supply in one tank to become exhausted before the selector valve is switched
to another. To prevent this, pressure warning signals are installed in some aircraft.
The complete installation, shown in figure, consists of a pressure sensitive
mechanism and a warning light. The warning mechanism has both a fuel and an air
connection. The connection marked "fuel" is connected to the fuel pressure line of
the carburetor. The air connection is vented to either atmospheric or carburetor air
inlet pressure. This arrangement prevents the warning mechanism from acting in
response to changes in the absolute pressure of the fuel. If, for example, the
absolute pressure of the fuel decreases because of a change in atmospheric or
carburetor air inlet pressure, the change is also reflected at the warning mechanism,
which then cancels the effects of the change. Normal fuel pressure against the
power surface of the diaphragm holds the electrical contacts apart. When the fuel
pressure drops below specified limits, the contacts close and the warning light is
turned on. This alerts the operator to take whatever action is necessary to boost the
fuel pressure.
Valve in Transit Indicator Lights
On large multiengine aircraft, each of the fuel cross feed and line valves may be
provided with a valve in transit indicator light. This light is on only during the time
the valve is in motion and is off when movement is complete.
Fuel Temperature Indicator
A means for checking the temperature of the fuel in the tanks and at the engine is
provided on some turbine powered aircraft. During extreme cold, especially at
altitude, the gauge can be checked to determine when fuel temperatures are
approaching those at which there may be danger of ice crystals forming in the fuel.
Turbine Engine Fuels
The aircraft gas turbine is designed to operate on a distillate fuel, commonly called
jet fuel. Jet fuels are also composed of hydrocarbons with a little more carbon and
usually higher sulfur content than gasoline. Inhibitors may be added to reduce
corrosion and oxidation. Anti-icing additives are also being blended to prevent fuel
icing.

Page | 55


Two types of jet fuel in common use today are: (1) Kerosene grade turbine fuel,
now named Jet A; and (2) a blend of gasoline and kerosene fractions, designated
Jet B. There is a third type, called Jet A-1, which is made for operation at
extremely low temperatures.
There is very little physical difference between Jet A (JP-5) fuel and commercial
kerosene. Jet A was developed as a heavy kerosene having a higher flash point and
lower freezing point than most kerosenes. It has a very low vapor pressure, so
there is little loss of fuel from evaporation or boils off at higher altitudes. It
contains more heat energy per gallon than does Jet B (JP-4).
Jet B is similar to Jet A. It is a blend of gasoline and kerosene fractions. Most
commercial turbine engines will operate on either Jet A or Jet B fuel. However, the
difference in the specific gravity of the fuels may require fuel control adjustments.
Therefore, the fuels cannot always be considered interchangeable.
Both Jet A and Jet B fuels are blends of heavy distillates and tend to absorb water.
The specific gravity of jet fuels, especially kerosene, is closer to water than is
aviation gasoline; thus, any water introduced into the fuel, either through refueling
or condensation, will take an appreciable time to settle out. At high altitudes,
where low temperatures are encountered, water droplets combine with the fuel to
form a frozen substance referred to as "gel."
Page | 56

The mass of "gel" or "icing" that may be generated from moisture held in
suspension in jet fuel can be much greater than in gasoline.

Volatility
One of the most important characteristics of a jet fuel is its volatility. It must, of
necessity, be a compromise between several opposing factors. A highly volatile
fuel is desirable to aid in starting in cold weather and to make aerial restarts easier
and surer.
Low volatility is desirable to reduce the possibility of vapor lock and to reduce fuel
losses by evaporation. At normal temperatures, gasoline in a closed container or
tank can give off so many vapors that the fuel/air mixture may be too rich to burn.
Under the same conditions, the vapor given off by Jet B fuel can be in the
flammable or explosive range. Jet a fuel has such a low volatility that at normal
temperatures it gives off very little vapor and does not form flammable or
explosive fuel/air mixtures. Below figure shows the vaporization of aviation fuels
at atmospheric pressure.


Page | 57

Identification
Because jet fuels are not dyed, there is no on sight identification for them. They
range in color from a colorless liquid to a straw colored (amber) liquid, depending
on age or the crude petroleum source.
Jet fuel numbers are type numbers and have no relation to the fuel's performance in
the aircraft engine.
Fuel System Contamination
There are several forms of contamination in aviation fuel. The higher the viscosity
of the fuel, the greater is its ability to hold contaminants in suspension. For this
reason, jet fuels having a high viscosity are more susceptible to contamination than
aviation gasoline. The principal contaminants that reduce the quality of both
gasoline and turbine fuels are other petroleum products, water, rust or scale, and
dirt.
Water
Water can be present in the fuel in two forms: (1) Dissolved in the fuel or (2)
entrained or suspended in the fuel. Entrained water can be detected with the naked
eye. The finely divided droplets reflect light and in high concentrations give the
fuel a dull, hazy, or cloudy appearance. Particles of entrained water may unite to
form droplets of free water. Fuel can be cloudy for a number of reasons. If the fuel
is cloudy and the cloud disappears at the bottom, air is present. If the cloud
disappears at the top, water is present. A cloud usually indicates water in fuel
suspension. Free water can cause icing of the aircraft fuel system, usually in the
aircraft boost pump screens and low pressure filters. Fuel gauge readings may
become erratic because the water short circuits the aircraft's electrical fuel cell
quantity probes. Large amounts of water can cause engine stoppage. If the free
water is saline, it can cause corrosion of the fuel system components.
Foreign Particles
Most foreign particles are found as sediment in the fuel. They are composed of
almost any material with which the fuel comes into contact. The most common
types are rust, sand, aluminum and magnesium compounds, brass shavings, and
rubber.
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Rust is found in two forms: (1) Red rust, which is nonmagnetic and (2) black rust,
which is magnetic. They appear in the fuel as red or black powder (which may
resemble a dye), rouge, or grains. Sand or dust appears in the fuel in a crystalline,
granular, or glasslike form.
Aluminum or magnesium compounds appear in the fuel as a form of white or gray
powder or paste. This powder or paste becomes very sticky or gelatinous when
water is present. Brass is found in the fuel as bright gold colored chips or dust.
Rubber appears in the fuel as fairly large irregular bits. All of these forms of
contamination can cause sticking or malfunctions of fuel metering devices, flow
dividers, pumps, and nozzles.
Contamination with Other Types or Grades of Fuel
The unintentional mixing of petroleum products can result in fuels that give
unacceptable performance in the aircraft. An aircraft engine is designed to operate
most efficiently on fuel of definite specifications. The use of fuels that differ from
these specifications reduces operating efficiency and can lead to complete engine
failure.
Operators of turbine powered aircraft are sometimes forced by circumstances to
mix fuels. Such mixing, however, has very definite disadvantages. When aviation
gasoline is mixed with jet fuel, the TEL in the gasoline forms deposits on the
turbine blades and vanes. Continuous use of mixed fuels may cause a loss in
engine efficiency. However, on a limited usage basis, they will have no detrimental
effects on the engine.
Aviation gasoline containing by volume more than 0.5 percent of jet fuel may be
reduced below the allowable limits in knock rating. Gasoline contaminated with
turbine fuel is unsafe for use in reciprocating engines.
Microbial Growth
Microbial growth is produced by various forms of microorganisms that live and
multiply in the water interfaces of jet fuels. These organisms may form slime
similar in appearance to the deposits found in stagnant water. The color of this
slime growth may be red, brown, gray, or black. If not properly controlled by
frequent removal of free water, the growth of these organisms can become
extensive. The organisms feed on the hydrocarbons that are found in fuels, but they
need free water in order to multiply.
Page | 59

Microorganisms have a tendency to mat, generally appearing as a brown blanket
which acts as a blotter to absorb more moisture. This mixture or mat accelerates
the growth of microorganisms. The buildup of microorganisms not only can
interfere with fuel flow and quantity indication, but, more important, it can start
electrolytic corrosive action.
Sediment
Sediment appears as dust, powder, fibrous material, grains, flakes, or stain.
Specks or granules of sediment indicate particles in the visible size range, i.e.,
approximately 40 microns or larger in size. The presence of any appreciable
number of such particles indicates either a malfunction of the filter/separators or
a source of contamination downstream of the filter/separator, or else an
improperly cleaned sample container. Even with the most efficient
filter/separators and careful fuel handling, an occasional visible particle will be
encountered. These strays are usually due to particle migration through the filter
media and may represent no particular problem to the engine or fuel control. The
sediment ordinarily encountered is an extremely fine powder, rouge, or silt. The
two principle components of this fine sediment are normally sand and rust.

Sediment includes both organic and inorganic matter. The presence of
appreciable quantities of fibrous materials (close to naked eye visibility) is
usually indicative of filter element breakdown, either because of a ruptured
element or mechanical disintegration of a component in the system. Usually,

Page | 60

high metal content of relatively large particles suggest a mechanical failure
somewhere in the system which is necessarily not limited to a metallic filter
failure.

Sediment or solid contamination can be separated into two categories: (1) coarse
sediment and (2) fine sediment.
Course Sediment
Sediment that can be seen and that easily settles out of fuel or can be removed by
adequate filtration is coarse sediment. Ordinarily, particles 10 microns in size and
larger are regarded as coarse sediment.

Coarse particles clog orifices and wedge in sliding valve clearances and shoulders,
causing malfunctions and excessive wear of fuel controls and metering equipment.
They are also effective in clogging nozzle screens and other fine screens
throughout the aircraft fuel system.
Fine Sediment
Particles smaller than 10 microns may be defined as fine sediment. (Shown in above
figure.) Ninety eight percent of the fine sediment in fuel can be removed by proper
settling, filtration, and centrifuging. Particles in this range accumulate throughout
fuel controls, appearing as dark shellac like surface on sliding valves, and may also
Page | 61

be centrifuged out in rotating chambers as sludge like matter, causing sluggish
operation of fuel metering equipment. Fine particles are not visible to the naked eye
as distinct or separate particles; they will, however, scatter light and may appear as
point flashes of light or a slight haze in fuel.
Maximum possible settling time should be allowed in fuel tanks after filling to
allow reasonable settlement of water and sediment.

Contamination Detection
Coarse contamination can be detected visually. The major criterion for
contamination detection is that the fuel be clean, bright, and contains no
perceptible free water. Clean means the absence of any readily visible sediment or
entrained water. Bright refers to the shiny appearance of clean, dry fuels. Free
water is indicated by a cloud, haze, or a water slug. A cloud may or may not be
present when the fuel is saturated with water. Perfectly clear fuel can contain as
much as three times the volume of water considered to be tolerable.
Several field methods for checking water content have been devised. One is the
adding of a food color that is soluble in water, but not in fuel. Colorless fuel
samples acquire a definite tint if water is present. Another method uses a gray
chemical powder that changes color to pink through purple, if 30 or more p.p.m.
(parts per million) of water are present in a fuel sample. In a third method a
hypodermic needle is used to draw a fuel sample through a chemically treated
filter. If the sample changes the color of the filter from yellow to blue, the fuel
contains at least 30 p.p.m. of water.
Since fuel drained from tank sumps may have been cold soaked, it should be
realized that no method of water detection can be accurate while the fuel entrained
water is frozen into ice crystals.
There is a good chance that water will not be drained or detected if the sumps are
drained while the fuel is below 32 F after being cooled in flight. The reason for
this is that the sump drains may not be at the lowest point in the fuel tank while the
airplane is in a flight attitude, and water may accumulate and freeze on other areas
of the tank where it will remain undetected until it thaws.
Draining will be more effective if it is done after the fuel has been undisturbed for
a period of time during which the free water can precipitate and settle to the drain
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point. The benefits of a settling period will be lost, however, unless the
accumulated water is removed from the drains before the fuel is disturbed by
internal pumps.
Contamination Control
The aircraft fuel system can be considered as being divided into three parts when
discussing clean fuel. The manufacturer produces clean fuel. Contamination can
occur at any time after the fuel is produced. The first part of the fuel system is the
delivery and storage system between the refinery and the airport fuel service truck.
Although this system is not physically a part of the aircraft, it is of equal
importance in controlling contamination.
Anytime fuel is transferred it is susceptible to contamination. Therefore, all
aviation maintenance personnel should be familiar with the following means of
contamination control.
Fundamental in the control of contamination of turbine fuels are the methods
followed by the industry in receiving and storing any bulk shipment of a petroleum
product. These methods have long been established as sound, and they are too well
known to need repetition here. The refueling facilities used by operators of turbine
powered aircraft should incorporate the following features:
1. Fuel being pumped into airport storage should pass through a filter separator.
The filter should meet the requirements of U.S. Government Specification MIL-F-
8508A.
2. Turbine fuels should be allowed to settle for a period of one hour per foot of
depth of the fuel before being withdrawn for use. This means that ordinarily more
than one storage tank must be provided for each grade of product.
3. Storage tanks should be checked with litmus paper after each new load of fuel is
received and the fuel has settled. The litmus paper should remain submerged for a
minimum of 15 seconds. During periods of heavy rain underground tanks should
be checked with litmus paper more frequently.
4. Suction lines should be a minimum of 6 inches from the bottom of the tank.
Kerosene storage tanks should be equipped with floating type suction lines.
Floating suction does not remove the bottom product, which may not have settled
sufficiently. It also prevents reintroduction into the fuel of any contamination at the
bottom of the tank. Floating suction is the only logical way to take full advantage
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of gravity in removing water and particulate matter contamination. Its importance
must not be minimized.
5. Fuel being withdrawn from storage should be passed through a filter separator
meeting the specification MIL-F-8508A.
6. Great care should be exercised in loading mobile fuelers to exclude airborne
dust and dirt, rain or other foreign material.
7. To lessen the likelihood of rust and scale the tanks of mobile fuelers should be
constructed of either stainless steel, nonferrous material or steel coated with a
reliable, inert material.
8. As turbine fuel is being dispensed into the aircraft from truck or hydrant it
should be filtered to a degree of 5 microns for solid particles and contain no more
than 0.0015 per cent of free and entrained water. Bypass valves around the filter
should not be permitted.
9. All the quality control procedures usually followed in handling aviation gasoline
should be employed. These include regular and frequent check of filter separators;
frequent quality check such as the "clear and bright" test; and continual emphasis
on cleanliness. Examples: "Don't let the hose nozzle drag on the apron." "Keep the
dust cap on the nozzle at all times when nozzle is not in use."

Multiengine Fuel System
The design of the fuel system for an aircraft having two or more engines presents
problems not normally encountered in single engine fuel systems. A large number
of tanks are often required to carry the necessary fuel. These tanks may be located
in widely separated parts of the aircraft, such as the fuselage and the inboard and
outboard sections of the wings. The individual engine fuel systems must be
interconnected so that fuel can be fed from the various tanks to any engine. In case
of engine failure, the fuel normally supplied to the inoperative engine must be
made available to the others.
Cross feed System
The twin engine fuel system illustrated in figure is the simple cross feed type. As
shown, the tank selector valves are set to supply fuel from the main tanks to the
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engines. These valves can also be positioned to supply fuel from the auxiliary
tanks. The cross feed valve is shown in the off position. It can also be set to supply
fuel from the fuselage tank to either or both engines and to cross feed. A few of the
numerous combinations in which the three valves can be set are also illustrated.

Manifold System
The main feature of the four engine system shown in figure is the fuel manifold.
This fuel manifold system is actually a variation of the cross feed. As shown, fuel
is being supplied from the main tanks directly to the engines. The manifold valves
can also be set so that all tanks feed into the manifold and each engine receives its
fuel supply from this line. The auxiliary fuel supply can be delivered to the engines
only through the manifold. The main advantage of this system is its flexibility.
Should an engine fail, its fuel is immediately available to the other engines. If a
tank is damaged, the corresponding engine can be supplied with fuel from the
manifold.
Page | 65



Another advantage of this system is that all fuel tanks can be serviced at the same
time through a single line manifold connection. This method of fuel servicing has
greatly reduced servicing time on large aircraft because fuel can be introduced into
the fueling manifold under high pressure.

Fuel Jettison Systems
A fuel jettison system is required for transport category and general aviation
aircraft if the maximum takeoff weight exceeds the maximum landing weight. The
maximum takeoff and landing weights are design specifications and may be found
in the Aircraft Type Certificate data sheets. A fuel jettison system must be able to
jettison enough fuel within 10 minutes for general aviation, or 15 minutes for
transport category aircraft, to meet the requirements of the specifications and
Federal Air Regulations. It must be operable under the conditions encountered
during all operations of the aircraft.
Design requirements are that fuel jettisoning must be stopped with a minimum of
fuel for 45 minutes of cruise at maximum continuous power for reciprocating
Page | 66

engines. Turbine powered aircraft require enough fuel for takeoff and landing and
45 minutes cruising time.
The fuel jettisoning system is usually divided into two separate, independent
systems, one for each wing, so that lateral stability can be maintained by
jettisoning fuel from the "heavy" wing if it is necessary to do so. Normally, if an
unbalanced fuel load exists, fuel will be used from the "heavy" wing by supplying
fuel to engines on the opposite wing. The system consists of lines, valves, dump
chutes and chute operating mechanisms. Each wing contains either a fixed or an
extendable dump chute depending upon system design. In either case the fuel must
discharge clear of the airplane.
Troubleshooting The Fuel System
In order to become proficient at the art of troubleshooting, one must be familiar
with the complete system. To do this, one can become familiar with the schematics
of various portions of the system, the nomenclature of the units, and their
particular function within the system by studying aircraft and engine maintenance
manuals.
Location of Leaks and Defects
The location of leaks and defects within the internal portions of the fuel system is
usually a matter of observation of the pressure gauge and operation of the selector
valves to determine where the trouble lies. Troubleshooting of the internal fuel
system can be aided by visualizing the path of flow of the fuel from the fuel tank to
the fuel metering device, noting the location of the pump(s), selector valves,
emergency shutoff valves, etc.
The location of leaks or defects in the external portions of the fuel system involves
very little time in comparison to locating leaks within the internal system. Usually,
fuel leaks are evidenced by stains or wet spots, if they are newly developed, and by
the presence of fuel odor. The plumbing, clamps, gaskets, supports, etc., are to be
examined carefully at each inspection period. Any defect or leak in the internal or
external fuel system is a potential hazard.


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Replacement of Gaskets, Seals, and Packings
In order to prevent leakage of fuel, it is of utmost importance that all gaskets, seals,
and packings be properly installed. Listed below are some of the general
precautions that should always be observed.
When replacing units of the fuel system, it is necessary to check each part for
cleanliness, ensure that all of the old gasket material is removed, and ensure that
none of the old seal remains in the groove seat. Always replace old gaskets and
seals with new ones, check the new gaskets and seals for cleanliness and integrity,
and ensure that it is the right part for the job. Mating surfaces should be perfectly
flat so that the gasket can do the job for which it is designed. Screws, nuts, and
bolts that hold units together should be evenly tightened or torque to prevent
leakage past the gasket or seal.

FUEL TANK REPAIRS
There are three basic type fuel cells used in aircraft. Welded sheet metal integral
and fuel cell. No fuel system is airworthy if it will not contain fuel. Inspection of
the fuel tank bays or aircraft structure for evidence of fuel leaks is a very important
part of the preflight inspection.
Welded Steel Tanks
Welded tanks are most common in the smaller single and twin engine aircraft. If
the access plates to the fuel tank compartment are discolored the tank should be
inspected for leaks. When leaks are found, the tank must be drained and inerted.
Fuel will be drained in accordance with local instructions and the manufacturer's
recommendations.
Inerting the tank may be accomplished by slowly discharging a CO2 fire
extinguisher (5 lb minimum size) into the tank. Dry nitrogen may be used if it is
available. If the tank is to be welded, removal is necessary.
Before welding, the tank must be steamed for a minimum of 8 hours. This is to
remove all traces of fuel. Air pressure not over 1/2 psi may be used to detect the
leaking area. Liquid soap or bubble solution brushed in the suspected area may
identify the leak. Aluminum tanks are fabricated from weld able alloys. After
riveting patches in place, the rivets may be welded to insure no leaks from that
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area. Pressure checks should be performed after repairs are completed to assure
that all leaks were corrected.
Fuel Cells
Fuel cell leaks will usually appear on the lower skin of the aircraft. A fuel stain in
any area should be investigated immediately. Fuel cells suspected of leaking
should be drained, removed from the aircraft and pressure checked. When
performing a pressure check, 1/4 to 1/2 psi air pressure is adequate. All fuel cell
maintenance must be accomplished in accordance with the manufacturer's
specifications.
Integral Fuel Tanks
The integral tank is a non removable part of the aircraft. Because of the nature of
an integral tank, some leaks allow fuel to escape directly to the atmosphere. This
makes it completely feasible to disregard certain minute leaks that do not represent
a fire hazard or too great a loss of fuel. In order to standardize the procedures for
integral tank fuel storage maintenance, the various rates of fuel leakage are
classified.
Fuel Leak Classification
The size of the surface area that a fuel leak moistens in a 30 minute period is used
as the classification standard. Wipe the leak area completely dry with clean cotton
cloths. Compressed air may also be used to dry the leak areas that are difficult to
wipe. Wear goggles when using compressed air to dry the leak area. Dust the leak
area with dyed red talcum powder. The talcum powder turns red as the fuel wets it,
making the wet area easier to see.
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At the end of 30 minutes, each leak is classified into one of four classes of leaks:
slow seep, seep, heavy seep, or running leak. The four classes of leaks are shown
in above figure. A slow seep is a leak in which the fuel wets an area around the
leak source not over 3/4 of an inch in diameter.
A seep is a leak that wets an area from 3/4 inches to 1 1/2 inches in diameter. A
heavy seep is a fuel leak that wets an area around the leak source from 1 1/2 inches
to 3 inches in diameter. In none of these three leak classifications does the fuel run,
flow, drip, or resemble any of these conditions at the end of the 30 minute time
period.
The last classification, a running leak, is the most severe and the most dangerous.
It may drip from the aircraft surface, it may run down vertical surfaces, or it may
even run down your finger when you touch the wet area. The aircraft is unsafe for
flight and must be grounded for repair. When possible, the fuel from the leaking
tank should be removed after you mark the leak location. If it is impossible to
defuel the tank immediately, the aircraft should be isolated in an approved area.
Place appropriate warning signs around the aircraft until qualified personnel can
defuel the leaking tank.
Grounding of the aircraft for slow seeps, seeps, and heavy seeps, is determined by
the applicable aircraft handbook. This determination may depend on the location of
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the fuel leak. For example, can the leakage progress to a potential fire source? The
number of fuel leaks in a given area is also a contributing factor. There is no rule
of thumb for determining if the aircraft is to be grounded. Running leaks ground
the aircraft regardless of location.
You may only have to make appropriate entries on the aircraft forms and
periodically observe the progress of the fuel leak if it is determined that the aircraft
is airworthy and no repair is required. When repair is required, you must find the
cause of the fuel leak and make an effective repair.
Leak Repairs
Repair of leaks in integral fuel tanks must be accomplished in accordance with the
aircraft manufacturer's specifications. No attempt will be made in this handbook to
discuss integral tank repairs further.
Fire Safety
The first and most difficult step in the achievement of fire safety is to correct the
misconceptions about the "safety" of turbine fuels. At the time these fuels were
first introduced many people said, "Fire problems in aircraft are over, turbine fuel
is completely safe." This is obviously nonsense but it has been persistent nonsense.
Flight line personnel have agreed that aviation gasoline will burn, and therefore
they have exercised reasonable care and caution in handling it. However, it has
been difficult to convince them that under some circumstances turbine fuels are
just as dangerous from the fire standpoint.
The characteristics of turbine fuel do vary from those of gasoline. Kerosene, for
example, has slow flame propagation and burning rate, which makes it less
hazardous in the event of spill or a ground accident. However, it does ignite readily
when vaporized or when misted, as when sprayed through a small leak in a service
hose.
One disadvantage of the low volatility fuels is that they will not evaporate readily
and completely if spilled on the ramp, so special treatment of the spill area is
required. Small spills of kerosene should be removed with a commercial absorbent
cleaning agent. On large spills it is better to apply an approved emulsifier and then
flush away the resulting mixture with large volumes of water. This will prevent or
appreciably lessen any oily residue.
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Just as with gasoline, an electrostatic charge may be built up in pumping turbine
fuel through a service hose. In fact, the amount of the charge is higher in kerosene
because of the higher specific gravity and wider boiling range. Also, the amount of
the charge increases with high linear rate of fuel flow, such as is required for
servicing turbine powered aircraft.
In consequence, all of the fire safety precautions observed in the handling of
gasoline must be followed with equal care in the handling of turbine fuels. These
precautions are well known and have been detailed by the National Fire Protection
Association in its bulletin No. 407. It is recommended that this bulletin be made
required reading for all personnel handling turbine fuel.















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CONCLUSION
This paper has given an account of and the reasons for the wide spread use of fuel
tank system in aircraft. The purpose of the current study is to determine the
working and its effect on aircraft aerodynamic, propulsion and structure.